Ipmem Book

Introduction to Physical Metallurgy and
Engineering Materials
Fourth Semester
[Mechanical and Civil Engineering]
Dr. Ramesh Ch. Nayak

(Associate Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department)
Synergy Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar

At: Bhimpur, Near Phulnakhara, PO: Pahala,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha-752101, INDIA.

88 IPMEM/Dr. Ramesh Ch. Nayak/Fourth Sem.
CONCEPT OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION
Q. 1. What id Deformation of Metal ?
When external force is applied on the metal/alloy the metal tends to deform, the deforma-
tion may be permanet or tempeorary. The Temperary deformation is known as Elastice deforma-
tion & permanent deformantion is known as Plastic deformation.
Q. 2. What is Elastic deformation ?
If a metal is loaded within Elastic region the body deforms but return back to it’s onginal
shape & size after hemoval of External force.
In stress - strain diagram o-a sshows the Elastic region.
Here stress,   e follows hooks law
  E. e

E
e
  stress
e  strain
E  Youngs modulus of Elasticity.
IPMEM/Dr. Ramesh Ch. Nayak/Fourth Sem.
E is different for different types of material.

Q. 3. What is Plastic deformation ?
 When a body subiected to external force in such a way that is can’t regan back to it’ss
original shape & size that is called plastic deformation.
 In case of plastic deformation the structural property of body also change.
Q. Mechanism of plastic defornation ?

Plastic deformation of a single crystal occurs either by;
(a) Slip
(b) Twinning.
Deformation by slip:
 Slip is the mechanism of deformation where one part of crystal slips over the another
part of crystal through a plane is known as slip plane or guide plane.
 Slip plane is the plane of greatest atomic density & the slip direction is the closest packed
direction within the slip plane.
 Generally slip plane in Metal FCC structure (AL, Ni, CU) has {111} & slip direction is
{110}. Generally FCC structure has 4 Equivalent slip plane where 3{110} direction so 4 x 3 =
12 slip system.
In BCC structure slip planes one {110}, {112}, {113} depending upon the tempr & slip
dinections ore 111 .
 In HCP structure slip plane 0001 & slip direction 112 0 .
Critical Resolved shearstress for slip:-

All metal of similar crystal types Fails (Slip) on same crystalographic plane & in same
crystalographic dinection, Generally this slip occur when the Eheanstress resalved along the
plane reaches a certain value i.e. critical resolved shear stres.
When a tensile or compressove force act on to
crystal the body also fails due to induced shear stress
along the shear plane, the force required to produce slip
also depends on.
(i) Angle betn slip plane & the direction of force.
Angle  betn slip direction & ( ) dir of force applied.
Area of slip plane Inclined at angle ( )
Will be = A/cos 
Component of axial load acting in slip plane in slip dinection = F cos 
F cos 
s
A / cos 
F
 cos . cos   schmids law
A
When     450
f
s cos 450 , cos 450
A
F 1 1 F t
 . .  
A 2 2 2A 2
t
 s 
2
Slip occur with minimum axial force when  and  are 450,
Mechanism of slip (Dislocation theory)
(i) Slip occurs simultaneous gliding of a block of atoms over another.
(ii) Shearing force must haves same value over all points of slip plane.
(iii) Slip occurs step by step by movement of socalled dis location.
(iv) The dislocation theory Explains from single point of view of slip phenomenon.
Deformation by Twinning :-
 Deformation of crystal is due to two process slip & Twining.
 Generally H.C.P structure are deform due to Twining.
 Twinig is the 2nd. Imp mechanism by which metal deforms such as Zinc, tin & iron.
 Plane ‘CD’ moves one thind at an interatomic dis, plane EF moves Two third of an interatomic
disn the plane GH moves by three thirds by one interatomic distance.
 The movement of these planes alters the dirn of lattice & thus a twinned region forms;
 The twinned region separates or devides into two regions X & Y..
 Due to twining changes of shape occur..
 Twinning may be caused by impact, by thermal treatment or by plastic deternation, It is fre-
quently occure on BCC & HCP, structure.
 Annealing twins occur as a result of annealing after plastic determation.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SLIP & TWINNING :-
Slip
(1) All atoms in one block move the same distance.
(2) Under microscope slip appears as thin lines.
(3) Due to slip there is very little charge.
(4) Twinning requires higher shear stress then slip.
(5) Twinning is a important mode of deformation.
Twinning
(1) Atoms in each successive plane within a block move different disn.
(2) Twinning appears as bands & broad lines.
(3) Latice oniertation changes.
Deformation of polycrystalline Materials:-
 Deformation of single crystal is by the mechanism & twinning.
 But it is very difficult to deform polycrystalline Material because they are made up of a
tremendous no. of small crystals or grains.
 As it consists of a no. of small crystals. So its each crystal deforms like single crystal but it
is not possible because.
(a) There are grain boundries.
(b) Each crystal or grain is not free to deform as it is surrounded by other grains.
(c) Each crystal or grain has different orientation.
 Since each crystal is surrounded with other grains so a large stress required to deform be-
cause such grain restricts the detormation of neighbouring grain.
 For deformation more & more dis location pile up & is high enough to produce dislocation
movement in the neighbouring grain across the boundary.
 For deformation proceed in early stage it is necessary to break the barrier of grain boundry..
Yield point phenomenon Related effect:-
Generally for a material yield point decide is very much necessary because after knowing
about yield point the Material worked at plastic stage, the figr below shows the stress strain dia.
of carbonsteel.
Here O-A shows the stastic limit where stress is directely proportional to strain. A-B slows
the yield pt where A is the upper yield point & B is the lower yieled pt. Where stress remains
constant causes a large deformation.
 Yield point have been obserbed in poly crystaline MO, Ti & Al alloys.
 Sharp yield pt. is necessary for manufacture who stamps on draws thinsheets of these mate-
rial, in forming such as automobile bodies & other objects.
 Yield pt. is necessary because plastic detormation starts from this point.
 When a speciman is subjected to tensile force initially bond form.
 These bands are generally approximately 450 - 500 to tensile stress.
 Once the luder bond forms it at one end of speciman it trans forms through the gauge length.
 Generally  luder bond forms at two end of gauge length.
 Arrival of upper yield pt is indicated by luder bond formation.
 When this bond spreads total the gauge length has been over strained.
 Luder bond occure in drawing & stamping operation.
Prefered orientation:
 It is the condition of polycrystaline crystal under certain condition the crystals in a metal are
allign themselves in a common axial direction such a direction is known as Prefermed orienta-
tion.
Some times the crystal of the metal are in a Random manner but due to application of load
(roding on wire drawing) the crystals are arranged in a regular manner.
 Perfered orientation occur when cristallo graphic planes orient themselves in a prefered man-
ner.
 Prefered orientation are determined by X-ray methods.
 Prefered orientation can also be seen in cast metals.
Recovery Recrystalisation & grain growth:-
Annealing
 The metals worked below the recrystalisation tempr is called coldworking of metal.
 Due to coldworking of metal the ultimate strength increases, Handness increases yield strength
increses, electrical resistance increases, but ductility & plasticity decreases.
 In cold working process residualstress increases.
 It was obserbed that workhadering plays a major rule in S haping the metal.
Example:-
In case of wire drawing process, the wire formed through a die, the metal work hardens &
resistance for further deformation increases.
 Now power requied to continue deformation of metal & makes wire, when the resistance to
deformation equal resistale to fracture the wire tends to break down.
If in this stage the wire drawing is stopped then it may right but if it is necessary for further
wire making or if desired shape is not found then the metal to be some how returned to a condi-
tion that prior to deformation, This can be achieved by Annealing.
The effect of anneling on the properties of cold worked metal changes in a stepwise way as
given below.
(i) Recovery (Or stress relief)
(ii) Recrystallization.
(iii) Grain Growth.
Recovery (Stress relief)
 Due to Annelling process on the cold worked Material Recovery on stress relief found.
 Such as recovery produces little change in mechanical properties.
 Here no desired chage of micro structure.
 Slight increase occur in tensile & yield strength & slight Increase of electrical conductivity..
 Here stress relief occur..
 Recovery minimise the distoration prodused by residualstress.
 Recovery found when heating the object 0.1 Tm  Tm = melting tempr
 During recovery when the cold worked metal is totaly heated the internal stress, electrical
resistivity redused. it recovers by the movement of dislocation.
Mechanism of recovery :-
A boundary at which the atomic planes meet at a low angle & which form substucture on veining
within the normal high angle Boundries. This is know Polygonisation.
Recrystallization
(i) Recrystallization find after Recovery.
(ii) Recrystallization period proceeds at a higher temperature than recovery.
(iii)Recrystalization occur at temperature 0.3 Tm in pure metals and of about 0.5 Tm in alloys.
 The longer anneling time decreeses the tempr necessary for recrystalization.
 Recrystalization is the principal method employed in conjuction with cold work to produce a
fine grained structure in non ferrous metals & alloys.
(iv) Due to recrystallization formation & growth of new grains. Distorated elongated grains
disapper & new equiaxed grains are formed.
 The begining of recrystalization detected from the microstructure by X-ray examination, by
hardness or other mechanical tests.
 The recrystalization tempr is one at which the first tiny new grains appears.
 The recrystallization tempr varies with the metal it has one value for iron & another value for
other metal.
Grain growth:
 Grain growth stage comes after recrystalization as shown in figure.
 Graingrowth proceeds with increasing tempr on longertime.
 Graingrowth means increase in grainsize.
 One the new equiasied grains havebeen formed
during recrystalization. After increase of further
tempr causes to grow in size of grains.
 In grain growth & grain grows due to the fact
that during grain growth the grain boundries moves
towards their centers of curvature.
 The extent of grain growth depends largely on
the following factor.
(i) As tempr increases grainsize increase.
(ii)Grain grow rapidly at first & then more slowly.
(iii)Slow heating will form new nuclei favour grain growth & result in coarse grain.
(iv)Heavy Deformation favour for Largersize grainsize & consequetevely Grain size decrease
as increase of deformation.
 The production of grains by growth after recrystalization is not generally desirabie because
formation of very large grains impains mechanical properties & serious consequance may occur
a in this condn the material is put into service on use.
Grainsize control:
Various factors controlling grainsize are :-
(a) Annealing tempr (b) Annealing time. (c) Rate of heating.
(d) Degree of prior deformation (e) Insoluble impurities (f) Alloying elements.
IPMEM / Dr. Ramesh Ch. Nayak / Fourth Semester 119
Module-II
Q. Write notes on solid solution:
Sometimes two or more metals form homogeneous liquid solution is liquid state. If they
transfered to said state the metal retain their homogeneity & consequentely their solubility i.e
formed solid solution.
In solid solution onekind of crystal form in which both metals are present but they can’t be
detected by Microscope.
 Solid solution is skid to be readily If the solvet & solute atoms have similar size & electron
structure.
Ex:-
Brass is a solid solution i.e form from the copper & zinc, i.e copper of 64% & zinc of 36%
here copper atoms are solvent atoms zine atoms are solute atoms.
Copper has atomic radius 1.278 A0 & zinc has 1.332 A0 .
Both upper & Zn have 28 sub valence electron.
 A solid solution is the result of metals dissolving eachother crystal lattice.
 solid solution are conductors but not good as pure metals on which they based.
Types of solid solution:
(i) Substitutional solid solution: In this type of solid solution there is a direct substation of one
type atom for another.
 In this solid solution the atom of solute substitute for atoms of solvent.
 Substitutional solid solution forms when the solute & solvent atom posses equal on approxi-
mately equal diameter.
Ex:-
Atomic dia of copper is 2.55 1A0 & that nickel is 2.487 A0 & the two form substitutional
solid solution.
Substitutional solid solution is of two types.
(a) Disordened substitutional.
(b) Ordered substitutional.
Disordered substitutional solid solution:

