Chapter 9

Dislocations and Strengthening

Mechanisms

Chapter 3 - 392
Recall that CH. 8 Elaborated on the fact
that . . .
• Materials may experience 2 types of
deformation:
– Elastic
– Plastic
• The latter of the two is PERMANENT
• How do we measure “Material’s
Resistance to Plastic Deformation”??
• Ans. ➔ 2 ways:
– Strength
– Hardness Chapter 3 - 393
 On a microscopic scale . . .
• Plastic Deformation [Corresponds to] the
NET movement of large number of atoms in
response to an APPLIED stress
• During which ➔ [interatomic bonds] are
constantly:
– Ruptures, and then
– Re-formed
• In Crystalline Solids ➔ the mechanism
through which the above occurs is ➔
Dislocation Flow (linear crystalline defects)
Chapter 3 - 394
 Concern of this chapter
• Discussion of characteristics of
“Dislocations*” and their involvement in
“Plastic Deformation”
• The latter is known to affect “Strength &
Hardness” which are merely the
resistance of the material to plastic
deformation
• Hence, this phenomenon might used to
advise specific techniques to induce
material strengthening+
Chapter 3 - 395
 The Origins

• Early materials studies found

“Theoretical strength” to be significantly
different from actual measurements
• Early 1930s it was theorized that such
discrepancy might be due to the linear
crystalline defects “Dislocations”*
• Not until, 1950s that the presence of
such defects was documented through
“Electron Microscopes”
Chapter 3 - 396
 Basic Concepts
• Since we’re in the context of describing
“Dislocations” as the common
mechanism for plastic deformation ➔
intimately related to “Mechanical
Properties”
• RECALL that, we’ve got two types of
those:

Chapter 3 - 397
 Basic Concepts
• Edge Dislocations:
Localized Lattice distortion exist along the
end of an extra half-plane of atoms ➔ the
latter also defines the “Dislocation Line”
• Screw Dislocations:
Results from shear distortion & its
dislocation line passes through the center
of a spiral (atomic plane ramp)
• Many dislocations in crystalline
materials have both edge and screw
components ➔ Mixed Dislocations Chapter 3 - 398
 Laying out terminology

• The process by which plastic

deformation is produced by dislocation
motion is termed “SLIP”
• The crystallographic plane along which
the dislocation line traverses is the
“SLIP PLANE”

Chapter 3 - 399
Reminder

Chapter 3 - 400
Analogy Illustrating Dislocation Model of
Plastic Deformation
Whenis
HUMP HUMP
then reaches
propelledanterior end [ENTIRE caterpillar] has
HUMP near posterior endFORWARD
by pulling inbylast
a repeated lifting
pair of legs a and
moved FORWARD by of
shifting ONElegleg separation Dist.
pairs
“UNIT LEG Dist”

Mode of Locomotion Employed by Caterpillar

Chapter 3 - 401
 On a Macroscopic Scale

Plastic deformation simply corresponds to

permanent deformation that results from
the movement of dislocations (or SLIP) in
response to a shear stress.

Chapter 3 - 402
 Recall that . . .
• Plastic Deformation ➔ Motion of large
number of dislocations
• Those dislocations might be of the:
– EDGE type:
APPLIED Shear direction is:
– PERPINDICULAR to dislocation line, but
– PARALLEL to dislocation line MOTION
– SCREW type:
APPLIED Shear direction is:
– PARALLEL to dislocation line, but
– PERPIDICULAR to dislocation line MOTION
Chapter 3 - 403
 Nonetheless . . .

• NET plastic deformation for MOTION

[i.e. magnitude and direction of 𝒃] of
both dislocation types is EVENTUALLY
IDENTICAL ➔ Same Step immerges
on EXTERNAL surface
• The MOTION of a MIXED dislocation
LINE is [NEITHER perpendicular nor
parallel] to the APPLIED stress ➔ It is
rather somewhere in between
Chapter 3 - 404
Recall…

Chapter 3 - 405
How Do Dislocation NATURALLY Come
About??

• Solidification from molten phase

• During “Plastic Deformation”
[Multiplication]
• Due to thermal stresses from RAPID
COOLING*

Chapter 3 - 406
 How do we QUANTIFY Dislocation
presence in space??
• “Dislocation Density”
• Which might be expressed in either way of
the following:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑁𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
• 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏Τ𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑠
• 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

• either way, typical units of both expressions

are:
mm-2
Chapter 3 - 407
 To Gain Some Perspective on
Dislocation Density (DD) Variation . . .

