Food Production

Chapter 6
Food Production
Food Production
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 Spears & Gregoire
Functional Subsystem:
Food Production
 Food production is the preparation of
menu items in the needed quantity &
with the desired quality.
 Quantity – Distinguishes foodservices
production from home or family food
preparation.
 Quality – Aesthetic, nutritional, &
microbiological safety aspects of a food
product.
Functional Subsystem:
Food Production
 Production
 Preparation of menu items in the needed quantity and
the desired quality at a cost appropriate to the
particular operation.
 Planning for production

 Establishment of program of action for transformation
of resources into products and services.

Production Decision
 Decisions are made concerning the necessary

quantities to produce and the standards of quality that
must be maintained within the limitations of costs.
 In foodservice operations, as in industry, managers
must estimate future events.
 Thus, forecasting, planning, and production scheduling
are important elements for decision making.
 All these planning decisions must be made within the
constraints of the existing facility.

Production Objectives
 Primary: Transform human, material, facility, &

operational resources into outputs.
 Secondary:
 Product/service characteristics
 Process characteristics
 Product/service quality
 Efficiency:
 Effective employee relations & cost control of labor
 Cost control of materials
 Cost control of facility use
 Customer service:
 Produce quantities to meet expected demand
 Meet delivery date for products or services

Production Decisions
 Characteristics of the product depend upon the type
of operation,
 Production process characteristics include the
method of food preparation, ranging from grilling to
broiling to baking.
 Efficiency of the process depends upon the control
of costs for labor, material, and facility use. All of these
secondary objectives lead to customer service.

Production Forecasting
 Primary result of forecasting should be customer
satisfaction.
 Production Demand
 Overproduction – Production of more food than is
needed for service.
 Underproduction – Production of less food than is
needed for service

 Quantity Demand
 Estimate number of customers or the
number of servings.
 Essential to use suitable forecasting model.
 Examples:
 Historical records
 Intuition
 Complex models requiring large amounts of data

 Historical Records
 Effective production records should include:
 Date & day of the week
 Meal or hour of service
 Notation of special event, holiday, & weather conditions
 Food items prepared
 Quantity of each item prepared
 Quantity of each item served
 Provide fundamental base for forecasting quantities
when the same meal or menu item is repeated.

Forecasting Models
 Criteria for a Model:
 Cost – expenses of both development & operation.
 Required accuracy – accuracy of its predictions of
future occurrences.
 Relevancy of past data – relationship of past &
future data.
 Forecasting lead time – length of time into future
the forecasts are made.
 Underlying pattern of behavior – actual
occurrences follow some known pattern.

Types of Models
 Most common model categories:

 Time series
 Casual
 Subjective
 Trends & seasonality in the data must be

considered.

Time Series Model
 Assumption that actual occurrences

follow an identifiable pattern over time.
 Suitable for short-term forecasts.
 Frequent time series models:
 Moving average forecasting model
 Exponential smoothing forecasting model

Moving Average Forecasting Model
 First point: average of number of portions

sold for the last five or more times the menu
item was offered.
 Second point: average of dropping the first
number & adding the most recent number of
portions sold to the bottom of the list.
 Continue process for all data.

Moving Average Forecasting Model

Exponential Smoothing Forecasting
Model
 judgment last   judgment last 
New forcast      1   
 factor demand   factor forecast 
 All past data are considered in smoothing process.
 More recent data are given more weight.
 Requires only a few pieces of data to update a
forecast.
 Easily programmed & is inexpensive to use.
 Rate at which the model responds to change can be
adjusted mathematically.

Casual Model
 Assumption that an identifiable

relationship exists between the item
being forecast & other factors.
 High costs for development & use.
 Popular for medium- & long-term
forecasts.

Regression Analysis Forecasting
Models
 Most commonly adapted.
 Includes:
 Dependent variables – items being forecast.
 Independent variables – factors determining
the value of the dependent variables.
 Requires a history of data to permit
plotting over time.

