LESSON 2:

UNDERSTANDING THE
CONCEPTS OF CULTURE,
SOCIETY, AND POLITICS
 OBJECTIVES
AT THE END OF THE COURSE, THE LEARNERS WILL BE ABLE TO:
1. IDENTIFY THE NATURE AND DYNAMICS OF CULTURE AND SOCIETY USING KEY
ANTHROPOLOGICAL, SOCIOLOGICAL, AND POLITICAL SCIENCE CONCEPTS.
2. DISTINGUISH KEY FEATURES OF THE THREE MAJOR APPROACHES TO THE STUDY
OF CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND POLITICS.
3. VALUE CULTURAL HERITAGE AND EXPRESS PRIDE OF PLACE WITHOUT BEING
ETHNOCENTRIC.
 ASPECTS OF CULTURE
The notion of culture presents a complex portrait of humanity. Anthropology regards culture
as learned, symbolic, integrated, shared, and all encompassing (Tylor 1871).

 It is learned because culture is acquired by being born into a particular society in the
process of enculturation, as anthropologists would say, or socialization, as sociologists
would explain. Through language, the cultural traits of society are passed on to younger
members in the process of growing up and through teaching.
 Culture is symbolic in the sense that it renders meanings to what people do. Beliefs,
religion, rituals, myths, dances, performances, music, artworks, sense of taste, education,
innovations, identity, ethnicity, and so on, are meaningful human expressions of what people
do and how they act.
 The systems of meanings and many other facets of culture such as kindred, religion,
economic activities, inheritance, and political process, do not function in isolation but as an
integrated whole that makes society work. Furthermore, these varying systems of
meanings, relations, and processes are shared within a group of people rendering culture
bounded to those who seek a sense of belonging to the same society.
 Since culture is shared within exclusive domains of social relations, societies operate differently from each
other leading to cultural variations. Even as culture is bounded, it does not mean that there are no variations in
how people act and relate with each other within a given system of their respective societies. On the contrary,
the same society can be broadly diverse wherein people, for example, profess connections to each other yet
practice different religion, values, or gender relations. Furthermore, societies do not always exist
independently from each other.
 Around the world, people as members of their own societies establish connections with each other and form
relationship guided by their respective cultural practices and values. These complex relations underscore the
all-encompassing nature of culture as it covers every feature of humanity. Edward Tylor, one of the founders
of modern anthropology, characterize culture as a “complex whole which encompasses beliefs, practices,
traits, values, attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person learns and
shares as a member of society ” (Tylor 1871).
 To further understand culture, it is important not to forget the biological dimensions of being human. The
capacity of a person to organize his or her own society and form cultural systems is made possible by the
ability of humans to imagine and execute what they can do. Through the power of their brains, humans possess
a considerable degree of awareness and knowledge of what they can achieve. At the same time, the natural
world casts limitation as well as opportunities for humans in terms of realizing how else they can organize
their societies and form their cultures. For instance, some societies harness resources on flatlands or high up in
the mountains while others organize their lives around the seas. These undertakings indicate that the specific
environment in which people live also shape human culture in the same way that culture shapes how people
reshape nature.
SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF SOCIETY

is a basic image of society that guides

THREE THEORETICAL APPROACH
thinking and research

• the structural-functional approach

• the social-conflict approach
• the symbolic-interaction approach.

(Macionis 2012: 12)

 STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONAL APPROACH
Structural-functionalists view society as a “complex system whose parts work together
to promote solidarity and stability” (Macionis 2012:12). It involves an analysis of
social structure, “any relatively stable pattern of social behavior. Social structure gives
our lives shape —in families, the workplace, the classroom, the community. ” The
approach seeks to identify a structure’s social functions, or “the consequences of any
social pattern for the operation of society as a whole”(Ibid). It is an approach that is
influenced by the ideas of Auguste Comte (1798–1857) who coined the term sociology in
1838, and Emile Durkheim (1858-1917). Robert K. Merton (1910–2003) also made
significant contributions by distinguishing between “manifest functions, the recognized
and intended consequences of any social pattern, and latent functions, the unrecognized
and unintended consequences of any social pattern. He also recognized social
dysfunction, any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society ” (Macionis
2012:13).
 These two give
2 AGENTS OF people what
SOCIETY SOCIAL
they
institution need to survive
FACTS
-External factors or social forces that
-created to meet the needs of unconsciously affects people
the people -Individuals have no control or cannot change
social facts
 2 FUNCTIONS OF INSTITUTION
Manifest Latent