• For “Carefully Solidified Metal Crystals”

➔ DD (typically) as low as 103 mm-2
• For “Heavy Deformed Metals” ➔ DD
might run as high as [109 - 1010 mm-2]
• For heat-treated metal (following plastic
deformation) to DIMINISH work
hardening ➔ DD drops to on the order
of [105 - 106 mm-2]
Chapter 3 - 408
 By way of contrast . . .

• For “Ceramic Materials” ➔ DD

(typically) is between [102 & 104 mm-2]

• For “Si-Single Crystals”* ➔ DD

(normally) is between [0.1 & 1 mm-2]

Chapter 3 - 409
 Characteristics of Dislocations

• Mechanical Properties = f (dislocation

characteristics)
– Most Importantly, “Strain Fields around
Dislocations” ➔ determining:
• Dislocation Mobility
• Potential for Multiplication

Chapter 3 - 410
 Characteristics of Dislocations

• When metals are “Plastically Deformed”

the energy exerted on deformations is
broken down into:
– ONLY approx. 5% retained/stored
internally ➔ majorly “Strain Energy”
associated with “Dislocations
incorporated into the lattice”
– REMAINDER dissipated as “Heat”

Chapter 3 - 411
 Now RECALL Lattice Distortions in
immediate vicinity to dislocation lines

Resulting in different modes of “Lattice Strain or

contour strain fields” emanating/radiation from a
locust point that is the dislocation line Chapter 3 -
 Interaction between Dislocations
1. Same
Sign
2. Mutual
Slip
Plane

Alignment of half planes into a

Chapter 3 - 413
continuous through plane
This phenomenon might be deployed in
designing “Strengthening Techniques”

• During plastic formation No. of

dislocations increases DRAMATICALLY
• e.g. for a severely deformed metal ➔
DD is in the vicinity of 1010 mm-2
• Hence, the MUST INVOLVE the BIRTH
of new dislocations, but where from?

Chapter 3 - 414
 Sources of new dislocations

• MULTIPLICATION of already existing

dislocations
• Grain Boundaries* and other internal
defects
• Surface Irregularities (e.g. scratches &
nicks) ➔ which act as stress
concentrators

Chapter 3 - 415
 Slip Systems

The Slip System depends on the crystal

structure of the metal and is such that the
atomic distortion that accompanies the
motion of a dislocation is a minimum

Chapter 3 - 416
 For further Practice . . .

Attempt Concept Question 9.1

Chapter 3 - 417
 Way of quantifying Slip

• Burgers vector
• Which possesses a magnitude and
direction that are influenced by
“Crystalline Structure”

Chapter 3 - 418
 RECALL in CH6 (sec 7)

• Regardless of whether . . .
– Edge
– Screw
– Mixed dislocation
Are in progress in a given material under
an imposed external stress
• They would ultimately share a common
“Burgers Vector (𝑏)”
Chapter 3 - 419
 f (Directional
Indices)
Slip Direction
f [UVW]

𝒃 f (Inter-atomic
Separation)

Slip f (Unit Cell

Magnitude Edge Length)

f (a)

Chapter 3 - 420
 Naturally . . .

• Both
– Direction
– Magnitude ( 𝑏 )
• Are a function of “Crystal Structure”

Chapter 3 - 421
𝒃 expressions for common crystalline
structure

𝑎
𝑏 𝐹𝐶𝐶 = 110
2
𝑎
𝑏 𝐵𝐶𝐶 = 111
2
𝑎
𝑏 𝐻𝐶𝑃 = 112ത 0
3

Chapter 3 - 422
 Slip in Single Crystals
• Though we DON’T frequently deal with
single crystals in practice
• To Simplify Visualization of Slip
Processes
• We treat process in “Single Crystals”
• Then . . .
• We appropriately EXTEND our
understanding to “Polycrystalline
Materials”
Chapter 3 - 423
 We already established in CH8 that . . .
• Although, OVERALL/Externally APPLIED
Stress might be imposed in accordance with
a PURE mode of loading, e.g.
– Tensile
– Compressive
• The LOCAL stimulus effectively in action
causing SLIP* on a MICRO-scopic scale is
essentially the “SHEAR component” -in
particular- of the NET APPLIED
EXTERNAL Stress
Chapter 3 - 424
• This SHEAR component is oriented
along a favored
– SLIP Plane
– SLIP Direction
• And is conventionally known as
“Resolved Shear Stress” denoted by
(𝜏𝑅 )

