CH07 - DislocationsStrengthening

CHAPTER 7:
DISLOCATIONS AND STRENGTHENING
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Why are dislocations observed primarily in metals
and alloys?
• How are strength and dislocation motion related?
• How do we increase strength?
• How can heating change strength and other properties?
Slides prepared by: Drs. Arcan Dericioğlu & Mert Efe & Caner Şimşir @ METU, based on Course Material of Callister, 6th Ed. 2003.
DISLOCATIONS & MATERIALS CLASSES
• Metals: Disl. motion easier.
+ + + + + + + +
-non-directional bonding + + + + + + + +
-close-packed directions + + + + + + + +
for slip. electron cloud ion cores
• Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Motion hard.
-directional (angular) bonding
• Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):

+ - + - + - +
Motion hard.
- + - + - + -
-need to avoid ++ and --
neighbors. + - + - + - +
DISLOCATION MOTION (1)
• Produces plastic deformation,
• Depends on incrementally breaking bonds.
• If dislocations don't move,

deformation doesn't happen!
DISLOCATION MOTION (2)
Edge Dislocation
Screw Dislocation
CHARACTERISTICS of DISLOCATIONS
Lattice Distortion Sites
(Strain Fields)
Interaction of Dislocations
Repulsion
Attraction
(Annihilation)
SLIP SYSTEMS
 Slip Plane: Preferred plane on which dislocation motion
(Slip) takes place.
 Slip Direction: Directions of dislocation motion on Slip
Planes.
 Slip System: Combinations of Slip Planes and Directions
Slip Planes and Directions have the greatest Planar and

Linear Densities in a specific crystal structure.
FCC Crystal  Slip System: {111}<110>

- BEHAVIOR vs TEMPERTURE
• Results for 800
polycrystalline iron: -200°C
600
Stress (MPa)
400 -100°C
25°C
200
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Strain
• y and TS decrease with increasing test temperature.
• %EL increases with increasing test temperature.
• Why? Vacancies 3. disl. glides past obsta
help dislocations 2. vacancies
replace
past obstacles.
atoms on the
obstacle
disl. half
plane 1. disl. trapped
by obstacle
4 STRATEGIES FOR STRENGTHENING:
1: REDUCE GRAIN SIZE
• Grain boundaries are

barriers to slip.
• Barrier "strength" slip plane
B
increases with in
r a
misorientation. g
• Smaller grain size: grain A
gr
more barriers to slip.
ain
bo
un
 yield  o  k y d 1/ 2
da
• Hall-Petch Equation:
ry
GRAIN SIZE STRENGTHENING:
AN EXAMPLE
• 70wt%Cu-30wt%Zn brass alloy
 yield  o  k y d 1/ 2
• Data:
grain size, d (mm)
10-1 10-2 5x10-3
200
yield(MPa)
150
100 ky
50 1
0.75mm
0
0 4 8 12 16
[grain size (mm)]-0.5
ANISOTROPY IN yield
• Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
-before rolling -after rolling
rolling direction
235 m
-isotropic -anisotropic
since grains are approx. since rolling affects grain
spherical & randomly orientation and shape.
oriented.
ANISOTROPY IN DEFORMATION
1. Cylinder of 2. Fire cylinder 3. Deformed
Tantalum at a target. cylinder
machined
from a
rolled plate: side view
rolling direction
end plate
thickness
view direction
• The noncircular end view shows:
anisotropic deformation of rolled material.
STRENGTHENING STRATEGY 2:
SOLID SOLUTIONS
• Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.
• Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
• Smaller substitutional • Larger substitutional
impurity impurity
A C
B D
Impurity generates local shear at Impurity generates local shear at

A and B that opposes disl motion C and D that opposes disl motion
to the right. to the right.
EX: SOLID SOLUTION STRENGTHENING
IN COPPER
• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.
Tensile strength (MPa)
Yield strength (MPa)

180
400
300 120
200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt. %Ni, (Concentration C wt. %Ni, (Concentration
1/ 2
• Empirical relation:  y ~ C
• Alloying increases y and TS.
PRECIPITATION STRENGTHENING
• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
precipitate
Large shear stress needed
Side View to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.
Unslipped part of slip plane Dislocation