 In disordered substitutional solid solution, the solute atoms don’t occupy any specious space
i.e that are distributed at random in the late structure of solvent.
 Here the concentration of solute atom vary considurable through out the structe.
Ordered substitutional solid solution:

If the alloy in disordered condition are colled slowely there is a rearrgement of solute &
solvent atoms.
 Here there is a uniform distribution of solute & solvent atoms.
 This strutue is known as substitutional solid solution or ordered solid solution.
 CU - ZN, AU-CU, CO2 MNAL.
Intenstitical Solid Solution:-
 Intenstitical solid solution forms when solute atoms are very small as compared to solvent atoms.
Example:
 Carbon form on intenstical solid solution with iron for steel.
Factors governing solid substitutional solution.
Two or more metals form solidibality solution at their liquid state the solid substitutional
solution depandens on the such factors such as.
(1) Crystal structure factor:
The crystal structure of two metals which are used to make the solution must have some
structure i.e FCC, BCC, HCP etc.
(2) Relative size factor:
The two metals which are brought for making solution depends on the atomic dia, Generally
size of two atomic dia of atoms differ in size by 15% called favourable size factor.
(3) Chemical attinity factor:-
The greater the chemical attinity of two metals the more restricted is their solid solubility.
(4) Relative valence factor:
Generally the solution depends on the valence of metals if one of the metal is large valence
& other is small valense electron, it found that high valence disolve only small amount of lower
valence metal & lower valence metal have good solubility for the higher valence metal.
Example:-
In AL-Ni alloy system both metal have.
Eutectic alloys:
A eutectic alloy forms when a liquid of fixed composition solidifies at a constant tempr
forms a mixture of two or more solid phases or when two or more solids are heated they form a
liquidstate.
Solid 1 + Solid 2 = Liquid.
The tempr required for such alloying system is called eutetic tempr.
The eutectic tempr & composition determine a pt on the phase diagram called eutectic point.
Peritectic alloys:
Periitectic alloys form when a solid state & liquid state are slowly cooled they forms a new
solid i.e called peritectic alloy.
Order - dis Order Transformation:
Some times two or more metal form homogeneous liquid solution when they are transfered
to solid state the new solid find it contains the properties of that liquid metals & its structore
cannot be shown.
Solid solution is occures in two way
(i) Substitutional solid solution
(ii) Interstitical solid solution.
In substitutional solid solution case the solute atom randomly distributed on solvent atom.
So that latice of the solid in out of order arrangement i.e called dis order condn. If that solid is
cooled slowly the latice of the solid are arranged in a regular manner is known as order solid
solution or super latice.
In gold copper equilibrium diagram there was no two-phase region between the dis order and
order solid solution.
In some cases there will be a two phase region betn the order and disorder solid solution.
The metal which are complete in solid state the latice at that solid is in order arrangement.
Ex:- AUCU, AUCU3
TTT. Diagram:
Many metallurgists found a no of problem by using Fe-C equilibrium dia such as ;
(a) In Fe-C equilibrium dia shows only the phase & resulting microstructure corresponding to a
condn such as it’s composition & tempr.
(b) But ‘%c’ of composition & tempr is not sufficient to determine the posn of materials struc-
ture during cooling process because its posn determines due to rate of cooling.
(c) Generally Microstructure & property of steel depends on rate of cooling. As cooling rate
increases a metastable phase called martensite can develop which has no place in Fe-C equilib-
rium dia.
To avoid such problemes Time-Tempr Transformation diagram is used, which is populanly
known as T-T-T diagram.
The shape of curve C or S. So it is called as C-curve, or S-curve, Bair’s curve or isothermal
transformation diagram.
A T-T-T diagram shows the transformation of decomposction wite respect to Tempr & Time.
Generally here transtormation is is othermally (at consn tempr)
Steps to construct a T-T-T diagnam
To construct the T-T-T diagram the following procedure to be taken.
(i) Obtain a large no. of small pieces from that desired metal bar.
(ii) Place the samples of that piece into a salt bath where a austenite tempr is maintained i.e
14250 F, (at consn tempr)
(iii) Then that samples are taken one by one into a molten bath where 13000 F is maintained.
(iv) Now the samples are one by one are brought from molten bath to the cold water chamber
where it is cooled for the 1st sample the time of cooling 2 sec, for 2nd sample 4 sec, 3rd sample
8 sec, 4th sample 15 sec & so on upto 15 hours.
(v) In 1st step when the metal piece is placed at salt bath & maintain at 14 250C, the metal is
completely converted into Austenite.
(vi) When it is placed at 13000 F the metal is converted to pearlite but when it is placed in the
cold water.
Some untransfed austenite is transfered to martensite, the figr above shows the structure of
martensite, austenite & both.
When a large no of specimens are reacted varying time period & metallurgical examined the
result is a reaction curve.
When data obtained from series of reaction curve are taken & draw a curve which gives a
T.T.T. curve of that steel.
T-T-T diagram shows:-