Chapter 3 - 425
A simple referral to basic vector analysis
would yield an appreciation of the fact
that . . .
• Is a function of
– The Externally Applied Stress (𝜎)
– The Orientation of the Slip Plane
[conventionally described here as the angle
(𝝋) between Slip plane normal & Applied
Stress]
– The Orientation of the Slip direction within
the Slip plane
[conventionally described here as the angle
(λ) between Slip direction & Applied
Stress] Chapter 3 - 426
Chapter 3 - 427
 Mathematical expression for (𝜏𝑅 )

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏𝑅 = 𝜎 cos 𝜑 cos λ

• Where,
𝜎, 𝜑 & λ are as defined last
• In general,
𝜑 + λ ≠ 90𝑜

What does that even mean??

Chapter 3 - 428
 𝝋 + λ ≠ 𝟗𝟎𝒐

Implies that,
It needs NOT be the case that

– Tensile Axis

– Slip Plane NORMAL

– Slip DIRECTION

Lie all in the same P L A N E

Chapter 3 - 429
It needs to be born in mind however that

• For Metallic Single Crystals ➔ you’ve

got . . .
– Slip System 1
– Slip System 2
– ........
– ........
– Slip System n
All capable of being operable
Chapter 3 - 430
 Each Slip System of the latter . . .

• Exhibits a different 𝜏𝑅
• Since they assume varying
“orientations”
–𝜑
–λ
• Relative to the “applied stress (𝜎)” or
stress axis
• Having said that, ONLY ONE Slip
system will host “Plastic Deformation”
Chapter 3 - 431
 Criteria for Candidate Slip System
• It is that ONE Slip System that is
contrary to others that is
– Oriented most favorable

– i.e. ONE that is associated with

• The largest 𝜏𝑅

• AKA, 𝜏𝑅 𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝜏𝑅 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎 cos 𝜑 cos λ 𝑚𝑎𝑥

Chapter 3 - 432
However, 𝜏𝑅 𝑚𝑎𝑥 indicates a CANDIDATE
Slip System

And NOT whether or not Slip is

ACTUALLY going to occur ULTIMATELY
through that CANDIDATE system

Chapter 3 - 433
 Thermodynamic Tendency for Slip
Now lets take it right from the TOP
• We apply an OVERLL all stress (e.g.
tensile or compressive)
• A No. of 𝜏𝑅 become spontaneously
available*
• ONLY ONE however is nominated that is
exhibits 𝜏𝑅 𝑚𝑎𝑥 +
• SLIP is NOT effectively triggered however
unless 𝜎 translates into a 𝜏𝑅 𝑚𝑎𝑥 that
exceeds some critical value (threshold)
AKA 𝜏𝐶𝑅𝑆𝑆 Chapter 3 - 434
 But, What is 𝜏𝐶𝑅𝑆𝑆 ??
• 𝜏𝐶𝑅𝑆𝑆 stands for “Critical Resolved
Shear Stress”
• Formally defined as “the minimum 𝜏
required to initiate slip”
• Somewhat of a reminiscence of 𝜎𝑦
• The bottom if/then clause in the last
slide ➔ potentially determines whether
the CANDIDATE slip system (i.e. with
𝜏𝑅 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) would actually DEVELOP into
SLIP Chapter 3 - 435
 As such . . .

• 𝜏𝐶𝑅𝑆𝑆 is a PROPERTY of the material

that would potentially determine when
YIELDING is like to occur
• In other words, a single crystal would
plastically deform (or yield), if . . .

𝜏𝑅 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜏𝐶𝑅𝑆𝑆

Chapter 3 - 436
 Given the last rationale . . .

