Chapter-4

Mechanical Properties and

Deformation of Materials

-Asst. Prof. Purnima Mulmi

IOE Pulchowk Campus
 Contents
• Deformations:
• Concept of stress and strain, elastic and plastic deformation in materials, stress-
strain curves.
• Dislocations in metals:
• Characteristics, slip systems, fracture-ductile and brittle, fatigue, S-N curve, crack
initiation and propagation, creep, Griffith’s criterion.
• Corrosion and mechanical strength, Dependence of mechanical strength
on thermal properties
• Materials testing, International standard for materials testing.
Concept of stress and strain
• Fundamental concepts used to describe how a body
responds to external loads.
• Stress:
• It is a quantity that describes the distribution of internal forces
within a body.
• A measure of internal force per unit area (N/m2)
Concept of stress and strain
• A bar made of mild steel has strength of 250MPa. The bar will
fail if stress of more than 250 MPa is applied. If the bar diameter
is 20mm, the maximum force it can withstand is:
𝐹
• σ=
𝐴
• 250𝑋106 𝑃𝑎 = 𝐹ൗ 2
π𝑋10𝑋10−3
• F=79kN
• Forces here are tensile as forces are stretching the bar.(F=positive)
• If the forces were trying to shorten it, there is compressive
force.(F=negative)
• Stresses are distributed uniformly across the cross-section and along
the length of the bar.
Concept of stress and strain
• Strain:
• It is a quantity that describes the
deformation that occurs within the
body.
• the amount of deformation
experienced by the body in the
direction of force applied, divided by
the initial dimensions of the body.
The concept of stress and strain are
• Non-dimensional quantity often
expressed as a percentage. closely linked.
• Normal strain is tensile or The relationship between them can
compressive. be described using a stress strain
diagram.
 • Upto point a ( for low
Stress-Strain curves strain), stress is
proportional to strain.
• Deformation in this
region are fully reversed
when the load is
removed.
• Point a is called
proportional limit. So, it
is said to be elastic.
• This linear relationship is
defined by Hooke’s law.
σ = Eε
E=Young’s modulus.
=stress/strain
 • For larger strains, The relationship is
Stress-Strain curves no longer linear.
• Deformations are not reversed when
the load is removed.
• Here, point B is called elastic limit. It
is the point in the graph up to which
the material returns to its original
position when the load acting on it is
completely removed.
• Beyond this limit, the material
doesn’t return to its original position,
and a plastic deformation starts to
appear in it.
 • The yield point is defined as the point
Stress-Strain curves at which the material starts to deform
plastically. After the yield point is
passed, permanent plastic
deformation occurs.
• There are two yield points (i) upper
yield point (ii) lower yield point.
• The yield point, shown here as point
“C,” is the point where strain increases
faster than stress (referred to as
“strain hardening”), and the material
experiences some amount of
permanent deformation.
Stress-Strain curves
• Finally, at point “D,” where the
curve begins to fall, the
material’s ultimate tensile
strength has been reached.
• This point denotes the maximum
stress that can be applied to a
material in tension before failure
occurs.
Stress-Strain curve for various materials
 Elastic and plastic deformation of materials

• Elastic deformation is the deformation that disappears upon removal

of the external forces causing the alteration and the stress associated
with it.
• Plastic deformation is a permanent deformation or change in shape of
a solid body without fracture under the action of a sustained force.
Dislocation in metals
 Shear stress and strain

• A type of stress that acts coplanar with

cross section of material.
• The shear strength of a material is
usually measured in terms of elastic
limit which is the minimum stress that
the crystal can withstand without
permanent damage.
• Beyond this, the system will collapse
and do not return to its original
position.
Plastic deformation of a crystal by shear
 Estimation of shear strength
• Consider a perfect crystal system in
which the upper plane A slips to a
displacement x due to applied force.
• If a be the interatomic distance
along x and d is the spacing then,
within elastic limit,
• Hooke’s law is:
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 σ
•𝐺= =
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑥/𝑑
𝑥
• 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = σ = 𝐺 ………..1
𝑑
• Where G= shear modulus
Estimation of shear strength
• When displacement is large such that A is above B, it will be in
unstable equilibrium and stress is 0.
• Since atoms are arranged symmetrically, the variation of σ with
respect to x can be considered to be sinusoidal.
2π𝑥
•σ α sin
𝑎
2π𝑥
• Or, σ = σ0 sin ………2
𝑎
• For small x, we can write,
2π𝑥 2π𝑥
• sin =
𝑎 𝑎
 Estimation of shear strength
• Replacing σ0 by critical stress σ𝑐 ( maximum stress beyond which lattice
becomes unstable,
2π𝑥
• σ = σ𝑐 … … … .3
𝑎
• Now comparing 1 and 3,
𝑥 2π𝑥
• 𝐺 = σ𝑐
𝑎 𝑎
𝐺
• σ𝑐 =
2π
𝐺
• Or, = 6
σ𝑐
• But experimentally, this ratio is 15000 for tin, 900 for Al , 120 for steel.
• This observed values is due to the presence of imperfection called
dislocation.
 Fracture
The separation of a body into two or more pieces in response to an imposed stress
that is static (i.e., constant or slowly changing with time) and at temperatures that
are low relative to the melting temperature of the material.