(i) A ustenite is stable above A 1 tempr line & unstable below A1 tempr line.
(ii) Transformation betn 13000 F & 10200 F result microstructure pearlite.
(iii) Just above the nose pearlite becomes fine.
(iv) Ms shows the tempr at which the formation of martensite start.
(v) MF slows the tempr at which martensite finish.
MF is very low tempr
The figure above shows the effect of cooling rate on the formation of reaction products
pearlite, bainite & martensite.
Cooling curve -a:

Very slow colling rate Transformation of product is coarse pearlite.
Cooling curve -b:
Transmation to medium pearlite
Cooling curve -c:
Transformation to pear pearlite.
Process Structure:-
Proceduer: Six specimen of equal shape & size cut from mild steel bar are heated just beyond
the limit of an upper critical tempr line and cooled down to a specified temp. ranges from prede-
termined temp. for a definite period time in which specimen are changed to different type of
steel.
Process features:-
(i) Material speciman are heated just above the upper critical tempr lines limit i.e just above
910 0 c.
(ii) No holding of the seciman at the tempr cited formely is allowed.
(iii) Process parameters are related to tempr & time only pressure & the Quaenching medium
are not specified Material specimen is cooled down only.
(iv) Nose occur below the baenetic range.
(v) Material specimen is converted to Martensite beyond nose.
Hardenability
Handerss is the property of body which determines the resistance of that body against defor-
mation. Due to Hardenbility handness is attained.
Handenbility is defined as it is the ability of a steel to become uniform hand & harder in
depth penetration.
Hardenbility is the property of steel due to which hardness develops in steel in Quenching.
If there is no hardenbility then there is no change of formation martensite during quenching
process.
Factor affecting Handenbility:-

(i) Composition of steel.
(ii) Method of manufactured.
(iii) Section of steel.
(iv) Mean composition of austenite before quenching.
(v) If composition alloying element excep ‘CO’ then hardenbility increses.
(vi) Size of austenite grains before quenching, greater degree of homoginity greate hardenbility.
(vii) Presence of an dis solved carbides & non metallic inclusion before quenching reduce
hardenbility.
Method to determine Hardenbility:
Hardenbility of steel may be predicted by following method.
(a) Gross man method:-
(i) Heat rounded steel to austersizing tempr
(ii) Quenched in steel & sectioned them.
(iii) Take reading on graph where the hardness no of Y-axis & Dia on X asix.
(b) Joming test:

(i) It is a most widely method of determing hardeneability.
(ii) A 25 mm die & 100 mm long bar is austenised at austensied Temp. and then the end is
quenched.
(iii)After the test bar is cooled to room tempr
(iv) Two flats are grant length wise, rock well hardness readig are taken at 1.5 interval of (25 mm dia)
The jommy test does not provide directly a single figr.

The value so obtaied on ideal critical diameter.
Effect of common Alloying element in steel:-
Steel is not o perfect metal it is formed by taking carbon with iron & other alloying element
the commonly alloying element are carbon, Nickel, chromium, molybdenum.
Carbon:-
(i) It is a typical alloying element in steel.
(ii) If carbon % Increase then hardness increase.
(iii)Softness decrease
(iv) Impact load break
Molybodenum:- Moly bodeneum promotes

(i) Handenbility of steel
(ii) Makes steel fine grained
(iii)Raise tensile stress at high tempr, corrosion resistace in stain less steels
Tungesten:
(i) Increases hardness
(ii) Fine grained
(iii)Resistance heat
(iv) Promots strength.
Manganese:-
(i) Increase hardness
(ii) Increase strenght.
(iii) Lowers ductility & weldability, If present in steel.
Titanium:-
(i) If titanium is added with steel then it does not gives out heat when it heated.
Prevents formation of austenite in high chromium steel.
Vanadium:-
(i) Promotos Fine grain.
(ii) Increase hardness.
(iii)Impact Strength & toughness to heat treated steel.
Sillicon:-
(i) Improve oxidation resistance.
(ii) Strengthens low alloy steel
(iii)Act as deoxidization.
Nickel:-
(i) Increase toughness and resistance.
(ii) Lower the critical tempr of steel.
(iii)Strengths steel.
Chromium:-
(i) Brightness to steel
(ii) Increase hardenability.
(iii)Adds some strength
Cupper:-
(i) Cupper (0.2 to 0.5%) Added.
(ii) Act as strengthening agent.
Effect on properties of alloy element on C.I
The common alloying element in C.I are.
Molybodeneum:-
(i) Improves grain structure.
(ii) Increases hardness
(iii)Refines graphite & pearlite
(iv) Improves heat resistance.
Mangesium:-
(i) Produce graphite in spheroidal form as cast alloys.
(ii) Increase ductility.
Copper:-
(i) Generally 0.5 to 2% cupper is present.
(ii) It increases fluidity.
(iii)It strengthens matrix.
(iv) Increase & refine the graphite
Manganese:-
(i) Refines grain
(ii) Stabilizes austenite
(iii)Increases fluidity & density.
Nickel
(i) Nickel added in cast iron gives brightness.
(ii) Refines pearlite & graphite.
(iii)Improves toughness.
Chromium
(i) Improves Hardness
(ii) Improvement of wear resistance
(iii) Brightness
(iv) It decreases Machinability.
Zincorium:
(i) Reduces hardness
(ii) Improves fluidity
(iii) Assist formation of graphite
PHASE DIAGRAM
 Phase diagram is known as Equilibrium diagram or constitutional diagram. Where tempera-
ture is taken as in Y-axis & alloy composition on X-axis:
 It shows the phase at squilibrium condn at a tempr.
 It shows the relationship betn composition tempr & structure of an alloy.
 Equilibrium condn means there is no change of structure with time.
 It gives knowledge of phase composition & phase stability..
 From this figr
 Phase separation can possible
 Purification of material can known
 Solidification of metals & alloys can know
 Here the lines are drawn are shown as solidious & liquidious.
 It gives a no of information of solid of composition at a perfect tempr known.
Phase diagram are classified as;
(i) Unary phase diagram:- Where pressure on vertical axis, tempr on horn axis.
(ii) Binary phase diagram.
(iii)Ternary phase diagram.
In actual practice under welding & casting condn Equilibrium condn are not obtained.
Systems, phase & structural constituents.
System:- A system is a substance so isolated from its surroundings that it is unaffected by these
& is subject to changes in overals composetion, tempr, pressure or total volume only to extent
allowed by the investigator.
A system may be composed of gase, liquids, solids, or any combination of them & may
involve metals & non metals either separately or in any combination.
A system is classified according to the no of components that constitute system.
A system having one component called array system.
A system having two three & four component are known as Binary, Ternary & Quartely sys-
tem.
Phase: In an alloy system the components may combine to form homogeneous, suppose in solid
solution the metal in it’s liquid state are mixed with each other & form solid, so at that it is said
that liquid in one phase & solid in another phase.
Structural constituent:
The phases in alloy are not uniformaly distributed through out stucture but the association of
phases in a recognizably distinct fashion may be refered as structural constituent.
Cooling curves:-
(i) A method to determine tempr at which phase changes (liquid solid ) in alloy system with
respect to time by taking the tempr & Time the curve found on graph is called cooling curve.
Generally the curve is different for different system.
(i) For pure metal or compund
(ii) Binary solid solution
(iii) Binary eutectic system
(a) Cooling curve of pure metal on compound:-