-Unintended result of
-Intended
manifest function
Manifest
-for students or people to learn
-become a productive member of the
society

Latent
-establishing relationship
-Conformity to peer’s norms
 BALANCE
-Society can’t have rapid change
-Change must be little by litte

Institution Social Facts Rapid change = Crumbled society

“People keep their part to maintain

balance”

SOCIETY
•IS A FRAMEWORK THAT
VIEWS SOCIETY AS A COMPLEX
SYSTEM WHOSE PARTS WORK
TOGETHER TO PROMOTE
SOLIDARITY AND STABILITY. IT
ASSERTS THAT OUR LIVES ARE
GUIDED BY SOCIAL
STRUCTURES, WHICH ARE
RELATIVELY STABLE
PATTERNS OF SOCIAL
BEHAVIOR
SOCIAL-CONFLICT APPROACH
The social-conflict approach sees society as an “arena of
inequality that generates conflict and change” (Macionis
2012: 13). It therefore highlights inequality and change. In
contrast to the structural-functionalist approach, it does not see
the social structure as promoting the smooth operation of society.
Instead, it focuses on how social patterns benefit the dominant
groups in society. Typically, “people on top try to protect their
privileges while the disadvantaged try to gain more for
themselves”(Ibid).
The social conflict approach is a sociological perspective
that views society as an arena of inequality, power
struggles, and social change. It is based on the ideas of
Marx and other critical theorists who analyzed how
different social groups compete for scarce resources,
influence, and domination. The social conflict approach
explains various social problems, such as class, racial,
and gender inequality, as the result of the conflicts
between the interests of the dominant and oppressed
groups in society. The social conflict approach also
advocates for a radical transformation of society, and
challenges the existing norms, values, and institutions.
However, the social conflict approach is criticized for
being too negative, deterministic, simplistic, and
unrealistic.
•It views society as a competition for limited resources.
•It highlights inequalities in power, resources, and social status.
•It emphasizes dominance and subordination between groups.
•It assumes that societies have structural power divisions and resource
inequalities.
•It sees conflict as a driver of social change.
•It was influenced by Marxism, which views society as in conflict between
classes.
•It believes that social institutions reflect this competition and help maintain
the unequal social structure.
•Society as a competition: In the Philippines, thousands of people compete for a limited
number of slots in top universities through entrance exams. Those who have access to better
education and review centers often have an advantage.
•Inequalities in power, resources, and social status: The gap between the rich and the poor
in the Philippines is significant. Wealthy families often have more influence over political
decisions, which can lead to policies that favor their interests.
•Dominance and subordination: Ethnic minorities in the Philippines, such as the Lumad or
the Aeta, often face discrimination and marginalization, leading to a dominant group (majority
ethnic group) having more power and privileges.
•Structural power divisions: The political landscape in the Philippines is often dominated by
political dynasties, where power and resources are concentrated within a few families.
•Conflict as a driver of social change: The People Power Revolution in 1986, which led to
the ousting of then-President Ferdinand Marcos, was driven by conflict between the people
and the authoritarian regime.
•Influence of Marxism: The ongoing conflict between the government and the New People’s
Army, a communist rebel group, can be seen as a manifestation of the conflict between the
ruling class and the proletariat.
•Social institutions maintain unequal structure: Access to quality education in the
 SYMBOLIC-INTERACTION APPROACH