• Yield strength (𝜎𝑦 ) might be redefined

as,
𝜏𝐶𝑅𝑆𝑆
𝜎𝑦 =
cos 𝜑 cos λ 𝑚𝑎𝑥
• That is “The minimum EXTERNALLY
APPLIED stress required for onset of
SLIP”

Chapter 3 - 437
Now, the “Minimum 𝜎” required to cause
YIELD

Is realized when

𝜑 = λ = 45o

i.e.
𝜎𝑦 = 2𝜏𝐶𝑅𝑆𝑆

Chapter 3 - 438
 For a single-crystal deforming in tension
Slip occurs:
– Along a number of “Equivalent”, and
– Most favorably oriented “Slip planes & directions”
– At various positions along the “Specimen length”
– Appears as “small steps” on the surface
– That are parallel to one another, and
– Loop around the circumference of the specimen
– Each “Step” results from movement of a large No.
of dislocations along the favored slip plane
– On a polished single-crystal surface these “Steps”
appear as lines ➔ “Slip Lines”
Chapter 3 - 439
Chapter 3 - 440
What happens with continued extension
of a single crystal??

• Generally,
– No. of “Slip Lines” generated increases
– “Slip Step Widths” increase
• For “FCC & BCC” metals ➔ Slip may
eventually “Initiate” along a 2nd “Slip
System” ➔ i.e. one that is NEXT MOST
FAVORABLY oriented with tensile axis
➔ a phenomenon known as “Cross-
Slip” Chapter 3 - 441
 What happens with “Crystalline
Structures” with limited slip options
• For “HCP” metals ➔ having few “Slip
Systems” ➔ if the “Stress Axis” of most
favorable “Slip system” is either
– Perpendicular to “Slip direction” [ λ = 90° ]
– Or, parallel to “Slip Plane” [ φ = 90° ]
Then, critical resolved shear stress to be
overcome [ τcrss = ZERO ].
• For these extreme orientations ➔ the crystal
(typically) FRACTURES rather than
PLASTICALLY DEFORMS Chapter 3 - 442
 Plastic Deformation in
POLYCRYSTALLINE Materials

• Deformation in underpinning “Slip” is

relatively more COMPLEX
• Numerous grains ➔ Exhibiting
RANDOM ORIENTATIONS ➔ each
grain with a range of possible slip
systems ➔ amongst which a favorably
oriented slip system stands out EACH
TIME ➔ i.e. a unique [τRmax] for each
grain* Chapter 3 - 443
 Slip restricted into
Observable ONLY
Many Interruptions
Single Crystal Polycrystalline
ONLY forming
No interruptions
Slip progresses (e.g. GBs)an electron
under
Visible to the MICRO-scopic
microscope
(e.g. No BGs)
toNAKED-EYE
form MACRO- LEDGES (AKA “Slip
scopic STEPS Lines”

Chapter 3 - 444
 Expanding into Polycrystallinity

• Polycrystalline
• Numerous grains
• Each has a range of variations on slip
systems
• Even with a candidate slip system
eventually chosen for each
• Cross-slip to the next favorable slip
system is always possible within a given
grain
Chapter 3 - 445
• For polycrystalline Cu (originally taken
to a mirror finish)
• Slip Lines are visible
• What are slip lines?
These are MICRO-scopic ledges
generated by dislocations that have exited
from a grain and appeared eventually as
lines when viewed with a microscope.
These are ANALOGEOUS to the
MACRO-scopic steps found on the
surface of deformed SINGLE CRYSTALS.Chapter 3 - 446
 General Observation
• It seems like “2 Slip Systems” are in
operation for MOST GRAINS
• This is manifested in “2 sets of
PARALLEL yet intersecting sets of
lines”
• Evidence on orientation CONTRAST is
embodied in the variation in
ALIGNMENT of SLIP LINES between
neighboring grains

Chapter 3 - 447
 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline
Materials
• Gross plastic deformation of a
polycrystalline material corresponds to
COMPARABLE TENDENCIES for
distortion by clustering grains
• i.e. no grain is to deform comfortably in a
direction (even if it was favorable) if its
immediate neighbor wouldn’t allow it

Chapter 3 - 448
 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline
Materials
• During deformation Mechanical Integrity and
Coherency are maintained along the “Grain
Boundaries”
• i.e. the latter is what holds the whole structure
INTACT* ➔ the GB’s DO NOT come apart or
OPEN up
• Hence, each individual grain is constrained (to
some degree) in the shape it may assume by its
neighboring grains
• And ULTIMATE NET deformation is only to an
a limited extent Chapter 3 - 449
Grain Distortion due to Gross Plastic
Deformation

Chapter 3 - 450
 How does it take place?
• Before deformation grains are “Equiaxed”
• i.e. they have approximately the same
dimension in all directions
• In this particular example, grains become
elongated along the direction along which
the specimen was extended (i.e. parallel to
the net max. resolved shear stress exhibited
by collective grains as a response to an
externally applied load)
Chapter 3 - 451
 In Essence….