can also occur from fatigue (when cyclic stresses are imposed) and creep
(time-dependent deformation, normally at elevated temperatures)

Larger the crack size, smaller is the fracture stress

For same crack size, different material has different fracture stress. Higher stiffness
has higher fracture stress.
 Fracture
The separation of a body into two or more pieces in
response to an imposed stress that is static (i.e.,
constant or slowly changing with time) and at
temperatures that are low relative to the melting
temperature of the material.

High energy
fracture

Low energy
fracture
 Griffith’s criterion for brittle fracture
• Quantitative relation between fracture stress and
quantities like crack size and stiffness of brittle materials.

A wide plate of thickness B is applied with stress σ and at the

center, there is a crack having length 2a. IF the stress is not
sufficient, the crack does not propagate.
Driving force for crack propagation:
Decrease in mechanical energy due to strain energy and
external work done.
𝑈𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑑 = 𝑈0 = 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑈𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑑 = 𝑈𝑎 = 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
The change in mechanical energy 𝞓𝑈𝑚 = 𝑈𝑎 -𝑈0
Griffith’s criterion for brittle fracture

• The change in mechanical energy 𝞓𝑈 = 𝑈𝑎 -𝑈0

−πσ2 𝑎2 𝐵
•=
𝐸
• E=young’s modulus
• Even if there is reduction in mechanical energy of
the system, the crack does not propagate at very
small stress.
• With the introduction or propagation of crack, two
new free surfaces are created.
• Let Surface energy per unit area be Γ.
• 𝞓𝑈𝑠 = 2 𝑋 2𝑎𝐵 𝑋Γ=4aBΓ
Griffith’s criterion for brittle fracture
• Change in energy due to crack propagation is:
−πσ2 𝑎2 𝐵
• 𝞓𝑈𝑇 = 𝞓𝑈𝑚 + 𝞓𝑈𝑠 = +4aBΓ
𝐸

𝞓𝑈𝑠

ac

𝞓𝑈𝑚
Crack size less than ac (Critical
size) will not propagate.
Griffith’s criterion for brittle fracture
• For evaluating ac
𝜕𝞓𝑈𝑇 The larger the driving
• ቚ (𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐) = 0 force (stress), the more
𝜕𝑎
−πσ2 𝑎2 𝐵 likely the crack will
• 𝞓𝑈𝑇 = 𝞓𝑈𝑚 + 𝞓𝑈𝑠 = +4aBΓ
𝐸 propagate.
𝜕 −πσ2 𝑎2 𝐵 𝜕
• + 4aBΓ = 0
𝜕𝑎 𝐸 𝜕𝑎
−πσ2 .2𝑎𝑐.𝐵
• + 4𝐵Γ = 0
𝐸
2𝐸Γ
• 𝑎𝑐 = 2
πσ
• Similarly, for a value of a, there is a
critical stress σ𝑓
1/2
2𝐸Γ
• σ𝑓 =
π𝑎
• This is Griffith’s criterion.
Creep
• Time dependent continued plastic
deformation at constant load or stress.
Primary stage:
Strain rate is very high at beginning and then,
Constant σ decreasing slowly.

Secondary stage:
Strain rate is almost constant.
Important in design of materials (to evaluate creep life
of materials).
𝑑δ
Steady state strain rate , 𝐸𝑠𝑠ሶ =𝑑𝑡

Tertiary stage:
Strain rate begins to rise and finally leads to fracture.
Effect of temperature on Creep
• Creep is a high temperature phenomenon ie. With respect to melting
point.
Materials Tm (K) Troom/Tm
Al 933 300/933=0.32
Pb-Sn 456 300/456=0.66

Creep is significant at
T>0.5Tm
Effect of stress on creep

σ1 > σ2 > σ3

𝐶𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑝 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 1 < 𝐶𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑝 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 2 < 𝐶𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑝 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 3

Or, tf(1)<tf(2)<tf(3)

𝐸ሶ 𝑠𝑠1 > 𝐸ሶ 𝑠𝑠2 > 𝐸ሶ 𝑠𝑠3

𝐸ሶ 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑝 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

