Technical Training

(Module 8)
Simple stress and strain relationships,
Types of Beams, Bending Moment and
Shear Force, BMD and SFD on different
types of Beams
Stress
Stress is the ratio of applied force F to cross
section area - defined as "force per area".

• Tensile Stress - stress that tends to

stretch or lengthen the material - acts
normal to the stressed area

• Compressive Stress - stress that tends

to compress or shorten the material -
acts normal to the stressed area

• Shearing Stress - stress that tends to

shear the material - acts in plane to the
stressed area at right-angles to
compressive or tensile stress

• The stress distribution may or may not

be uniform, depending on the nature of
the loading condition.
Image Source: engineeringtoolbox.com
Tensile or Compressive Stress - Normal Stress
Tensile or compressive stress normal to the plane is usually denoted
"normal stress" or "direct stress" and can be expressed as

𝐹𝑛
𝜎=
𝐴
where
𝜎 = 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ((𝑃𝑎) 𝑁/𝑚2 )
𝐹𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚2 )

Shear Stress
Stress parallel to the plane is usually denoted "shear stress" and can be
expressed as
𝐹𝑝
𝜏=
𝐴
where
𝜏 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ((𝑃𝑎) 𝑁/𝑚2 )
𝐹𝑝 = 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑁)
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚2 )
Strain (Deformation)
Strain is defined as "deformation of a solid due to stress" and can be
expressed as
𝑑𝐿 𝜎
𝜀= =
𝐿 𝐸
where
𝑑𝐿 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑚
𝐿 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑚)
𝜀 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 − 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐸 = 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦) (𝑁/𝑚2 (𝑃𝑎))

Young's modulus can be used to predict the elongation or compression

of an object.
𝜎×𝐿
𝑑𝐿 =
𝐸
Example: A rod is 2 m long and made of steel with Modulus of Elasticity 200
GPa (200 × 109 𝑁/𝑚2 ) is subjected to 127 Mpa (127 × 109 𝑁/𝑚2 ). Change of
length can be calculated as
𝜎×𝐿 127 × 106 𝑃𝑎 2𝑚
𝑑𝐿 = = = 0.00127 (𝑚) = 1.27(𝑚𝑚)
𝐸 200 × 109 𝑃𝑎
Elastic Constants

In considering the elastic behavior of an isotropic materials under,

normal, shear and hydrostatic loading, there are a total of four elastic
constants namely E, G, K, and γ.

1. 𝑬 = 𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈′𝒔 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠/𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

2. 𝑮 = 𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠/

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

3. 𝜸 = 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏′𝒔 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 = −𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

4. 𝑲 = 𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠/𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

• 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
• 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒.
Young's Modulus - Hooke's Law
• Also known as Modulus of Elasticity (or Tensile Modulus)
• Most metals deforms proportional to imposed load over a range of
loads.
• Stress is proportional to load and strain is proportional to deformation
as expressed with Hooke's law

𝐸 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠/𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎/𝜀 = (𝐹𝑛 /𝐴) / (𝑑𝐿/𝐿)

where
𝐸 = 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦) (𝑁/𝑚2 (𝑃𝑎))

• Modulus of Elasticity, or Young's Modulus, is commonly used for

metals and metal alloys and expressed in terms 𝑁/𝑚2 or Pa.
• Tensile modulus is often used for plastics and is expressed in terms
of GPa.
Stress – Strain Curve
The stress-strain curve relates the applied stress to the resulting strain
and each material has its own unique stress-strain curve.
Definitions from Previous Diagram

Yield Point
• At yield point, the stress-strain curve deviates from the straight-line
relationship and Law no longer applies as the strain increases faster
than the stress.
• From this point on the material will not return to its original, unstressed
condition when the load is removed, material react plastically to any
further increase in load or stress.
• In brittle materials, little or no plastic deformation occurs and the
material fractures near the end of the linear-elastic portion of the
curve.

Proportional limit
• Proportional Limit is the highest stress at which stress is directly
proportional to strain.
• It is obtained by observing the deviation from the straight-line portion
of the stress-strain curve.
Definitions from Previous Diagram

Elastic limit
• Elastic Limit is the greatest stress the material can withstand without
any measurable permanent strain remaining on the complete release
of load.

Yield strength
• Yield strength is the stress required to produce a small-specified
amount of plastic deformation.

The ultimate tensile strength (UTS)

• The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) or, more simply, the tensile
strength, is the maximum stress level reached in a tension test.
Stress – Strain Curve Contd.
• Since both stress and strain are obtained by dividing the load and
elongation by constant values (specimen geometry information), the
load-elongation curve will have the same shape as the stress-strain
curve.

Example of:
• A: High strength
Steel
• B: Cast Iron
• C: Mild Steel
• D: Concrete
 What are Beams?

A Structural member which is long when compared

with its lateral dimensions, subjected to transverse
forces so applied as to induce bending of the
member in an axial plane, is called Beam.
 Types of Load on Beam
The transverse loading of beam are:
• Concentrated loads, P, unit (N)
• Distributed loads, w, unit (N/m)
• Uniformly Distributed
• Uniformly Varying
• Arbitrarily Varying
• Applied Moment

Image Source: mathalino.com

 Types of Supports

• The three common types of

connections which join a
beam to its supports are;
• Roller,
• Pinned or Hinged, and
• Fixed.
• All of these supports can be
located anywhere along a
beam.
• at the ends,
• at midpoints, or
• at any other intermediate
points.