• By virtue of the Geometrical constrains

imposed on grains during deformation
and with the grain boundaries being
present
➔Polycrystalline metals are STRONGER
that their Single-Crystal EQUIVALENTS
➔Due to the greater stresses required to
initiate “SLIP” and the attendant
“YIELDING” in POLY-crystalline metals
Chapter 3 - 452
 An Even Closer Look…

• Even through a single grain may be

favorably oriented with the applied
stress for slip ➔ it CANNOT deform
until the adjacent and “Less Favorably
oriented” grains are capable of “SLIP”
ALSO.
• This process demands a relatively
“HIGH” stress level

Chapter 3 - 453
An Alternative Mechanism for Plastic
Deformation in Metals

• This is manifested in “Twinning”

• Shear force can produce atomic
displacements such that on one side of
a plane (the “Twin Boundary”) atoms
are located in mirror-image positions
relative to atoms on the other side.

Chapter 3 - 454
Chapter 3 - 455
Deformation by Twinning

Chapter 3 - 456
 Twinning
• As in the case of “Slip”
• Twinning occurs in definite
“Crystallographic Plane”
• An in Specific “Directions”
• This obviously depends on “Crystal
Structure”
• e.g. for BCC ➔ twin plane and direction
are (112) & [111], respectively

Chapter 3 - 457
 Slip vs. Twinning
The figure above is for a single crystal subjected to
an applied overall tensile stress resulting in a
resolved shear stress
Slip Twinning
The more plastic deformation Shear deformation is homogeneous
progresses the more slip lines are leaving behind a smooth twist
formed and the deeper the
steps/ledges
Crystallographic orientation There exists a RE-Orientation
above/below “Slip Plane” both across the “Twin Plane”
before and after plastic deformation
is the SAME
Occurs in Distinct Atomic Spacing Atomic Displacement is Less that
Multiples INTER-Atomic Separation
Amount of Bulk Plastic Deformation Amount of Bulk Plastic Deformation
is Superior is inferior to that of “SLIP”

Chapter 3 - 458
 What’s so special about twinning?

• Mechanical Twinning occurs in metals

of the BCC and HCP structure
• Specifically at:
– low temperatures
– High Loading Rates (Shock Loading)*
• i.e. conditions under which the “SLIP”
process is restricted
• That is, there exists fewer operable slip
systems (especially for BCC)
Chapter 3 - 459
 In other words…
• When you run out of options for easy paths
facilitating plastic deformation
• For instance, at low temperature, there
exists lesser thermal energy to ACTIVATE
alternative slip system “COMBINATIONS”
especially if there are limited to begin with
(e.g. for HCP)

Chapter 3 - 460
 In Other Words….

• Also, HIGH sudden/shock LOADING

would not allow SUFFICIENT TIME for
the path of “PLASTIC deformation or
SLIP” to adopt/re-orient along the easy
FAVORED “Slip System”
• HENCE, Structure “PIVOTS” instead of
“SLIPPING”

Chapter 3 - 461
 For Example

• Zinc (Shock loaded @ Low Temp) ➔

Plastically deforms by “Twinning” ➔ By

further LOADING @ Low Temp ➔

Brittle Fractures

Chapter 3 - 462
 Is this always a BAD thing?

• Sometimes, the Crystallographic RE-

orientation that accompanies “Twinning”
➔ Places NEW “Slip Systems” in
orientations that are FAVORABLE (i.e.
having Max. Resolved Shear Stress)
relative to the stress axis ➔ such that
“SLIP” is now possible
Chapter 3 - 463
Strengthening Mechanisms in Metals

Materials Engineers are often

called on to DESIGN alloys with
“HIGH STRENGTH” yet some
“Ductility/toughness”

i.e. Ductility is compromised

when Strength is of primary
concern Chapter 3 - 464
 Alloy selection is underpinned by

The capacity of the material to be

“tailor-made” – by incorporating
potential strengthening processes –
to exhibit the “mechanical
characteristics” required for a particular
application
Chapter 3 - 465
 To establish a mechanistic
understanding of “Strengthening
Mechanisms”

Mechanical Behavior = f (Dislocation Flow)