The figr shows the colling curve for pure metal liquidmetal cools from P to Q,
From Q  R the tempr remain constant at pt ‘R’ the mass is partly liquid & partly solid on
further cooling it reaches to ‘S’ point.
(b) Cooling curve of binany solid solution:
The figr shows the phase diagram for binary solid solution. The Line P-Q is same as pure
metal case, during Q - R period the tempr does not remains constant, the solid cools along R-S.
(c) In this system the curve consists of P-Q, Q-R, R-S & S-T, liquid cools along P-Q until tempr
Q reached, At ‘Q’ the further decrease of tempr to ‘R’. Now to ‘S’. The curve S-T as usuall.
The figr shows a series of cooling curves for differt alloys & a phase equilibrium diagram is
drawn form that curve.
Binary phase diagram:-

In binary phase diagram two metals of binary solid solution system are mixed at thin liquid
stage & then cooled & draw the cooling curve. From the cooling curve the pt obtained are Q1, Q2,
Q3 & R1, R2, & R3 by taking the pt. the dia obtained is called as Binary phase diagram.
Where Q1, Q2, Q3 are the tempr at which solidification starts & R1, R2, R3 & R4 shows solidi-
fication completes.
The phase diagram shows two different distinct phases one liquid metal solution & other is
solid solution.
 Liquidious is that like
(a) above which the alloy is in liquid state
(b)where solidification starts.
 Solidious is that line.
(a) below which the alloy is in solid state.
(b)where solidification completes.
If in a phase diagram adequate time is allowed for the change to complete so that phase
changes takes place under equilibrium condn then the phase diagram will be known as phase
equilibrium diagram on samply equilibrium diagram.
Note:
Equilibrium condn are not generally attained during slidfication of welds & casting because
of fast cooling.
Interpretation of phase diagram:
The following rules necessary for interpretation of phase diagram.
Rule-1:-
From a phase diagram specific information can be obtained only if a tempr & composition
are specified.
Ex:- Suppose composition of Bismuth& Antimony, the composition 30% of Bis muth with
respect to tempr 12000. can be known by Drawing lines which meets at ‘1’, it implies position of
pt ‘1’ in liquidious.
 With same alloy but 9000 F two phases are present betn liquid solution & solid solution.
 while some alloy at 6000 F its position below solidius line, it implies here solid solution is
present.
Rule-2
To findout the composition of phase suppose at 9000 F draw horizontal like OP at that tempr.
Lever arm principle: (Proportionof co existing phase)

The phase diagram also tells the proportion of co-existing phases at any given tempr suppose
the tempr is 9000, Draw a st line on 900 0 c. Where it meets the solids and liquid curve at O & P.
Now the vetical line AL, AL & OP intersects at ‘M’. OP is the fulcurum of a sample level OM &
MP are two lever.
The relative lengths of the lever arms multiplied by amount of phase must balance.
This is called Lever Rule.
The lever rule may be expressed Mathmatically.
MP  62  30  2
(i) 100    100  66 %
OP  62  14  3
OM  30  14  1
(ii) 100    100  33 %
OP  62  14  3
Eutectic system:
(i) In eutectic system a liquid solution of fixed compositioin solidifies at consn tempr & forms
a mixture of two or more solid phases & vice versa.
L iq u id co o lin g s o lid 1  s o lid 2
h e a tin g
Under slow cooling liquid is transfered to two diferent phases.

