Fracture Mechanics

Fracture Mechanics aims to control the combination of nominal stress and

existing crack size so that they are always below a critical level for the
material being used in a given machine part or structure.

Fracture Mechanics provides quantitative answers to:

1. What is the residual strength as function of crack length?
2. What crack size can be tolerated?
3. Time for a crack to grow to max permissible size?
4. Service life of the structure with a pre-existing flaw size?
5. Inspection interval?

Fracture mechanics analysis approaches:

1. Griffith Energy Balance Theory.
2. Irwin’s Modification to Griffith Theory.
3. The Stress Intensity Approach.

1. Griffith Energy Balance Theory:

 In the 1920s, Griffith observed that the tensile strength of a glass rod
increases with the decrease of the rod length. He also reported that
very thin fibers of glass have much higher tensile strength than coarse
fibers. He attributed these observations to the statistical finding that a
 flaw of a given size is less likely to exist in rods of shorter lengths
or thinner sections than it is in bigger ones.
 This size effect led to the first analytical expression of determining the
load-carrying capacity of a material that contained a crack like defect.
 If a crystal in a metallic material is strained by a stress σ, the ideal
strength of the material in terms of maximum cohesion between atoms
is given by (  max  E / 2 , say, E / 10 )
 Measured values of the failure stress σf for most engineering materials
is typically within the order (E/103), unless testing is conducted on
fiber or whisker, in which case ( f  E / 15) .
 The discrepancy between theoretical and measured values, can be
explained by the presence of microcracks or flaws in the solid
material. At the tip of these cracks, there are stress concentration
effects.
 Based on this idea, Griffith postulated his criterion for fracture of
infinitely large plates of brittle materials containing a central sharp
through-crack as shown in the figure.

 The strain energy stored per unit volume = U = σ2 / 2E

 If a crack length 2a is introduced into the plate, some strain energy
will be released in the circular area surrounding the crack.
2
 The energy released per unit thickness = (a 2 ) for plane stress
2E
2
= (a 2 ) (1   2 ) for plane strain
2E
 In order to extend the crack length, an energy input W is required to
break the atomic bonds ahead of the crack tip.
 It is sufficiently accurate to assume that dW /da= constant, i.e. W is a
linear function of a.
 A schematic representation of both U and W is shown in the following
figure:

Energy

 W

U+W
0
U

Critical Crack length,

2ac
 The curve representing the total energy (U+W) gives the critical crack
length, ac, which indicates that for a crack length 0  a  ac , energy
input is required, while for the crack length a  ac , energy is released
with crack extension (instability), and thus the crack will propagate.
U W
At this critical point:   const.  Gc ,
a a
 Gc is known as the critical energy release rate:
 c2 a
Gc  for plane stress
E
 c2 a
Gc  (1   2 ) for plane strain
E
 Rearranging gives the stress required to propagate the crack as:
1/ 2
 EG 
c   c  for plane stress
a 
1/ 2
 EG c 
c    for plane strain
 (1   ) a 
2

 An alternative statement may be written in terms of a parameter  s

defining the surface free energy of the solid containing the crack:
1/ 2
 2 E s 
c    , thus Gc  2 s
 a 
 The use of Griffith equations is restricted to brittle materials such
as glass. For ductile or quasi-brittle materials, measured values of Gc
may be 1000  s or greater. Hence, Erwin's modification for the last
equation is to include the plastic work  p needed to extend the crack
surface:
  2 E ( s   p )   E p
1/ 2 1/ 2

c      
 a   a 

Stress concentration around elliptical holes

The stress distribution at the tip of a crack is found by examining the

stress concentration problem around an elliptical hole, considering the
crack as an ellipse with a minor axis of zero length. The stress
distribution around the elliptical hole is given as:

𝜎 2 1+𝛽 𝛽2 − 1 𝛽 − 1 3𝛼 2 − 𝛽
𝜎𝑥 = − 1 +
2 𝛼2 − 𝛽 𝛼2 − 𝛽 𝛼2 − 𝛽 𝛼2 − 𝛽
𝜎 2 1+𝛽 𝛽2 − 1 𝛽 − 1 3𝛼 2 − 𝛽
𝜎𝑦 = 2+ 2 + 2 1+ 2
2 𝛼 −𝛽 𝛼 −𝛽 𝛼 − 𝛽 𝛼2 − 𝛽

Where 𝛽 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)/(𝑎 + 𝑏)

𝑥 𝑥 2
𝛼 = 𝑎+𝑏 + −𝛽
𝑎+𝑏

The distribution of ( y /  ) at y =0 vs. (x/b) is shown in the figure for

different elliptic holes of different aspect ratios (a/b).
y 25

20

15 a/b = 10
11
x a/b = 5
2b

10 a/b = 2
2a
5 a/b = 1
5

(a) (b)