Effect of stress and temperature on creep
𝑄
• 𝐸𝑠𝑠ሶ 𝑇, σ = 𝐶σ𝑛 𝑒 −𝑅𝑇
• T=test temperature in K
• σ=test stress
• C=constant
• n=stress component (1 to 8)
• Q=activation energy
• R=gas constant
• Stress and temperature
are both in separate
exponent form.
• So, slight change in them
will significantly affect
creep or strain rate.
Fatigue
• Fatigue is the weakening of a material caused
by cyclic loading that results in progressive,
brittle and localized structural damage.
• Once a crack has initiated, each loading cycle
will grow the crack a small amount, even when
repeated alternating or cyclic stresses are of
an intensity considerably below the normal
strength.

• Fatigue damage is caused by:

• simultaneous action of cyclic stress,
• tensile stress (whether directly applied or residual),
• plastic strain.
• If any one of these three is not present, a fatigue crack will not initiate and
propagate. The majority of engineering failures are caused by fatigue.
S-N curve

• The American Society for Testing and Materials defines fatigue life,
Nf, as the number of stress cycles of a specified character that a
specimen sustains before failure of a specified nature occurs.
• Fatigue life is affected by cyclic stresses, residual stresses, material
properties, internal defects, grain size, temperature, design
geometry, surface quality, oxidation, corrosion, etc.
• For some materials, notably steel and titanium, there is a
theoretical value for stress amplitude below which the material
will not fail for any number of cycles, called a fatigue
limit, endurance limit, or fatigue strength.
 Plots applied stress amplitude(S) against component life or

S-N curve number of cycles to failure (N).