At the eutectic tempr two solids form single liquid phase.
Eutectic system can be classified as.
(a) Two metal are completely soluble in theliquid state but insoluble in each other in solid state.
(b) Two metals are complete soluble in liquid state but partly soluble in each other in solid state.
(a) Two metal completely soluble in liquids state but completely insoluble in solid state.
It is pratically impossible of two metal complet insoluble in each other but in some cases it is
found that two metals are completely solible in liquid state but completly insoluble in each other in
solidstate.
Example: Bismuth & cadmium.
Alloy-3: 80% cd & 20% Bismuth:- As tempr falls to T1. Crystal nuclei of pure cd begins to form
so pure cd deposited, at that time Bi is liquid.
Alloy-2: 40% cd & 60% Bi
Suppose an alloy of 10% cd & 90% Bismuth marked as ‘A’. The composition of liquid moves
to right until the pt ‘E’ is reached it found that at Pt ‘E’ the composition is 30% of Cd & 70% of
Bi so it proved that completly insoluble in solid state.
(b) Two metals completely soluble in liquid state but only partly soluble in solid state.
Metals such as Pb-Sn & Pb-Sb are partly soluble in each other in solid state.
The alloy solidifies as a solid solution until 1830 C.
Eutectoid Transformation (Reaction)
Cu-Zn equilibrium diagram.
 Eutectoid reaction involves a solid solid transformation.
 It is a isothermal reversible reaction in which a solid solution is converted to two or more
mixed solids on cooling, the no of solids formed being same as no of component in system.
Eutectoid reaction is found in many system such as Cu-Al, Cu-Zn, Al-Mn, Cu-Be etc.
The figr above shows the eutectoid diagram suppose Alloy 1 is above the liquid line when it
cools it cross the liquid line, when it cross the liquid line solid solution is formed. The solid
solution formed continue until it cross the line’Y3’. Now the pure Metal is stats to corvent  solid
solution. When the alloy reaches the eutectoid tempr the  reaches eutectoid point ‘E’.
A partical example of euteitoid reaction occur in Fe-carbon system. In this case austenite
decomposes to pearlite & ferite ‘  ’.
Peritectoid transformation:
 It is a reaction found when two solid transforms into a
third solid.
 It is a isothermal reversible reaction in which a solid
solution react with other solid solution & forms a third
solid phase on cooling.
Consider an alloy - 1 is above the liquid resion i.e. when it is in liquid solution now when it
cools it convents to  . unite it reaches to line ‘Y3’ - line it converts to    &    as shown in
figr.
 L = Liquid phase
 ,  &  as solid phase
A & B are two metals
EP = Peritectid point
TP = Periteatoid Tempr
Peritectic reaction is found in case of plantium silver case.
In peritectic reaction:-
Liquid + Solid New Solid
The figr above shows the pertectic reaction diagram suppose a liquid at ‘Z’ compostion is
cooled slowly up to the peritectic point -
Coring or Segregation:
 Coring or segregation is the non-uniform distribution of constituents in a metal.
 Concetration of certain constituents link with & effect on the various operation are known as
Segregation (Coring).
Effect of non equilibrium Cooling:-
Generally phase diagram shows the structure & condition of metal with respect to tempr &
composition at equilibrium condition i.e no further change of its state with respect to time.
Generally equilibrium condn is found where slow cooling is available.
But where rapid cooling is used that condn is called non equilibrium cooling. This non equi-
librium solidification results.
(i) Porous.
(ii) columnar.
(iii) Dendritic
Example of non equilibrium solidification in case of welding & casting.
 Non equilibrium solidfication involves fast cooling rate and does not permit diffusion in
solid state & thus result in coring or segregation.
 Coring on segregation is very common in cast alloys.
 Generally in cast alloys these are non uniform constituents present.
 When such non uniform constituents concentrated they form a another phase in that alloy.
(iv) So that the composition of alloy also difference and property also changes, so time taken for
solidification of one casting changes with respect to the various position of alloy.
The result of difference in composion on one part of casting to another is called coring on
segregation.
Coring on segregation results:-
(i) Segregation af f ects temp r range over which alloy freeze.
(ii) Segregation alters the Final microstructure of casting.
(iii)Coring produces non hamogenous structure.
(iv) Segregation doesnot particularly destroy the microstructure of casting.
Factors which creat strong tendency to segregate
(i) Long Freezing range
(ii) Mode of grain structure
(iii)Motion of crystal.
Types of segregation
(i) Microsegregation (ii) Macro segregation
Q. Write notes on effect of non equlibirium cooling:-
Due to equilibrium cooling the structure found is permanent i.e no further change of struc-
ture due to furter cooling process, but it is very difficult for cooling for finding equilibrium
condn because for equilibrium condn very slow cooling process is required. Due to ordinary
cooling process there is some diffence in conditions such as given in figr.
Suppose alloy of 30 B in posn ‘1’ where it’s tempr T1 & its composition ‘  ’. Now the further
cooling process it reaches to position ‘2’ where it’s tempr T2 & its composition ‘  2’. Now fur--
ther cooling it reaches to position ‘3’ it’s tempr ‘T3’ & composition ‘  3’, but in betn  1 &  2
there is an average composition  2 &  3, there is an average composition  3. As tempr drops
average composition depants. It seems that the composition of solid solution is following a non
equilibrium.
 In non equilibrium cooling a sudden cooling process is used.
 Example of non equilibrium cooling is the casting & welding process.
Homogenization:
Due to faster cooling process the above effect found such as coaring. It is necessary to avoid
coaring by equilization of composition. The equilization of composition is called Homogeniza-
tion.
It can possible by
(i) Slow freezing from liquid:- If the solid solution is cooled by slowly then the latic of the
structure are arranged in a regular manners but this method very much difficult because it takes
a long time.
(ii) The other method is by diffusion in the solidstate. In solidstate the solid is in room tempr, but
at room tempr diffusion is not possible so it is necessary to reheat the solid, After the solid
reheated below solidious line, then diffusion is possible.
Non ferrous alloys
(i) Ferrous alloys are widely used because of their good range of mechanical properties.
 Economical to produce
 Heavier in weight
 Low electrical conductivity
 High density..
 For many application it is necessary to use non ferrous alloy..
Non ferrous material are :-
(i) Good corrosion resistance.
(ii) Each to mixed with other alloys.
(iii)Here heat treatment gives improved of strength
The common non ferrous Material:

(i) Copper (ii) Tin
(iii)Zinc (iv) Cobalt
(v) Aluminium (vi) Lead
(vii) Nickel (viii)Magnesium
Zinc
Zinc is a common non ferrous alloy which is
(i) Higher corrosive resistance.
(ii) Attractiveness.
(iii) Solubility in cu.
(iv) Thermal conductivity
(v) Strong Ductility
Zinc is found in the form of
(i) Rod
(ii) Powder
(iii) Wire
(iv) Slab, Strip etc.
Application:
(i) Coating material on steel.
(ii) Acting as Anode in electoplating.
(iii) Used for making wire.
(iv) Shells for dry battery
(v) Building Material
(vi) Stamping
(vii) Die casting
Zinc forms common alloy & with
(i) Capper
(ii) Aluminium etc.
Cupper - Zinc Alloy:
Zn is also some times acting as alloy with cupper for better increasing it’s property.
Cu-Zn alloys are
(i) Ductile.
(ii) Easier to roll
(iii) Cupper enters into Zinc is solid solution
(iv) Cupper enters into zinc upto 1 %
Copper:
Copper is a another suitable example of non ferrous alloy, it has its good properties.
(i) high corrosive resistance.
(ii) Better apperance
(iii) Good conductivity
(iv) It can soldered, welded.
(v) Ductilie in nature
(vi) Resistance to fatigue
(vii) Very good machinability
Cupper also soluble with other material is called cupper alloys;
In its cast form Cupper% is more & the other mixed alloy is very much less such as.
(i) High conductivity cupper - Cu - 99.9%
Oxygen: 0.40%
Pb & Fe cess the 0.002%
Bi - 0.001%
(ii) Deoxidizing Cupper - Cu - 99.85%
As - Less than 0.05%
Fe - 0.03%
Bi - 0.003%
(iii)Arsenical deoxiding cupper
0.4% As
0.04% P
remalning copper
Copper alloys normally posses:-

(i) Excellent corrosion resistance.
(ii) High strength.
(iii) Corrosion resistance
(iv) High hardness
(v) Decorative application.
Copper alloys are:
(i) High copper alloys common high copper alloys are
(ii) Cu, 1% Cd
(iii) Cu, 0.8% Cr
(iv) Cu, 0.12 - 0.30 % Zn
(v) Cu 1.5 - 2.0% Be
Aluminium
Aluminius is a common example of non Ferrous Material it posses the following proper-
ties.
(i) Good corosive resistance
(ii) Good conductivity
(iii) Ductile in nature
(iv) Aluminium has Good conductivity than that of copper as compared to weight.
(v) Aluminium is light.
(v) Aluminium is non magnetic.
Aluminium alone is not so strong when it forms alloy with other metal it posses;
(i) Good strengt i.e Aluminium alloy are 4 time stonger then that of steel.
(ii) Good corrosive resistance
(iii) Ductile
(iv) Mallable
(v) Aluminium & it’s alloy can be
(a) cast, (b) forged, (c) welded.
Used of Al & Al alloys:
(i) Transportation
(ii) Frame work
(iii) Engine part
(iv) Window frame
(v) Tanks, Trains, Truck, automobile glass.
 Aluminium alloys find uses such as window frames, doors hardware, coping sills,
 Aluminium & it’s alloys find application in Tanks, drums, pipes, HEX, smoke stacks, cen-
trifugals, valves, fittings etc.
IRON - CARBON SYSTEM
 Iron carbon system Include steel & castiron.
 Alloy with carbon content upto 2% are known as steel.
 Alloy with carbon above 2% called castiron.
Iron:
(i) Iron is relatively soft & ductile metal
(ii) Iron has melting pt of 15390 C
(iii) Iron is allotropic metal it exists in more than one type of latice structure (Bcc/Fcc)
depending on tempr.
 Room tempr Iron is B.C.C
9080 C - FCC
 At 7700 C the iron loss it’s magnetic property that means it looks like a non magnetic mate-
rial.
This tempr is caled curie point.
 It solidfies in B.C.C
Colling curve of pure Iron:
Micro constituents of iron and steel;