Image source: slideshare.net

Types of Beams
• Beams are classified to the way they are supported
• L shown in various parts in figure is called ‘span’

Statically Determinate Beams Statically Indeterminate Beams

Image Source: Google search result

Statically Determinate Beams
• A beam is usually statically
determinate if the reactions at
the supports can be determined
by using three equations of
equilibrium, i.e.
𝐻 = 0, 𝑉 = 0, 𝑀=0
• In the case of beams subjected
to vertical loads only, two
reactions can be determined by
conditions of equilibrium.
• Therefore, simply supported
cantilever and overhanging
beams are statically
determinate structures.
Statically Indeterminate Beams
• A beam is usually statically
indeterminate or redundant if the
reactions at the supports can not
be determined by using three
equations of equilibrium, i.e.
𝐻 = 0, 𝑉 = 0, 𝑀=0
• If however a beam rests on
more than two supports or in
addition any of the end support
is fixed, there are more than two
reactions to be determined.
• These reactions can not be
determined by conditions of
equilibrium alone.
 Sign Convention for Forces & Moments

• Positive Directions are denoted by an internal shear force that causes

clockwise rotation of the member on which it acts.
• Loads that are opposite to these are considered negative.

Image source: slideshare.net

Moment of Inertia
• Area Moment of Inertia or Moment of Inertia of an Area - also known as
Second Moment of Area.
• It is a property of shape that is used to predict deflection, bending and
stress in beams.
• The moment of inertia of a rectangular beam can be calculated as:
1
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏ℎ3
12
1
𝐼𝑦𝑦 = ℎ𝑏 3
12

• Section modulus is a geometric property for a given cross-section used

in the design of beams or flexural members.
• Other geometric properties used in design include area for tension and
shear, and radius of gyration for compression.
• The Section modulus of a rectangular beam can be calculated as:
1 2 1 2
𝑍𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏ℎ 𝑍𝑦𝑦 = ℎ𝑏
6 6
Importance of Moment of Inertia and Section Modulus
• Many different shapes of beams are used in
construction industry, as shown in figure.
• Moment of Inertia is important to know
about the stresses and deflection in a
particular beam section.
• Stress can be calculated with the help of
bending equation
𝑀𝜎 𝑦 𝑀𝜎 𝐼
𝜎𝑥 = = , 𝑍=
Where: 𝐼 𝑍 𝑦
𝜎𝑥 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑀𝜎 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

• While designing a beam the calculated

stress is an important to know
𝜎𝑌 𝑜𝑟𝜎𝑢
𝜎𝑥 ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 , 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 =
𝑛
Where:
𝜎𝑌 𝑜𝑟𝜎𝑢 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑/𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑛 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦
Internal Reactions in Beams

• At any cut in a beam, there are 3 possible internal reactions

required for equilibrium:
• normal force,
• shear force,
• bending moment.
Beam Shear
• Magnitude (V) = sum of vertical forces on either side of the section
 can be determined at any section along the length of the beam.

• Upward forces (reactions) = positive

• Downward forces (loads) = negative.

• Vertical Shear = reactions — loads(to the left of the section)

Why we need to know?

• necessary to know the maximum value of the shear

• necessary to locate where the shear changes from positive to
negative
• where the shear passes through zero.

• Use of shear diagrams give a graphical representation of vertical

shear throughout the length of a beam
Bending Moment
• Bending moment: tendency of a beam to bend due to forces acting
on it
• Magnitude (M) = sum of moments of forces on either side of the
section
• can be determined at any section along the length of the beam

• Bending Moment = moments of reactions - moments of loads

• (to the left of the section)

Negative Bending Moment

• Simple beams are subjected to positive bending moments only

• moment diagrams on one side of the base line.
• concave upward (compression on top).

• Overhanging ends create negative moments.

• concave downward (compression on bottom)
 Determination of SF & BM
• The Shear & bending moment
diagram will be obtained by
determining the values of V
and M at selected points of
the beam

Image source: slideshare.net

 Determination of SF & BM
• The Shear V & bending
moment M at a given point of
a beam are said to be positive
when the internal forces and
couples acting on each
portion of the beam are
directed as shown in figure

• The shear at any given point

of a beam is positive when the
external forces (loads and
reactions) acting on the beam
tend to shear off the beam at
that point as indicated in
figure

Image source: slideshare.net

 Determination of SF & BM

The bending moment at any given point of a beam is positive when the
external forces (loads and reactions) acting on the beam tend to bend
the beam at that point as indicated in figure below

Image source: slideshare.net

 Example of BMD and SFD for some common type of beams

Image source: slideshare.net

 Location of Tensile Reinforcement

Image source: Google search result

 Location of Tensile Reinforcement Contd.

Image source: Google search result

 Location of Tensile Reinforcement Contd.

Image source: Google search result

 Location of Tensile Reinforcement Contd.

Image source: Google search result

Beam Design Requirements
Beam Design Requirements Contd.
Beam Design Requirements Contd.