Subjective Model
 Used when relevant data is scarce or

patterns & relationships between data do
not tend to persist over time.
 Delphi technique
 Market research
 Panel consensus
 Visionary forecast
 Historical analogy

Production Scheduling
 Time sequencing of events required to
produce a meal.
 Planning stage:
 Forecasts are converted into the quantity of each
menu item to be prepared.
 Distribution of food production to supervisors in
each work center.
 Action stage:
 Supervisors prepare a production schedule.
 Items are assigned to specific employees.

Production Schedule
 Should include:
 Employee assignments
 Preparation time schedule
 Menu item
 Over- & underproduction
 Quantity to prepare: forecast amount for each
menu item.
 Substitutions
 Actual yield: portion count produced by the recipe.
 Additional assignments
 Special instructions & comments
 Pre-preparation
Production Schedule Sample

Production Meetings
 Should be held daily with employees in

the production unit.
 Employees encouraged to discuss the
effectiveness of the schedule.
 Free discussion of work loads.
 Conclude with discussion of the
production schedule for the following
three meals.
Ingredient Control
 Begins with purchasing, receiving, &
storage of foods.
 Continues through forecasting &
production.
 Ingredient assembly – area designed for
measuring ingredients.
 Standardized recipes – provides
assurance that standards of quality will
be consistently maintained.
Advantages of Centralized
Ingredient Assembly
 Contributes to the cost reduction &
quality improvement.
 Redirection of cooks’ skills away from
collecting, assembling, & measuring
ingredients to production, garnishing, &
portion control.
 More efficient use of labor.

Centralized Ingredient Control
 Control of unused portions is facilitated

because storage is located centrally
rather than in various work units.
 Ability to combine tasks for two or more
recipes using similar ingredients.

Function of the Ingredient Room
 Primary function is to coordinate

assembly, pre-preparation, measuring, &
weighing of the ingredients.
 Availability of appropriate equipment will
help determine the activities to be
performed.

Ingredient Room Organization
 Should be located between the storage & production
areas.
 Necessary equipment includes:
 Refrigeration
 Water supply
 Trucks or carts for assembly & delivery
 Worktable or counter
 Scales

Spears & Gregoire
Ingredient Room Organization

Spears & Gregoire
Ingredient Room Staffing
 Responsible for receiving, storage, & ingredient
assembly.
 Training needed include:-
 • Environmental conditions required to store
specific foods
 • Ventilation and humidity factors in dry storage
 • Safety precautions in handling and storage of
nonfood items and toxic materials
 • Sanitation standards to prevent contamination
or deterioration of foods during storage
 • Security measures to ensure against pilferage
 • Weighing and measuring procedures

Spears & Gregoire
 Ingredient assembly personnel considerations:
 Size of operation
 Frequency & time of deliveries
 Size of ingredient room & location of other storage
areas
 Type, number, & complexity of menu items
 Number of workstation to be supplied
 Schedule for delivery of ingredients to production &
serving areas
 Extent of pre-preparation performed in ingredient
assembly area


Future of Ingredient Rooms
 Centralized or food factories are being

used for procurement & production.
 Prepared menu items are distributed to
several remote areas for final
preparation.

What is a Recipe???
 Formula by which weighed
& measured ingredients are
combined in a specific
procedure to meet
predetermined standards.
 Written communication tool
that passes information
from the foodservice
manager to the ingredient
room & production
employees.
 Quality & quantity control
tool.
Spears & Gregoire
Recipes
 Recipes include:
 Name of food item
 Total yield
 Portion size & number of portions
 Cooking time & temperature
 List of ingredients in order of use
 Amount of each ingredient by weight, measure or
count
 Procedures
 Panning or portioning information
 Food safety (HACCP) guidelines.
Format
 All recipes in an operation should be in

the same format.
 Common large quantity formats:
 Block format
 Complete block format
 Modified block format

Block Format
 Ingredients listed on left side of recipes.

 Procedures directly opposite ingredients
on right side.

Complete Block Format
 Horizontal lines separate each group of

ingredients with procedures.
 Vertical lines separate the ingredient,
amount, & procedure columns.

Modified Block Format
 Most common
 Horizontal lines separate the required
ingredients for each procedure.