 Steel is nothing but form by rejecting Iron & adding carbon in place of iron.
 i.e steel is formed by Iron + Carbon
Microstructure & Properties of different alloys:
(Steel:- Iron + Carbon)
Where Iron is the base Material
An alloying element is added to Metal or it may be present in the metal for giving the desired
properties or causes to changing the property of metal.
Example:-
Common alloying element which are added or present in steel for the purpose are C, Ni, Mo,
V, N, Mn, Cu, Bo, Al, Co, Si, Ti, Cr, etc.
Q. Write notes on effect of carbon content on Iron base:
Carbon: Generally carbon is placed in steel, but if carbon is added more or is to the iron then the
property changes such as.
(i) Composition structure: Due to addn of carbon the structure changes B.C.C, F.C.C.
(ii) Ductlity: It is the ability of a metal to draw in wire. If carbon % Ircreases Ductility Loose
carbon% decreses Ductility increases.
(iii) Toughness: If Hardness Ircreses toughness decreases but If carbon content increases then
Hard nes Increases
(iv) Mallebility: It is nothing but the deformation of metal when it is subjected to no of forces,
if carbon % increases then mallebility less.
(v) Hardness: % of carbon increases the hardness (iron + carbon = steel)
(vi) Formability:
Wire drawing
Rolling
Extrusion
(vii) Castability: It is nothing but the material which is able to cast.
(viii) Subjected to heavy load: If heavy carbon content in iron then the material can’t be subjected
do heavy load.
(viii) Forgability: It is nothing but the fracture due to application at one pt. force
  Austente
  Ferrite
P  Pearlite
Fe3c - Cementite
Le - Lediburite
Iron Carbon Equilibrium system:
Ferrite:
Iron in it’s purest form normally
(with a slight % of 0.008 carbon content)
 Lies mainly within the tempr of 7230c, very less amount goes beyond 723 0 C & below
9100 C.
 Body centered cubic structure
Soft & ductile on nature.
 Lies within hypoeutectic steel region.

 Tensile strength 2800 kg/cm2
 Elongation 40% in 50mm.
 Hardness less than Rock well co or roc Rockwell B 90.
Pearlite:
 Harder than ferrite (BHN > 450)
 Existence within the range of 2%
 Finds the place below LCTL (Lower critical Temp. line)
 Orthorombic structure
 Elongation 20% in 50 mm
 Hardness rock well C 20.
Cementite:-
 Content of Fe3c.
 A harder alloy (BHN > 650)
 ExisteNce the both steel & castiron range.
 Precipicates from austensite an FCC structure.
Austenite:
 Face centered cubic structure.
 Existance upto 14990c. below the solidi Fies line.
 Austenite is nonmagnetic and soft.
 Tensile strength 10500 kg/cm2
 Elongation 10% in 50 mm.
Bainite:-
 Produced by Austempering
 It is a decomposition product of austenite.
 It forms on isothermal transformation.
Terms used:-
  Ferrite
P = Pearlite
Fe3C = cementite.
 = Austenite
 -  Iron
Le - Ledebunite
LCTL - Lower critical Tempr line
UCTL - Upper critical tempr line
CPTL - Cementite preciption line.
abc - liquidious curve liquid line
ad bf - Solidious curve / line
Description of Iron Carbon - equilibrium diagram:
 An Iron - Carbon Equilibrium dia. is the graphic represention of the composition of struc-
tural component & its effect on the Tempr.
 The diagram is constructed by taking % of alloy containing in Fe in the horizontal axis &
tempr along y-axis.
 This diagram shows the various phase changes of structural component with respect to tempr
increased &colling.
 It also shows the microstructure of castiron & steel.
 This diagram shows that the steel is an the range of (0-2%) of carbon in iron base & castiron
contains (2-6.67)% of carbon in iron base.
 Generally (0-0.8%) of carbon in iron base is known as hyper eutectoid & (0.8-2) % of car-
bon in iron base is known as Hyper eutectic castiron.
 (2-4.43%) of carbon in irom base is known as Hypo eutectic cast iron & (4.43-6.67) % of
carbon in iron base is known as hyper eutectic cast iron.
Heat treatment of steel:
It is the process of heating a particular type of steel Material (a predetermined one) upto a
predetermined tempr for some time & colling down the material below certain range holding the
material at a particular tempr for sometime so as to bring about the following change.
(a) To soften the Material.
(b) To harden the material.
(c) To relieve internal stress.
(d) To bring a change over the prevaling microstructure to improve grain structure.
(e) To improve ductility to a higher extent.
(f) To make easy to substain resist heavy loading
Heat treatment in Generally
Ferrous material Non ferrous Material
Anneling:-
 It is the Process of heat treatment.
 It is a softering process.
(before use material is should be Annealed)
Defination: It is a one of the process of heat treatment where hypo & hyper eutectoid steels are
heated from their room tempr to 200 to 300 C more than the upper critical tempr line & the lower
critical tempr line respectively & held for some predetermined time & colled down to their room
tempr.
 90% of steel material are anneled before use.
 Here predetermined time is an imp. Parameter..
 Cooling is carried on in presence of air in furnace (Furnace air cooling)
Change over occuring in process:
(i) Improve micro structure of steel, i.e modular structure are transfer as granular/sphericial
structure.
(ii) Improveing the softening characterstic of steel so as to improve the cutting operation.
(iii)Improve ductility and mallebility.
(iv) Improve crystal condition through course pearlite.
Process with temprature verient (Process Characterstic:
RT Below P P+Fe 3 c

UCTL
& LCTL
OT 200 to 400  (FCC)  +Fe c+P
3
more than
UCTL
& LCTL
RT Below P Fe3c + P
LCTL (Coarse)
& UCTL
Types of Annealing:
(i) Process Annealing:
(a) It is a one type Anneling where the workpiece is heated to a less 00c (550-6500c) & then
holding it certain time and then cooling.
(b) This process is employed for removed effect in cold work.
(c) Through this process there is not any phase change occur.
(d) Constituet Ferrite & cementite remain present in process.
(e) It is carried out in either batch type or continuous furace. Which is burnt by coal gas.
(ii) Spheroidise Annealing:
Spheroidise Annealing or spheroiding subjected to giveing a selected tempr to steel for chang-
ing spheroi.
This Annealing causes
(i) Improve machineability
(ii)Facilitiy for cold working
(iii)Soften tool steel

(iv) Improve & surface finish.
(v) Prevent cracking of steel..
(iii) Full Annealing:
Full Annealing implies heating steel to a certain temp. keep it for certain time & then cool-
ing.
Full anneling for:-
(a) Refines grains.
(b) Remove strains.
(c) Induces softness.
(d) Improves machenability.
(e) Improves formability.
(f) Improves Electical & martic property.
Normalising:
 It is type of heat treatment in which the hypo & hyper eutectoid steels are heated 20 to 300 C
more than the upper critical tempr line & the cementite precipitation line respectively and held
for some time & cooled down to the room tempr ranges. under still air cooling condition so as to
bring about the changes as follow.
(a) Improvement of Micro structure.
(b) A softening effect (cannot be compared to anneling)
(c) Steel is hardened little to the still air quenching.
Process characterstics & micro structure refinement of crystal.
Hypo Hyper
Below P P+Fe 3 c
UCTL
& CPTL
200 to 300  (FCC)  (FCC)

