(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

Figure 6.28 The

Charpy V-notch
properties for a
BCC carbon steel
and a FCC
stainless steel.
The FCC crystal
structure typically
leads top higher
absorbed energies
and no transition
temperature

2
 Dislocations & Materials Classes
• Metals: Disl. motion easier.
+ + + + + + + +
-non-directional bonding + + + + + + + +
-close-packed directions + + + + + + + +
for slip. electron cloud ion cores

• Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Motion hard.
-directional (angular) bonding

• Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):

+ - + - + - +
Motion hard.
- + - + - + -
-need to avoid ++ and - -
neighbors. + - + - + - +
 Dislocation Motion
Dislocations & plastic deformation
• Cubic & hexagonal metals - plastic deformation is by
plastic shear or slip where one plane of atoms slides over
adjacent plane by defect motion (dislocations).
Adapted from Fig. 7.1,
Callister 7e.

• If dislocations don't move, deformation doesn't occur!

 Slip Motion in Polycrystals
• Stronger since grain boundaries

pin deformations
• Slip planes & directions
(, ) change from one
Adapted from Fig.
7.10, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.10 is
crystal to another. courtesy of C.
Brady, National
Bureau of
• R will vary from one Standards [now the
National Institute of
crystal to another. Standards and
Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD].)
• The crystal with the
largest R yields first.
• Other (less favorably
oriented) crystals 300 m
yield (slip) later.
After seeing the effect of poly crystalline materials
we can say (as related to strength):
• Ordinarily ductility is sacrificed when an alloy
is strengthened.
• The relationship between dislocation motion
and mechanical behavior of metals is
significance to the understanding of
strengthening mechanisms.
• The ability of a metal to plastically deform
depends on the ability of dislocations to
move.
• Virtually all strengthening techniques rely on
this simple principle: Restricting or Hindering
dislocation motion renders a material harder
and stronger.
• We will consider strengthening single phase
metals by: grain size reduction, solid-solution
alloying, and strain hardening
 Strategies for Strengthening:
1: Reduce Grain Size

• Grain boundaries are

barriers to slip.
• Barrier "strength"
increases with
Increasing angle of
misorientation. Adapted from Fig. 7.14, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.14 is from A Textbook of Materials
• Smaller grain size: Technology, by Van Vlack, Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)
more barriers to slip.

• Hall-Petch Equation:  yield   o  k y d 1 / 2

 Strategies for Strengthening:
2: Solid Solutions
 Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.
 Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
• Smaller substitutional • Larger substitutional
impurity impurity

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

and B that opposes dislocation and D that opposes dislocation
motion to the right. motion to the right.
Stress Concentration at
Dislocations

Adapted from Fig. 7.4,

Callister 7e.
 Strengthening by Alloying
• small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations on the
“Compressive stress side”
• reduce mobility of dislocation  increase strength

Adapted from Fig.

7.17, Callister 7e.
 Strengthening by alloying
• Large impurities concentrate at dislocations on
“Tensile Stress” side – pinning dislocation

Adapted from Fig.

7.18, Callister 7e.
Strategies for Strengthening: 4. Cold Work (%CW)

• Room temperature deformation.

• Common forming operations change the cross
sectional area:
-Forging force -Rolling
roll
die Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
Adapted from Fig.
11.8, Callister 7e. roll

-Drawing force -Extrusion

Ao
die Ad container die holder
Ao tensile force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die
Ao  Ad
%CW  x 100
Ao
 During Cold Work
• Ti alloy after cold working:
• Dislocations entangle and
multiply
• Thus, Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.

Adapted from Fig.

4.6, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 4.6 is courtesy
of M.R. Plichta,
Michigan
0.9 m Technological
University.)
 Result of Cold Work
Dislocation density = total dislocation length
unit volume
– Carefully grown single crystal
 ca. 103 mm-2
– Deforming sample increases density
 109-1010 mm-2
– Heat treatment reduces density
 105-106 mm-2

• Yield stress increases y1 large hardening
y0 small hardening
as d increases:

 Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (y) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Lo-Carbon Steel!
Adapted from Fig. 7.20,
Callister 7e.
 Cold Work Analysis
• What is the tensile strength &
ductility after cold working?
Copper
Cold
Work

D o =15.2mm D d =12.2mm

2 2
ro  rd
%CW  x 100  35.6%
2
ro
 Cold Work Analysis
• What is the tensile strength &
ductility after cold working to 35.6%?

yield strength (MPa) tensile strength (MPa) ductility (%EL)

60
700 800

40
500 600
Cu
300 Cu 400 340MPa 20
Cu 7%
100 200
0 20 40 60 00
0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
YS = 300 MPa TS = 340MPa %EL = 7%

Adapted from Fig. 7.19, Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Iron
and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), American
Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.)
©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.
 Effect of Heating After %CW
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
• Effects of cold work are reversed!
annealing temperature (ºC)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
tensile strength (MPa)

600 60
tensile strength

ductility (%EL)
50
500
• 3 Annealing
40
stages to
400 30 discuss...
ductility 20
Adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister 7e. (Fig.
7.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and K.R. van
300 Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied
Metallurgy, and the Industrial Processing of
Re Re Gr Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals and Alloys,
co c ry a in
ve sta Gr American Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)
ry lliz ow
ati th
on
 Recovery
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.
• Scenario 1 extra half-plane
of atoms Dislocations
Results from annihilate
diffusion atoms
and form
diffuse
a perfect
to regions
atomic
of tension
extra half-plane plane.
of atoms
• Scenario 2
3. “Climbed” disl. can now R
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to “climb”
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
can’t move to the right
©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.
 Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
-- have a low dislocation density
-- are small
-- consume cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (a),(b),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.
 Further Recrystallization
• All cold-worked grains are consumed.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (c),(d),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds
 Grain Growth
• At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
• Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy)
is reduced.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (d),(e),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 8 s, After 15 min,

580ºC 580ºC
coefficient dependent on
• Empirical Relation: material & Temp.
exponent typ. ~ 2
elapsed time
grain dia. At time t. d  d  Kt
n n
o

This is: Ostwald Ripening

 º

TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

Adapted from Fig.

7.22, Callister 7e.

º
 Recrystallization Temperature, TR

TR = recrystallization temperature = point

of highest rate of property change
1. TR  0.3-0.6 Tm (K)
2. Due to diffusion  annealing time TR = f(t)
shorter annealing time => higher TR
3. Higher %CW => lower TR – strain hardening
4. Pure metals lower TR due to dislocation
movements
• Easier to move in pure metals => lower TR
 Figure 7.9 The fibrous
grain structure of a low
carbon steel produced by
cold working: (a) 10% cold
work, (b) 30% cold work,
(c) 60% cold work, and (d)
90% cold work (250).
(Source: From ASM
Handbook Vol. 9,
Metallography and
Microstructure, (1985) ASM
International, Materials
Park, OH 44073. Used with
permission.)

27
 Example 7.3 Design of a
Stamping Process

One method for producing fans for cooling automotive and truck
engines is to stamp the blades from cold-rolled steel sheet, then
attach the blades to a “spider’’ that holds the blades in the proper
position. A number of fan blades, all produced at the same time,
have failed by the initiation and propagation of a fatigue crack
transverse to the axis of the blade (Figure 7.11). All other fan
blades perform satisfactorily. Provide an explanation for the failure
of the blades and redesign the manufacturing process to prevent
these failures.

28
 Example 7.3 (continued)

©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

Figure 7.11 Orientations of samples (for Example 7.3)

29