The symbolic-interaction approach

views sees society as the “product of
the everyday interactions of
individuals”(Macionis 2012:16).
Human beings live in a world of
symbols. In the process of social
interaction, they attach meaning to
everything.
1. Perception of Animals: The word "dog" might evoke a fuzzy, heart-warming emotion in
someone who has had mostly friendly experiences with dogs. But another person, who may
have been bitten or attacked by dogs, may feel fear and revulsion.
2. Cultural Differences: A mid-western American Christian might associate a cow with food.
But a devout Hindu villager in India may have feelings of devotion to the cow on account of
the animal being considered sacred in their religion.
3. Restaurant Experience: When we sit at a table at a restaurant, we expect that those who
approach us will be employees of the establishment, and because of this, they will be willing
to answer questions about the menu, take our order, and bring us food and drink.
4. Flags and Nationalism: Flags have for ages been symbolic of the collective values of a
society. They evoke intense feelings of patriotism, passion, and nationalistic fervor among the
citizenry. However, such passions remain limited to the people whom the flag represents, and
often, end abruptly at national borders.

These examples illustrate how the meaning we ascribe to objects, processes, ideas, concepts,
and systems are subjective. They are constructed through language, words, and
communication, and differ from context to context and culture to culture.
-Subjective Meanings - Symbolic interactionism theory assumes that people respond to
elements of their environments according to the subjective meanings they attach to those
elements.
-Social Construction - Society is thought to be socially constructed through human
interpretation.
-Symbolic Communication - People in society understand their social worlds through
communication — the exchange of meaning through language and symbols.
-Individual Perspective - Instead of addressing how institutions objectively define and affect
individuals, symbolic interactionism pays attention to these individuals’ subjective viewpoints
and how they make sense of the world from their own perspective.
-Interaction Creates Society - The objective structure of a society is less important in the
symbolic interactionist view than how subjective, repeated, and meaningful interactions
between individuals create society.
-Interpretation Process - The meanings that an individual has are created and recreated
through a process of interpretation that happens whenever that individual interacts with others.
 MACRO AND MICRO LEVEL OF ANALYSIS
Structural-Functional
Approach MACRO micro

Social-Conflict
Approach

Symbolic-Interaction
Approach
 MACRO AND MICRO LEVEL OF ANALYSIS
It should be noted that the
Structural-Functional and
Social-Conflict Approaches
MACRO micro

have a macro-level orientation,

or a broad focus on social
Structural-Functional
structures that shape society as Symbolic-Interaction
Approach
a whole. In contrast, the Approach
Symbolic-Interaction
Approach uses a micro-level
orientation, a close-up focus on Social-Conflict
social interaction in specific Approach
situations
(Macionis 2012: 16).
DISCERNING POLITICS
Andrew Heywood (2007). Politics.
3rd edition. NY: Palgrave Macmillan

FOUR VARYING VIEWS OF

POLITICS
(1) the art of government or what concerns the affairs of the state;
(2) the conduct and management of public affairs;
(3) managing conflict through compromise and consensus; and
(4) power as basis for understanding how resources are produced, distributed
and used.
According to Heywood, there are four main approaches to the study of politics:

•Normative approach: This approach is based on the idea that politics should be guided by values and
standards of conduct. It tries to answer questions such as “What is the best form of government?” or
“What are the rights and duties of citizens?”.
•Empirical approach: This approach is based on the idea that politics can be observed and measured
using factual evidence. It tries to answer questions such as “How do political institutions work?” or
“What are the causes and effects of political behavior?”.
•Scientific approach: This approach is based on the idea that politics can be explained using general
laws and theories that are derived from rigorous testing and analysis. It tries to answer questions such
as “What are the patterns and regularities of political phenomena?” or “How can we predict and control
political outcomes?”.
•Interpretive approach: This approach is based on the idea that politics is shaped by the meanings and
interpretations that people attach to their actions and situations. It tries to answer questions such as
“How do people understand and construct their political identities?” or “How do political symbols and
discourses influence political action?”.