more than
UCTC
& CPTL
Below Pfine Pfine+ Fe3c

UCTL
Normalising causes:
(i) Producess uniform structure.
(ii) Refines grain size of steel
(iii)Reduces internal stress
(iv) Produces hander & stronger steel than full annealing
(v) Improves Engg. property.
Tempering:
Quench hardening produces structures steel martensite & retained austenite, which cause a
no. of problem because they have some unstable phase & its phase changes with respect to time.
For this reason it is necessary to creat a equilibrium condn. Which can be satisfied by heating
the quench handened steel to tempr below the lower critical tempr, holding at the tempr for 3 to 5
minutes for each mm of thickness or diameter & cool the steel in a suitable medium the medium
may be water, oil or air.
 Tempering of quenched steel in fact is some times controlled by obserbation of temper colour..
Tempering is for
(i) Relieve residual stress
(ii)Improve ductility
(iii)Reduce hardness
(iv)increase % of elongation.
Tempering on the quench hardened steel is done under different stages.
(i) Low tempr tempering
(ii)Medium tempr tempering.
(iii) High tempr tempering.
Low tempr tempering:
(i) This treatment is carriedout in the tempering range from 150 to 2500c.
(ii) Intennal stresses are reduced.
(iii)Toughness & ductility get increased.
(iv) The structure will contain martensite.
(v) Low tempr tempering is applied to cutting tools of carbon steels & low alloy steels.
Medium tempr tempering:-
(i) Medium tempr tempering is carriedout in the tempr range from 3500 c to 4500c.
(ii) With this treatment hardness & strength of steels decreases.
(iii)Ductlity gets increased.
(iv) Medium tempr tempering imparts to steels the hightest elastic limit with sufficient tough-
ness.
(v) Medium tempr tempering is applied to object such as coil spring, laminated springs, hammer,
chisels.
High tempr tempering:-
(i) High tempr tempering is carried out in tempr range from 5000c to 6500c.
(ii) Eliminate internal stress.
(iii)Develops a sorbite structure.
(iv) Imparts high ductlity.
(v) It is used for components such as connecting rod, shafts, gears etc.
Hardening:-
Headening is also a heat treatment process which is employed for increase the hardness of
steel.
Tool & M/c parts which are employed for heavy duty are hardened.
Generally If the steel material contains 0.35 - 0.60% of carbon then it is hardened.
Hardening results:-
(i) Hardened steel, resist wear
(ii) Hardened steel cut other metals.
(iii)Improves ductility strenghth & toughness.
Hardering procedure:-
(i) Steel with sufficient carbon% (0.35 - 0.70%) are taken.
(ii) Heated upto 30 to 500 c above the UCTL.
(iii)Held it for 15 to 30 minutes per 25 mm of cross section.
(iv) And then colled rapily or quenched in asuitable medium, medium may be brine, water, oil,
etc.
Rate of Hardness produced in steel depends upon:
(i) Composition of steel.
(ii) Nature & properties of quenching.
(iii)Quenching tempr.
(iv) Size of object to be quenced.
(v) Rate of cooling.
Structure of hardened steel:-
According to hardened process the structure changes such as
(i) In Rapid rate of cooling austenite transforms to martensite.
(ii) In slower rate of cooling produces fine pearlite & still slower rate of cooling gives rise to
coarsepearlite.
Quenching Medium:-
(i) 5 to 10% caustic soda
(ii) Brine (Nacl)
(iii)Cold water
(iv) Warm water

(v)Mineral water
(vi)Animal oil
(vii)Vegetable oil
(viii)Air
Types of castiron, their Micro structure & typical use:-
Generally ferrous Material contains iron, ferrous material are extensively widely used beacuse
of their wide range of mechanical and physical property.
(i) Mechanical physical properties.
(ii) Ferrous material are versatile.
But the dis advantages of using ferrous Material is the corrosion.
Metal/alloys
Ferrous Non ferrous
Steel Castiron
Gray Iron
Ductile (Nodular iron)
White Iron
Malleble Iron
Low alloy High alloy
Tool Stain less steel
Low carbon
Plain High strength alloy
Medium carbon
Plain Heattreatment
High carbon
Plain Tool
Gray cast iron:-
It is a low cost material that can be used for many purpose:-
Mechanical properties:
(i) High compressive strength.
(ii) Low tensitle strength
(iii)High rigidity
(iv) High stability after weathering.
Characterstics:-
(i) It is a alloy of carbon, sillicon with iron
(C, Si, mn, P & S)
(ii) It contains 2.5 - 3.8%C, 1.1-2.8% si, 0.15%P, & 0.10%S, 0.4 - 1% mn,
(iii)It is marked by presence of ferrite, pearlite, austenite.
(iv) It has high resitance to wear.
(v) It posses high vibration damping capacity.
(vi)Gray castiron has a solidification range of 2400-20000 F.
(vii) High compressive strength.
(viii)Low ductility & low impact strength.
(ix)Gray castiron posses excellent casting qualities for producing simple & complex shapes.
Application:-
(i) Piston ring
(ii) Gas & water pipes
(iii)Marbale cover
(iv) Turnel segment
(v) Frames for electric motor
(vi) Sanitary wares

(vii)House hold appliances.