Format
 Additional information often added at

bottom or on back:
 Approximate nutritive values per portion
 Variations on the recipe
 Special serving instructions
 Storage requirements before & after service

Format
 Recipes should be in large print easily

readable from 18-20 inches.
 Recipe name should be in bold letters.
 Major categories (breads, meat, salad,
etc.) may be color coded to make
identification easier.
 KEEP BACKUP OF RECIPES!!!

Format

Standardization
 Ideal to have recipes that consistently

deliver the same quantity & quality
product when followed precisely.
 Recipe standardization – process of
tailoring a recipe to suit a particular
purpose in a specific foodservice
operation.
 Requires repeated testing.

Justification
 Advantages for using standardized

recipes:
 Promote uniform quality of menu items.
 Promote uniform quantity of menu items.
 Encourage uniformity of menu items.
 Increase productivity of cooks.
 Increase managerial productivity.
 Save money by controlling overproduction.

Justification
 Advantages (cont.):
 Save money by controlling inventory levels.
 Simplify menu item costing.
 Simplify training of cooks.
 Introduce a feeling of job satisfaction.
 Reduce anxiety of customers with special

dietary needs.

Three Phases of Recipe
Standardization
 Standardized recipes:
 Developed for use by a foodservice
operation.
 Found to produce consistent results & yield
each time prepared.

Three Phases of Recipe
Standardization

Recipe Verification
 Review components of the recipe
 Recipe title
 Recipe category
 Ingredients
 Weight/measure for each ingredient
 Preparation instructions
 Cooking temperature & time
 Portion size
 Recipe yield
 Equipment to be used

Spears & Gregoire
Recipe Verification
 Make the recipe

 Verify the recipe yield
 Record changes to the recipe

Product Evaluation
 Informal Evaluation:
 Visual appearance
 Flavor
 Ability to obtain ingredients
 Cost per serving
 Labor time
 Availability of equipment
 Employee skill

Spears & Gregoire
Product Evaluation
 Formal Evaluation
 Select group of staff members
& customers as a taste panel.
 Choose or develop an
evaluation instrument.
 Prepare sample recipe.
 Set up sampling area.
 Sampling & evaluation of

products.
 Summarize results.
 Determine future plans for the

recipe.
Spears & Gregoire
Quantity Adjustment
 Methods include:
 Factor method
 Percentage method
 Direct reading measurement tables
 Computer software also available

Factor Method
 Change ingredient amounts to whole

numbers & decimals.
 Divide desired yield by the recipe yield to
determine the conversion factor.
 Multiply all recipe ingredients by the
conversion factor.

Factor Method
 Reconvert decimal unit back into pounds & ounces or
quarts & cups.
 Round off amounts to quantities simple to weigh or
measure.
 Check math for possible errors.
 Watch:-
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yHBDzROldcc

Percentage Method
 Convert all ingredients from measure or pounds &
ounces to tenths of a pound.
 Total the weight of ingredients in a recipe after each
ingredient has been converted to weight in the edible
portion.
 Calculate the percentage of each ingredient in the
recipe in relation the total weight.
 Check the ratio of ingredients.

Percentage Method
 Establish the weight needed to provide

the desired number of servings.
 Add handling loss to the weight needed.
 Multiply each ingredient percentage
number by the total weight to give the
exact amount of each ingredient needed.
 Convert to pounds & ounces or to
measures.
Direct Reading Measurement
Tables
 Quick to use & require no mathematical
calculations.
 Used to adjust weight & volume of
ingredients in recipes that are divisible
by 25.

Adapting Home-Size Recipes
 Special considerations are necessary:

 Know exactly what ingredients are used & in
what quantity.
 Make the recipe in original home-size
quantity.
 Evaluate the product for acceptability.
 Proceed in incremental stages in expanding

the recipe.

Adapting Home-Size Recipes
 Special considerations are necessary:

 Determine handling or cooking losses (5%-
8% loss is typical).
 Check ingredient proportion against a
standard large quantity recipe.
 Evaluate products using taste panels.