MACRO-scopic “Plasticity” is due to a
MICRO-scopic fluidity of large No.s of
“Dislocations”
EASE of “Plastic deformation” =
FACILITATED “Dislocation FLOW”
Chapter 3 - 466
 Stronger/Harder Materials are by
Definition:

• Allow for limited plastic deformation

(UTS) or initiation (σy)
• i.e. the onset of “SLIP” or its mobility is
are impeded to variable extents
• Hence, GREATER mechanical force are
required to initiate or maintain
“Dislocation Flow”
• And vise versa for “SOFTER” materials.
Chapter 3 - 467
 Outline of Strengthening Mechanisms

• For Single-Phase Metal Alloys [Concern

of this Chapter]
– Grain Refinement
– Solid-Solution Strengthening [Abiding by
HUME-RUTHERY rules]
– Strain/Work Hardening [AKA Cold-Working]

• For Multi-Phase Metal Alloys

– Precipitation Strengthening [Violating HUME-
RUTHERY rules]
Chapter 3 - 468
Strengthening Mechanisms

For Single-Phase Metal Alloys

Chapter 3 - 469
 1. Grain Refinement
• For Plastic deformation to occur to a block
of “Polycrystalline Material”
• “Slip” needs to needs to progress/flow
form one extreme to another un-interrupted
• “SLIP” finds comfort in doing so within a
given grain
• As “SLIP” approaches the “Grain
Boundary” it is effectively on the verge of
flowing into a NEW grain with a
DIFFERENT “Orientation” Chapter 3 - 470
 The “Grain Boundary” Serves as
“Barrier” for “Dislocation Flow” since:

1) Dislocation must change “direction” as

it crosses into NEW grain [especially
DIFFICULT with highly “Misoriented
Crystallographies”*
2) Discontinuation of “Slip Plane” as GB
is crossed due to localized disorder at
GB [A damping effect induced by
hitting a wreckage]
Chapter 3 - 471
Strengthening Mechanisms

Chapter 3 - 472
This is Especially true for “High-angle”
GBs

• In this case dislocations DO NOT

SIMPLY “Traverse”/cross GBs during
plastic deformation
• INSTEAD, dislocations “Pile-up” at GBs
• This introduces “stress concentration”
ahead of “Slip Plane”
• The LATTER in turn “Generates”
NEW dislocations in adjacent grains
Chapter 3 - 473
 What about Small-angle Grain
Boundaries?

• These are NOT as effective in

interfering with “SLIP”
• Due to ONLY “Slight” crystallographic
misalignment across GB

Chapter 3 - 474
 Effect of “Twin Boundaries”

• These are effective means of

strengthening metal alloys
• This is they effectively block “SLIP”

Chapter 3 - 475
 Boundaries between 2 phases or
confining 2nd phase inclusions

• These impede dislocation flow

• Come into action within complex alloy
systems when “HUME-RUTHERY” rules
are violated ➔ “Precipitation
Strengthening” effective impedance of
which is underpinned by inclusion:
– Size
– Shape
– 3D space dispersion [Volume Fraction]
Chapter 3 - 476
Precipitation Strengthening

Chapter 3 - 477
 Ultimately . . .

• A fine-grained material ➔ is “Harder &

Stronger” than its coarse-grained
counterparts
• This is as ➔ The former exhibits a
GREATER “total GB Surface Area” to
IMPEDE “Dislocation Flow”

Chapter 3 - 478
 “Yield Strength” vs. “Grain Size”

The “Hall-Petch” equation,

−𝟏Τ𝟐
𝝈𝒚 = 𝝈° + 𝒌𝒚 𝒅

where,
d is average grain diameter
σ° & ky are constants for a
particular material Chapter 3 - 479
The presented “Hall-Petch” equation is
not valid for:

• Very Coarse-grained polycrystalline

materials

• Extremely fine-grained polycrystalline

materials
Chapter 3 - 480
[σy vs. d] for Brass

Chapter 3 - 481
 2. Solid-Solution Strengthening
• Hardening metals by alloying with “impurity”
atoms ➔ That would go into:
– “Substitutional” Solid Solution
– “Interstitial” Solid Solution
• Notice here that “Hume-Ruthery” rules are
abided by.
• “High-PURITY metals” are almost always
“SOFTER” that ALLOYs composed of the
same base metal.
• Higher resistance in latter to initiation and
propagation of “Slip” Chapter 3 - 482
Yield- & Tensile-Strengths &
Ductility vs. “Impurity Conc” for
Chapter 3 - 483
Cu-Ni Alloys
 How does it work??