Top View
“advances” but
precipitates act as
S “pinning” sites with
spacingS.
Slipped part of slip plane
1
• Result:  y ~
S
APPLICATION:
PRECIPITATION STRENGTHENING
• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
• Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed

by alloying.
Al Alloy 2024
Al + 4% Cu + 1% Mg + 0.5% Mn
Yield strength 100 – 300 MPa
depending on the temper
1.5m
COLD WORK (%CW)
• Room temperature deformation.
• Common forming operations change the cross sectional
area: force
-Forging
die -Rolling roll
Ad
Ao blank Ad Ao
roll
force
-Drawing Ao -Extrusion
container die holder
die Ad
tensile force
Ao ram billet extrusion Ad
force
die container die
Ao  Ad
%CW  x100
Ao
DISLOCATIONS DURING COLD WORK
• Ti alloy after cold working:
• Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
• Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.
0.9 m
RESULT OF COLD WORK
• Dislocation density (d) goes up:
Carefully prepared sample: d ~ 103 mm/mm3
Heavily deformed sample: d ~ 1010 mm/mm3
• Ways of measuring dislocation density:
40m
Volume, V
Area, A dislocation
length,1l pit
or
length,2l
N dislocation
length,3l pits (revealed
l1  l2  l3 by etching)
d   N
V d
A
• Yield stress increases with d 
hardening exponent: y1
large hardening
n=0.15 (some steels) y0
T  C T   n
to n=0.5 (some copper)
small hardening
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/L o) 

DISLOCATION-DISLOCATION
TRAPPING
• Dislocation generate stress.
• This traps other dislocations.
Red dislocation
generates shear at A
pts A and B that
opposes motion of
green disl. from
B
left to right.
IMPACT OF COLD WORK
• Yield strength (y ) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.
COLD WORK ANALYSIS
• What is the tensile strength & Copper
Cold
ductility after cold working? work
ro2  rd2 ----->
%CW  x100  35.6%
2
ro Do=15.2mm Dd=12.2mm
yield strength (MPa) tensile strength (MPa) ductility (%EL)

60
700 800
500 600 40
300 300MPa
Cu
Cu 400 340MPa 20
Cu 7%
100
0 20 40 60 200 00
0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work
y=300MPa TS=340MPa %EL=7%
EFFECT OF HEATING AFTER %CW
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
• Effects of cold work are reversed!
Annealing Temperature (°C)
100 300 500 700
600 60
tensile strength (MPa)
tensile strength
50
ductility (%EL)
500 • 3 Annealing
40
stages to
400 30 discuss...
ductility 20
300 R Re Gr
ec c ain
ov rys
er tal Gr
y liz ow
ati th
on
RECOVERY
Annihilation reduces dislocation density at longer times.
• Scenario 1 extra half-plane
of atoms Disl.
annhilate
atoms
and form
diffuse
a perfect
to regions
atomic
of tension
extra half-plane plane.
of atoms
• Scenario 2
3. “Climbed” disl. can now R
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to “climb”
1. dislocation blocked; obstacle dislocation
can’t move to the right
CHARACTERISTICS of DISLOCATIONS
Lattice Distortion Sites
(Strain Fields)
Interaction of Dislocations
Repulsion
Attraction
(Annihilation)
RECRYSTALLIZATION
• New crystals are formed that:
--have a small disl. density
--are small
--consume cold-worked crystals.
TH > TG > TC > TA
Recrystallization Temperature, TRecrys
TRecrys: Temperature needed for complete recrystallization in 1 h.
Tm/3 < TRecrys < Tm/2
TRecrys changes with:

 Prior cold work
 Purity
FURTHER RECRYSTALLIZATION
• All cold-worked crystals are consumed.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
After 4 After 8
seconds seconds
GRAIN GROWTH
• At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
• Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy)
is reduced.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
After 8 s, After 15 min,

580C 580C
coefficient dependent
• Empirical Relation:
on material and T.
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain diam. elapsed time
n n
at time t. d  d o  Kt
SUMMARY
• Dislocations are observed primarily in metals and alloys.
• Here, strength is increased by making dislocation motion

difficult.
• Particular ways to increase strength are to:

-- decrease grain size
-- solid solution strengthening
-- precipitation strengthening
-- cold work
• Heating (annealing) can reduce dislocation density

and increase grain size.

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CH07 - DislocationsStrengthening

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CHAPTER 7:

DISLOCATIONS AND STRENGTHENING

• How are strength and dislocation motion related?

• How do we increase strength?

• How can heating change strength and other properties?

• Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):

• If dislocations don't move,

Slip Planes and Directions have the greatest Planar and

FCC Crystal  Slip System: {111}<110>

• Grain boundaries are

Impurity generates local shear at Impurity generates local shear at

Yield strength (MPa)

Unslipped part of slip plane Dislocation

• Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed

“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/L o) 

yield strength (MPa) tensile strength (MPa) ductility (%EL)

TH > TG > TC > TA

TRecrys changes with:

After 8 s, After 15 min,

• Here, strength is increased by making dislocation motion

• Particular ways to increase strength are to:

• Heating (annealing) can reduce dislocation density

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