These approaches are not mutually exclusive, and they can be combined or contrasted to gain a deeper
and broader understanding of politics.
DEEPEN YOUR UNDERSTANDING ON CULTURE, SOCIETY AND
POLITICS

ETHNOCE CULTURAL RELATIVISM

NTRISM
ETHNOCE -is the process of judging another
culture exclusively from the perspective
NTRISM of one's own. Ethnocentric people
compare their culture to others on such
elements as religion, behavior,
language, customs, and norms. The
term is frequently heard in situations
where inter-ethnic relations and ethnic
issues are of concern. Ethnocentrism
is different from xenocentrism, which
means a preference for the products,
styles, or ideas of a different culture.
A literal meaning of ethnocentrism is the regard that one ’s own culture and
society is the center of everything and therefore far more superior than
others (Kottak 2012: 39; Eriksen 2001:7). It is understandable that people
laud and hold importance to the cultural values that were taught them by
their parents, elders, and other institutions of their society. The problem is
when a person or groups of people regard their own society’s set of cultural
values as the only agreeable, acceptable, and highly respectable set of
convictions. Such a perspective can harden into chauvinism, a position that
everything about the other culture is wrong, unreasonable, detestable, and
even wicked. From this perspective, the practices and institutions of people
from other societies are regarded as inferior, less intelligent, and even
vicious. An ethnocentric attitude can be an obstacle to understanding each
other culture and foster tensions within or between societies
The concept of cultural relativism underscores the
idea that the culture in every society should be
understood and regarded on its own terms.
Societies are qualitatively different from one
another, such that each one has its own “unique
inner logic ” (Eriksen 2001: 14). Cultural traits can
only be known and valued in the context of the
society by which they emerge and are practiced.
Cultural relativism promotes the idea that a society
has to be viewed from the inside so that inner logic
can be better explained. A society ’s idea of a good
life will not likely be shared by another society that
interprets the notion of “good ” from a sharply
different social perspective. In other words, each
society has a different yardstick in appreciating the
value of its own cultural trait. Cultural relativism,
however, cannot be regarded as the flip side of
ethnocentrism. The concept of cultural relativism is
more analytical and methodological rather than
1. Doing Business with Dictatorships: Western democracies have embraced cultural relativism when it comes to
doing business with dictatorships. While the suppression of democratic values offends them, they still want to do
business, so cultural relativism becomes convenient to endorse.
2. Genital Mutilation: This practice occurs worldwide. Some cultures find it offensive while others embrace it.
Cultural relativists would take a backseat and choose not to judge.
3. Gender Discriminating Cultural Conventions: Some societies enforce gender roles more than others. It is hard
for liberal nations to accept the treatment of women in some more traditionalist cultures because gender equality is
a core value of liberalism.
4. Women’s Dress Codes: Enforced coverings for women has long been a touchpoint for cultural relativist debates.
On the one hand, western liberals might see the practice as patriarchal, but they still respect a woman’s right to
participate in their own culture’s modes of dress.
5. Hand Holding: Same-sex friends holding hands and walking in public, though they are not in a romantic
relationship, may be frowned upon in one culture but okay in the next.
6. Eating Habits: The eating of animals like horse and dog are frowned upon in some cultures but accepted in
others. A cultural relativist would defend each culture’s right to set their own moral rules here.
7. Public Breastfeeding: Suspending judgment of another culture’s approach to public breastfeeding is an example
of cultural relativism.
8. Child Labor: Whereas developed nations tend to see child labor as inappropriate, people in developing countries
often see it as a necessity for family survival.
9. Breakfast Variations: What constitutes breakfast varies widely from place to place. What is considered a typical
breakfast in Turkey is quite different from what is considered a typical breakfast in the U.S. or Japan.
Ethnocentrism and cultural relativism are two ways of looking at
different cultures. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to judge other
cultures based on the standards and values of one’s own culture, while
cultural relativism is the principle of understanding and respecting
other cultures by their own standards and values.