σ𝑚𝑎𝑥 − σ𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑆=
• Fatigue Limit:(also sometimes called the 2
endurance limit) is the stress level, below
which fatigue failure does not occur. This
limit exists only for some ferrous (iron-base)
and titanium alloys, for which the S–N curve
becomes horizontal at higher N values.
• Fatigue Strength: (SNf) is the value of stress
at which failure occurs after some specified
number of cycles (e.g., 107 cycles)
• Fatigue Life: characterizes a material’s
fatigue behavior. It is the number of cycles
to cause failure at a specified stress level, as
taken from the S–N plot.
Corrosion
• The process of decomposition or destruction of metallic materials in
the presence of environment through any electro-chemical reaction.
• It occurs due to the presence of gases or vapor[dry corrosion] or due
to attack of some aqueous media[wet corrosion].
• Eg: iron rust
• Metals tend to come to most stable form i.e. in its oxide form.
• Metal + acid=metal oxide + byproduct.
Wet Corrosion
• Carbondioxide reacts with water in atmosphere to form carbonic acid,
which convert iron to iron bicarbonate.
• 𝐹𝑒 + 2𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 1Τ2 𝑂2 → 𝐹𝑒(𝐻𝐶𝑂3 )2
• Ferrous bicarbonate is oxidized by atmospheric oxygen to form
hydrated ferric oxide(rust).
• 𝐹𝑒(𝐻𝐶𝑂3 )2 + 1Τ2 𝑂2 → 2𝐹𝑒 𝑂𝐻 𝐶𝑂3 + 2𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
• 2𝐹𝑒 𝑂𝐻 𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 + 2𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
• 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 + x𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 . 𝑥𝐻2 𝑂
Dry corrosion
• The reaction of atmospheric gases such as oxygen, halogens, Sulphur
dioxides, carbon dioxide, etc.
• Alkali and alkaline earth metals react with oxygen at room
temperature and forms the corresponding oxide.
• M->Mn++ne-
• ½ O2+2e- -> O2-
• 2mn+ + n O2- ->m2On
Corrosion and mechanical strength
• Tensile Strength
• Thickness reduction due to corrosion directly affects strength of materials.
• For example, drill pipes premium class should have tensile strength of 436 klb;
however, excessive corrosion damages internal and external surface area of drill
pipes.
• The smaller surface area will result in reduction of tensile strength.
• Furthermore, it is very difficult to predict the strength of materials when
localized corrosion occurs because a surface area of cracking don’t evenly
distribute.
• Moreover, some of corrosive environments such as high temperature, high
CO2&H2S, high chloride content, etc. can dramatically degrade material
properties.
Corrosion and mechanical strength
• Toughness
• Corrosion reduces toughness of materials because it can physically
and chemically change properties of materials and tough material can
be brittle.
• Additionally, low temperature environment can dramatically decrease
toughness.
• Therefore, equipment used in low temperature conditions as subsea
pipeline, etc must be designed to be able to work in very low
temperature environment.
Corrosion and mechanical strength
• Ductility
• Corrosion can change ductile materials into brittle material and this
causes failure of structure.
• Several situations leading to ductility reduction are low temperature,
H2S & CO2 gas, cyclic load, etc.
Dependence of mechanical strength on
thermal property
• Materials working outside room temperatures are exposed to thermal
loads that may arise from different sources:
• Hot sources: from hot gasses, fire, proximity to heat sources such as boilers,
incinerators and engines, hot process fluids, or belonging to heat generating
equipment such as heat engines.
• Cold sources: from low temperature process fluids, cold storage, or cold
winter temperatures.
• The temperature change not only affects mechanical behavior as an
additional load, but modifying all material properties.
Dependence of mechanical strength on
thermal property
• THERMOELASTICITY
• Thermoelasticity is an extension of elasticity that includes thermal effects, i.e.
the study of the stress field originated by thermal strains in a constrained
solid (if the stress overpass the elastic limit, it is thermoplasticity).
• Thermoelasticity is used to measure stress fields based on the minute
temperature changes (some tenths of a degree) and their rapid
change causes (adiabatic compression forces a heating, and
expansion a cooling).
Dependence of mechanical strength on
thermal property
• Normal Hook’s law:
• σ = 𝐸δ
• E=Young’s modulus
• Taking temperature into consideration:
• σ = 𝐸 δ − 𝑎𝞓𝑇
σ
• Or, δ = + 𝑎𝞓𝑇
𝐸
• Where, a=coefficient of linear thermal expansion
• 𝞓𝑇=change in temperature
Dependence of mechanical strength on
thermal property
• PLASTICITY
• Small stresses or a temperature change cause elastic deformations
that disappears when the stresses cease or the initial temperature is
recovered.
• But large stresses or temperature variations (particularly on heating),
give way to inelastic (plastic, non-recoverable) deformations on either
free-standing or constrained materials.
Dependence of mechanical strength on
thermal property
• Thermal creeping
• Creeping of a material is the slow visco-plastic deformation that grows with
time under a constant load at a given temperature.
• Creeping usually happens above 0.5Tm (Tm being the melting point or the
glass-transition temperature), and is shown by polymers at moderate
temperatures and by metals at higher temperatures.
• Creeping is the combined effect of strain and temperature.
Dependence of mechanical strength on
thermal property
• Brittle-ductile transition
Some metals and polymers show a fracture behavior strongly dependent
on temperature (and somehow on the stress); at low temperature they
show a brittle fracture, and at high temperature a ductile one.
• Body-centred-cubic (bcc) crystals, and amorphous materials, show a
thermal brittle-ductile transition (e.g. carbon steels, polymers), whereas
stainless steels have face-centred-cubic (fcc) crystals and do not show a
thermal brittle-ductile transition.
• Brittle-ductile transition temperature in amorphous solids corresponds to
the glass transition temperature. Brittleness may also be enhanced by
dissolved gases, neutron irradiation, etc.
Mechanical testing of materials
• Two types:
• Destructive testing
• Non-destructive testing
Destructive testing
• Destructive testing (often abbreviated as DT) is a test method conducted to
find the exact point of failure of materials, components, or machines.
• During the process, the tested item undergoes stress that eventually
deforms or destroys the material.
• Naturally, tested parts and materials cannot be reused in regular operation
after undergoing destructive testing procedures.
• generally conducted before a component enters mass production.
• Example: tensile test, corrosion test, hardness test, aggressive environment
test, etc.
• In this chapter, we will only study tensile test.
Tensile (elongation) testing

• It gives the mechanical

behavior parameters.
• A uniaxial tensile test is done
using a sample of material of
specified shape as shown in
figure.
• The sample is gripped by the
tensile machine at the two
ends and pulled with force (F).
• The sample will elongate from
Lo to L as F increases.
Tensile (elongation) testing

• Elongation(𝞓L)=L-L0
• Engineering stress=Instantaneous force/initial cross sectional
area
𝐹
•σ=
𝐴𝑜
• Engineering strain=Elongation/Initial Length
𝞓L
•δ=
𝐿𝑜
Tensile (elongation) testing
Non-destructive testing
• Nondestructive testing (NDT) is the process of inspecting, testing, or
evaluating materials, components or assemblies for discontinuities, or
differences in characteristics without destroying the serviceability of
the part or system.
• When the inspection or test is completed the part can still be used.
• Eg: Visual inspections, Ultrasonic testing, Vibration analysis, Eddy
current testing, xray, etc.
International standard for materials testing
For more:
https://www.iso.org/ics/77.040.10/x/
• ISO STANDARD
• ISO/TC 164 Mechanical testing of metals
• Standardization of methods for mechanical testing, including the verification and
calibration of equipment, that are used to determine the properties of metallic
materials.