0 40
20
x/b

The stresses at the ends of the hole on the major axis are obtained by
putting: x   a
 𝑎 𝑎 2 𝑎−𝑏
𝛼= + − =1
𝑎+𝑏 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎+𝑏

The stresses and stress concentration factor kt are thus given by:

𝜎𝑥 = 0 , 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎(1 + 2𝑎/𝑏)
𝝈𝒚 𝒂
𝒌𝒕 = =𝟏+𝟐
𝝈 𝒃

In the special case, when a=b, i.e. a circular hole, the stress concentration
factor attains the value of 3. At higher aspect ratios, the stress
concentration factor attains very high values leading to localized yielding
at the crack tip.

The Elastic stress field at the crack tip:

The stress distribution at the tip of a sharp crack of length 2a in an

infinite plate loaded in simple tension is studied by regarding the crack as
an ellipse with a minor axis zero, i.e. b = 0. In which case,   1 , and
𝑥 𝑥 2
𝛼= + −1
𝑎 𝑎
Substituting into the stresses surrounding the field, gives for the stresses:
𝑥
𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎 −1
𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
For 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎
𝑥
𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎
𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
More generally, the stress components in the vicinity of the crack tip are
given in the literature in terms of the polar coordinates (r,𝜃) and the
constant K =𝝈 𝝅𝒂 as:
𝐾 𝜃 𝜃 3𝜃
𝜎𝑥 = cos
1 − sin sin
2𝜋𝑟 2 2 2
𝐾 𝜃 𝜃 3𝜃
𝜎𝑦 = cos 1 + sin sin
2𝜋𝑟 2 2 2
𝐾 𝜃 𝜃 3𝜃
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = cos sin sin
2𝜋𝑟 2 2 2

z  0 for plane stress

 z   ( x   y ) for plane strain

In terms of principal stresses  1 and  2 , the stresses are:

𝑘 𝜃 𝜃
𝜎1 = cos 1 + sin
2𝜋𝑟 2 2
𝑘 𝜃 𝜃
𝜎2 = cos 1 − sin
2𝜋𝑟 2 2
And 𝜎3 = 0 for plane stress
𝑘 𝜃
or 𝜎3 = 𝑣 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 = 2𝑣
2𝜋𝑟
𝑐𝑜𝑠
2
for plane strain

The stress intensity factor and fracture toughness:

From the previous equations, the magnitudes of stresses around the tip of
a crack length 2a in an infinitely large plate in terms of a parameter K
defined as:
K   a
The factor K for a given structure is known as the stress intensity factor.
A critical value Kc may be used to predict fracture, and is looked upon as
a material property under specified test conditions.
Recalling the equation of the crack energy release rate Gc, the following
relations are obtained between Gc and Kc as:

K c2  Gc E for plane stress

K c2  Gc E /(1   2 ) for plane strain

In engineering fracture mechanics, it is preferred to work with K, the

stress intensity factor, since it is amenable to analytical determination.
There are three modes of crack deformation t distinguished. These are the
crack opening mode (I); the sliding or shearing mode (II), and the
tearing mode (III), as shown in the figure:

The modes of crack surface displacement. (a) Mode I, opening or tensile

mode; (b) mode II, sliding or shear mode; and (c) mode III, tearing mode.

Each mode is characterized by its critical value for the stress intensity
factor Kc, thus resulting in three distinct values K I c , K II c , and K III c for each
material. Of these three values, K I c is the most important in engineering
applications, and is commonly determined from standardized experiments
conducted under plane strain conditions. K I c is thus known as the plane
strain fracture toughness of the material. Typical plane strain fracture
toughness values are given in the following table. Notice that the
fracture toughness of metallic alloys (and more specifically for steels)
decreases as the yield strength increases.
 Material K I c , MPa.m1 / 2 Yield Strength, MPa
Aluminum 7075-T6 24 500
Aluminum 2014-T615 24 455
Aluminum 2024-T3 44 345
Low- carbon steel 180 250
Steel AISI 4340 60 1515
Cast irons 10 300
Stainless steel 17-7 PH 77 1435
Ball- bearing steel 52100 14 2070
Tool steel H-11 38 1790
Maraging steel 110 1450
Titanium Ti-6i Al -4V 55 1035
Tungsten 15% Co 19 ----
Tungsten carbide 10 900
Electrical porcelain 0.88 -----
Polyvinylchloride 3-5 40-80
Acrylic 0.9-1.92 25-70
Boron-fiber epoxy 70 2000
Graphite-epoxy 45-120 1000
Concrete 0.25-1.6 20
Polycarbonate 3 70
Glasses 1.0 ----