Mechanistic Understanding

Chapter 3 - 484
 For “Under-sized” Solute Atoms in
Substitutional Solid Solution

• “Tensile Lattice Strain” imposed by solute on host

atoms
• Possible positioning of solutes above “Slip Plane” for
an “Edge Dislocation”
• Partial nullification of “Compressive strain” inherent
Chapter 3 - 485
to those positions
 For “Over-sized” Solute Atoms in
Substitutional Solid Solution

• “Compressive Lattice Strain” imposed by solute on

host atoms
• Possible positioning of solutes below “Slip Plane”
for an “Edge Dislocation”
• Partial nullification of “Tensile strain” inherent to
Chapter 3 - 486
those positions
 3. Strain Hardening
• Is the phenomenon by which a “Ductile”
metal becomes harder/stronger as it
“plastically deforms”
• AKA “Work Hardening”
• AKA “Cold Working”
• The latter term is used as the
temperatures at which the deformation
takes place is “cold” relative to the
absolute melting temperature
• Most metals strain harden at room temp.
Chapter 3 - 487
 How is it mathematically expressed?

𝐴° − 𝐴𝑑
%𝐶𝑊 = × 100
𝐴°
• where,
– Ao is the original area of the cross-section
that experiences deformation
– Ad is the cross-sectional area after
deformation
• Notice: this definition for %CW is identical
to that of %RA as both ductility and
strain hardening are inter-related Chapter 3 - 488
Yield- & Tensile-Strength vs. %CW

Chapter 3 - 489
 Ductility (%EL) vs. %CW

Notice that
%CW or
%RA
might be
correlated
with %EL
form this
figure

Chapter 3 - 490
Effect of CW on [σ-ϵ] Behavior of Low-C-Steel

Chapter 3 - 491
 Mechanistic Understanding

Eventually, the net effect is an overall

REPULSION/impedance of dislocation flow ➔
more energy is required to mobilize dislocations
➔ higher yield and tensile strengths ➔ strain
hardening is being experienced

Chapter 3 - 492
 Recovery, Recrystallization & Grain
Growth
• During CW plastic deformation occurse
at (T < Tm)
• Here there is nothing there to relax the
material (i.e. reduce dislocation build-
up) by enhancing “diffusion” ➔
annihilation
• An external stress is applied and in-
action ➔ material cannot do anothing
but continue piling-up strain “internal”
energy ➔ stored as the characteristic
“Strain Fields” Chapter 3 - 493
 This results in . . .

1) Changes in collective grain shapes within a

polycrystalline material (as much as
neighboring constrains allow it)
2) Strain Hardening
3) Dislocation Density increases

Other material properties (Non-mechanical)

are also altered (e.g. corrosion susceptibility).
Chapter 3 - 494
There properties might revert back to
the pre-cold-worked state by . . .

Annealing treatments

Chapter 3 - 495
 Recovery

• Elevated Temperatures are deployed

• Atomic diffusion is enhanced
• Dislocation mobility is improved
• No externally applied stress to nucleat
NEW dislocations
• NET relaxing effect, i.e.
– No. of dislocations is reduced
– Dislocation configurations in 3D [less
tangled]
Chapter 3 - 496
 Recrystallization

• Even after “Recovery” grains possess

relatively high strain energies
• Recrystallization comes in to introduce
a NEW SET of GRAINS that are:
– Strain-free (Low Dislocation Density)
– Equiaxed
• Notice that already existing lattice
defects (e.g. GBs) act as nucleation
sites for NEW GRAINS
Chapter 3 - 497
Chapter 3 - 498
 About Recrystallization
• Recrystallization Temp?
• Temp at which Recrystallization just
reaches completion in 1 hr.
• Normally (1/3Tm ➔ 1/2Tm absolute)
• Depending on:
– Amount of prior cold work (residual stress
trigger) ➔ Rate increases ➔ TRecrys
lowered
– Purity of Alloy (pinning obstacles for GB
migration/growth)
Chapter 3 - 499
 2 – 20% CW
recrystallization
CANNOT occur

Chapter 3 - 500
 Pure metals vs. Alloys

• PURE metals ➔ 0.4Tm

• Some Commercial Alloys ➔ 0.7Tm

Recrys below TR
Concept Qs 9.5 -9.6

Chapter 3 - 501