Malleble cast iron:-
Charactersties:-
(a) It is a alloy of C, Si, mn, P & S with iron.
(b) It contains 2-3%C, 0.6-1.3%Si, 0.2-0.6%mn, 0.15% P & 0.10%S,
(c) It is marked by presence of ferrite, pearlite & austenite.
(d) It has good resistance to wear.
(e) High vibration demping velocity.
(f) High yielding strength
(g) Solidification range 2550 - 20650 F.
(h) Low coefficient of thermal expassion.
Uses:-
(i) Rail road.
(ii) Agricultural implement
(iii)Gear case
(iv) Universal joint yoke
(v) Truck axle assembly part.
Malleble castiron:-
Nodular castiron:
(a) It is an alloy of Si, S, C, mn & P wite iron
(b) It contains 3.2-4.2%C, 1.1-3.5 si, 0.3-0.8%mn, 0.08% P & 0.2% S.
(c) It posses excellent castability & wear resistance.
(d) The properties of Nodular & castiron depends upon the metal composition and cooling rate.
(e) Good machinability.
Uses:
(i) Paper industries machinery
(ii) I.C engine
(iii)Power transmission equipment
(iv) Valves
(v) Pipes & fittings.
(vi) Pumps & compression.
White castiron:
(i) It is an alloy of Si, S, C, mn, P
(ii) It consists of 1.8-3.6%C, 0.5-2.0%Si, 0.2-0.8%mn, 0.18% P & 0.10% S.
(iii)Solidification range 2550-20650F.
(iv)It posses excellent wear resistance.
(v) Brittle
(vi) It is made in sand mould
(vii)White iron is the first step in production of malleble iron casting.
Uses:-
(i) For producing malleble iron casting, manufacturing those component parts which require a
hard & abrasve resistance material.
Q. WRITE NOTES ON STEEL, ITS SPECIFICATION, USES.
Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron and has a carbon content between 0.2% and
2.1% by weight, depending on the grade. Carbon is the most common alloying material for iron,
but various other alloying elements are used, such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten.
Carbon and other elements act as a hardening agent, preventing dislocations in the iron
atom crystal lattice from sliding past one another. Varying the amount of alloying elements and
the form of their presence in the steel (solute elements, precipitated phase) controls qualities
such as the hardness, ductility, and tensile strength of the resulting steel.
Steel with increased carbon content can be made harder and stronger than iron, but such
steel is also less ductile than iron. Alloys with a higher than 2.1% carbon content are known as
cast iron because of their lower melting point and good cast ability.
Steel is also distinguishable from wrought iron, which can contain a small amount of
carbon, but it is included in the form of slag inclusions. Two distinguishing factors are steel’s
increased rust resistance and better weld ability.
Though steel had been produced by various inefficient methods long before the
Renaissance, its use became more common after more-efficient production methods were devised
in the 17th century.
Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world, with more than 1.3 billion
tons produced annually. It is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships,
automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various
grades defined by assorted standards organizations.
PRODUCTION OF STEEL.
When iron is melted from its ore by commercial processes, it contains more carbon than
is desirable. To become steel, it must be melted and reprocessed to reduce the carbon to the
correct amount, at which point other elements can be added.
This liquid is then continuously cast into long slabs or cast into ingots. Approximately
96% of steel is continuously cast, while only 4% is produced as cast steel ingots. The ingots are
then heated in a soaking pit and hot rolled into slabs, blooms, or billets. Slabs are hot or cold
rolled into sheet metal or plates. Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars, rods, and wire. Blooms
are hot or cold rolled into structural steel, such as I-beams and rails. In modern foundries these
processes often occur in one assembly line, with ore coming in and finished steel coming out.
Sometimes after a steel’s final rolling it is heat treated for strength,
USES OF STEEL:
Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways, other infrastructure,
appliances, and buildings. Most large modern structures, such as stadiums and skyscrapers, bridges,
and airports, are supported by a steel skeleton. Even those with a concrete structure will employ
steel for reinforcing. In addition, it sees widespread use in major appliances and cars.
Despite growth in usage of aluminium, it is still the main material for car bodies. Steel is
used in a variety of other construction materials, such as bolts, nails, and screws.[60] Other common
applications include shipbuilding, pipeline transport, mining, offshore construction, aerospace,
white goods (e.g. washing machines), heavy equipment such as bulldozers, office furniture, steel
wool, tools, and armour in the form of personal vests or vehicle armour.
Long steel
• As reinforcing bars and mesh in reinforced concrete
• Railroad tracks
• Structural steel in modern buildings and bridges
• Wires
Flat carbon steel
• Major appliances
• Magnetic cores
• The inside and outside body of automobiles, trains, and ships.
Stainless steel
• Cutlery
• Rulers
• Surgical equipment
• Wrist watches
The appropriate specification of steel is dependent on usage. For structural applications
the strength is clearly an important factor and is specified by grade. The grade of steel is related
to the minimum tensile strength expected for that grade.
The British Standard 4360: 1986 Weldable Structural Steels has been replaced by European
standards EN 10 113 and EN 10 025 (1990). Section 4 of the former British Standard covered
the specification of four grades of steel, with grade 43A and 50B being the most commonly used
steel grades in construction in the UK. These numbers are related to the ultimate tensile strength
of the steel, i.e. 430 and 500 N/mm² respectively. Generally, the higher yield steels are 10%
more expensive than mild steel. Stainless steel is approximately seven times the price of ordinary
steel.
The equivalent steel grades defined by the Eurocodes are S275 and S350 which have yield
strengths of 275 and 350 N/mm² respectively.
Classification in accordance with the chemical composition:
• unalloyed steels
• stainless steels
• other, alloyed steels
Classification in accordance with the main quality class:

unalloyed steels unalloyed quality steels
unalloyed special steels stainless steels
other, alloyed steels alloyed quality steels, alloyed special steels.
Classification of steels and cast irons
• Classification of steels by composition
• Classification of steels by application
• Classification of steels by composition
• Carbon steels
• Low carbon steels (C < 0.25%);
• Medium carbon steels (C =0.25% to 0.55%);
• High carbon steels (C > 0.55%).
Designation system:
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) together with Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) have established four-digit (with additional letter prefixes) designation system:
SAE 1XXX
First digit 1 indicates carbon steel .
Second digit indicates modification of the steel.
0 - Plain carbon, non-modified
1 - Resulfurized
2 - Resulfurized and rephosphorized
5 - Non-resulfurized, Mn over 1.0%
Last two digits indicate carbon concentration in 0.01%.
Example: SAE 1030 means non modified carbon steel, containing 0.30% of carbon.
A letter prefix before the four-digit number indicates the steel making technology:
A - Alloy, basic open hearth
B - Carbon, acid Bessemer
C - Carbon, basic open hearth
D - Carbon, acid open hearth
E - Electric furnace
Example: AISI B1020 means non modified carbon steel, produced in acid Bessemer and containing
0.20% of carbon.
Alloy steels
• Low alloy steels (alloying elements Ð! 8%);
• High alloy steels (alloying elements > 8%).
According to the four-digit classification SAE-AISI system:
First digit indicates the class of the alloy steel:
2- Nickel steels;
3- Nickel-chromium steels;
4- Molybdenum steels;
5- Chromium steels;
6- Chromium-vanadium steels;
7- Tungsten-chromium steels;
9- Silicon-manganese steels.
Second digit indicates concentration of the major element in percents (1 means 1%).
Last two digits indicate carbon concentration in 0,01%.
Example: SAE 5130 means alloy chromium steel, containing 1% of chromium and 0.30% of
carb
Classification of steels by application
Stainless steels:
AISI has established three-digit system for the stainless steels:
2XX series – chromium-nickel-manganese austenitic stainless steels;
3XX series – chromium-nickel austenitic stainless steels;
4XX series – chromium martensitic stainless steels or ferritic stainless steels;
5XX series – low chromium martensitic stainless steels;
Tool and die steels:
Designation system of one-letter in combination with a number is accepted for tool steels.
The letter means:
• W - Water hardened plain carbon tool steels;
• O - Oil hardening cold work alloy steels;
• A - Air hardening cold work alloy steels;
• D -Diffused hardening cold work alloy steels;
• S – Shock resistant low carbon tool steels;
• T – High speed tungsten tool steels;
• M - High speed molybdenum tool steels;
• H – Hot work tool steels;
• P – Plastic mold tool steels.
–––––

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Introduction to Physical Metallurgy and

[Mechanical and Civil Engineering]

Dr. Ramesh Ch. Nayak

Synergy Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar

Bhubaneswar, Odisha-752101, INDIA.

E is different for different types of material.

Q. Mechanism of plastic defornation ?

 In HCP structure slip plane 0001 & slip direction 112 0 .

Critical Resolved shearstress for slip:-

Disordered substitutional solid solution:

Ordered substitutional solid solution:

T-T-T diagram shows:-

Cooling curve -a:

Factor affecting Handenbility:-

(b) Joming test:

The jommy test does not provide directly a single figr.

Molybodenum:- Moly bodeneum promotes

(a) Cooling curve of pure metal on compound:-

Binary phase diagram:-

Lever arm principle: (Proportionof co existing phase)

Under slow cooling liquid is transfered to two diferent phases.

The common non ferrous Material:

Copper alloys normally posses:-

Micro constituents of iron and steel;

 Lies within hypoeutectic steel region.

Heat treatment in Generally

Ferrous material Non ferrous Material

RT Below P P+Fe 3 c

(iii)Soften tool steel

200 to 300  (FCC)  (FCC)

Below Pfine Pfine+ Fe3c

(iv) Warm water

Ferrous Non ferrous

Ductile (Nodular iron)

Low alloy High alloy

Tool Stain less steel

Plain High strength alloy

(i) It is a alloy of carbon, sillicon with iron

(C, Si, mn, P & S)

(iii)It is marked by presence of ferrite, pearlite, austenite.

(iv) It has high resitance to wear.

(v) It posses high vibration damping capacity.

(vi)Gray castiron has a solidification range of 2400-20000 F.

(vii) High compressive strength.

(viii)Low ductility & low impact strength.

(i) Piston ring

(ii) Gas & water pipes

(iv) Turnel segment

(v) Frames for electric motor

(vi) Sanitary wares

(vii)House hold appliances.

(h) Low coefficient of thermal expassion.

Classification in accordance with the main quality class:

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