Quantity Food Production
 Involves:
 Control of ingredients
 Production methods
 Quality of food
 Labor productivity
 Energy consumption.
 Sweet Spot – point of best value at

lowest cost.
Objectives of Food Production
 Primary reasons to cook
food:
 Destruction of harmful
microorganisms
 Increased digestibility
 Change &
enhancement of
flavor, form, color,
texture, & aroma

Spears & Gregoire
Heat Transfer
 Conduction – the transfer of heat through direct
contact from one object to another.
 Convection – distribution of heat by the movement of
liquid or vapor.
 Radiation – generation of heat energy by wave action
within an object.
 Induction – use of electrical fields to excite the
molecules of metal cooking surfaces.
 Watch:-
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CyHKB4calRo

Heat Transfer
 Radiation – generation of heat energy

by wave action within an object.
 Induction – use of electrical fields to

excite the molecules of metal cooking
surfaces.

Moist Heat
 Use of water or steam for the cooking process.
 Simmering or stewing – cooking in a liquid that is
boiling gently (185º-205º F).
 Poaching – cooking in a small amount of liquid that
is hot but not bubbling (160º-180º F).
 Blanching – cooking an item partially & briefly.
 Braising – cooking food in a small amount of liquid,
usually after browning it.
 Steaming – cooking food by exposing them to
direct steam.

Dry Heat
 Use of dry air, hot metal, radiation, or a

minimum amount of hot fat for the
cooking process.
 Includes:
 Broilers – heat source 3”-6” from food.
 Deep Fat Fryers – food immersed in tank of
oil heated by gas or electricity.
 Ovens – combination of conduction,
convection, & radiation.

Multifunction Equipment
 Combination of several pieces of

equipment to increase space in
production area.
 Combi-oven – includes convection and/or
steam
 Tilting skillet – combines range, griddle,
kettle, stock pot, & frying pan.
 Convection/microwave oven - includes
convection and/or microwave
Production Controls
 Quality control – assuring day-in, day-out consistency
in each product.
 Quantity control – producing exact amount needed.
 Controls:
 Time & Temperature Control
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a9Q6vUxNCvc
 Product Yield
 Portion Control

Product Yield
 Yield Amount of product resulting at the end of the
procurement/production process.
 As purchased (AP) Amount of food before processing.
 Edible portion (EP) Amount of food available for eating
after preparation and/or cooking
 Cooking loss Decrease in yield of many foods in
production primarily because of moisture loss.
 Handling loss Decrease in the yield of a recipe because of
preparation process.

Spears & Gregoire
Portion Control
 Achievement of uniform serving sizes
 Follow 3 steps:-
 1.Foods should be purchased according to detailed and accurate
specifications to assure that the food purchased will yield the expected
number of servings.
 2.Standardized recipes should be used. A standardized recipe will
include information on total number and size of portions to be produced
from the recipe
 3.Managers and employees should know the size and yield of all pans,
dishers, and ladles. Many portion control utensils, such as dishers,
“spoodles,” and ladles, are on the market to help foodservice employees
accurately and consistently portion foods.

Spears & Gregoire
Energy Use
 Direct energy – energy expended to

produce & serve menu items.
 Indirect energy – energy expended to

facilitate functions that use direct energy.

Energy Conservation
 ENERGY STAR®: partnership which promotes
energy efficiency in buildings & homes.
 Energy conservation checklist:
 Food Preparation
 Refrigeration
 Lighting
 HVAC
 Sanitation & water
 Office & Administration

Energy Management
 Should include:
 Record-keeping system for tracking utility
costs & monitoring equipment use.
 Employee training
 Use of energy efficient equipment


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Chapter 6

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Planning for production

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Decisions are made concerning the necessary

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Primary: Transform human, material, facility, &

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Complex models requiring large amounts of data

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Most common model categories:

 Trends & seasonality in the data must be

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Assumption that actual occurrences

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 First point: average of number of portions

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Assumption that an identifiable

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Used when relevant data is scarce or

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Should be held daily with employees in

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Control of unused portions is facilitated

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Primary function is to coordinate

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Trucks or carts for assembly & delivery

Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Centralized or food factories are being

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 All recipes in an operation should be in

 Modified block format

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Ingredients listed on left side of recipes.

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Horizontal lines separate each group of

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Additional information often added at

 Special serving instructions

 Storage requirements before & after service

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Recipes should be in large print easily

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Ideal to have recipes that consistently

©2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Advantages for using standardized

 Encourage uniformity of menu items.