The fracture toughness property of a given material is used to design

large thick plates made of this material against brittle fracture due to the
presence of a sharp crack according to the criterion:
KI    a  KI c
According to this equation, the presence of a small crack in a brittle
material has a detrimental effect.
Stress intensity factors for various configurations:

The last equation gives the stress intensity factor as a function of the
applied remote tensile stress σ, and the crack size 2a in the middle of a
large plate. A more generalized form of this equation can be given as:

K I    a CCF  K I c

where "CCF" is a configuration correction factor, which depends on

the loading and geometry of the cracked body.
CCF is calculated for different loadings and geometries as a function of
the ratio of the crack half length a, to the width w:
CCF = f (a/w).
Several theoretical and experimental techniques are available to find
f(a/w) for different loadings and geometries. The results of such methods
are presented either graphically or algebraically in the form of
polynomials as will be shown in the following cases.

I. Plates under tensile loading

1. Plate of finite width:

1 / 2
a   2a  
2

CCF  f     1    
 w    w  

  3.5

2.5
f(a/w)

2a
2
f(a/w)
1.5

1
w 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

a/w

 
From the equation, it is clear that for a plate with infinite width, the ratio
2a / w  0 , and f(a/w)  1 , i.e. CCF =1. With the decrease of the width of
the plate w (or increase of the ratio), the function increases as shown in
figure, which means that the stress to be carried by the material is
reduced.

2. Single edge crack in a plate of finite width:


2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
f(a/w)

1.8
1.6
a 1.4
1.2
w 1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
a/w

 2 3 4
a a a a a
f    1.12  0.231   10.55   21.72   30.39 
 w  w  w  w  w

3. Double edge cracks in a plate with finite width:

 

a a
 2 3 4

 1.12  0.561  a   0.205  a   0.471 a   0.190  a  
  w  w  w  w 
W CCF   
 a 
 1   
  w  
CCF = 1.12 for plates with infinite width
 

4. An elliptical internal crack embedded in an infinite solid:

 

2a
 

2c  
1/ 4
 21 a2 
CCF  
2 
sin   cos 2  
3  a  c 2

 2
8 8c
When the crack is perpendicular to the tensile stress and circular (penny
shaped crack),

CCF  2 / 

II Plates under bending:

2. Three point bending for a cracked plate of L/W =2, Fig. (b)
 a a
2
a
3
a 
4

CCF  f (a / w)  1.107  2.12   7.71   13.6   14.2  

 W  W  W   W  

Plastic zone geometry at the crack tip:

 y Elastic-plastic
stress distribution
Y

Plastic zone
crack
(b) x

Δp

The equations expressing stress components in the vicinity of a crack

show that they reach infinite values at the crack tip (r = 0). Actually this
is not realistic since yielding occurs once these stresses reach yielding.
Limiting the analysis to plane stress, and considering only the stress
component  y at θ = 0, then:

 Y  0  K
2 r
This relation is plotted as shown in Fig. (a). It attains the yield strength Y
at a distance r = ro from the crack tip. A more realistic stress distribution
is shown in Fig. (b), where Δp is the extent of the plastic zone around the
crack, or simply its size. For unit thickness:
ro ro
 pY    y   0
dr  
K
dr  K
2r o

0 0 2 r
But: at r = ro,  y  0 Y 
K
2 r o

2
1K
 p   
 Y  ,

2
1 K
or the circular radius is  rp   
2  Y 
Note that this is only valid for plane stress conditions. The plastic zone
size for plane stress is about nine times that for plane strain (taking υ =
0.33), since the stress field is triaxial (  3   ( 1   2 ) ) as shown in the
following figure:
It can be concluded that thick cracked specimens, where plane strain
conditions prevail over most of the thickness are prone to brittle
fracture rather than plastic collapse by excessive yielding.

The plane strain fracture toughness KIc measured using sufficiently

thick specimens represents the most conservative (lower) value of Kc
as shown in the following figure:

Testing with thicknesses greater than Bmin results in an intrinsic material

property KIc, which is independent of material geometry. This thickness is
standardized as:
2
 KI c 
Bmin  2.5 

 Y 
Linear elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) is applicable for high strength
materials at room temperature. For lower strength materials, the
applicability of LEFM becomes more valid at very low temperatures,
higher strain rates, and for thick sections. Otherwise, different
approaches such as the Crack Opening Displacement (COD), or the J-
integral concepts have to be employed.
Fracture Toughness Testing:

Fig. Specimens for fracture testing: (a) Compact Tension (CT), (b)
Single-Edge Notched Bending (SENB)

The specimen thickness must be sufficiently large in comparison with the

plastic zone dimensions to ensure plane strain conditions. The following
size requirements are normally specified as:
2
 KI c 
a, B, (W / 2)  2.5 

 Y 