FM Nptel Merged

NPTEL Online - IIT Kanpur
Course Name Fluid Mechanics

Chemical
Department Engineering
IIT Kanpur
Instructor Dr. Nishith Verma
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Suggested text books:

1. Fluid Mechanics and its Applications
(Gupta and Gupta)
New Age international (P) Ltd, New Delhi, 5 th Reprint
2. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
(Fox and McDonald)
Wiley, NY, 5 th ed.
3. Unit Operations in Chemical Engineering
(McCabe, Smith, Harriot)
McGraw Hill, NY, 3 th ed.
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Module 1: Introduction
Lecture 1: Definition of a fluid and Newtons' law of viscosity
Introduction
Definition of fluid
Newton's law of viscosity
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Introduction
Fluid mechanics: Subject that deals with the study of the behavior of a fluid either at rest or in
motion.
At this level (undergraduate 2 nd year B. Tech. Chemical Engineering), it is expected that the
students learn
Fundamental concept of fluid statics and motions, including governing equations that describe
the basic principles
Pressure-drop calculations for a tubular flow, and flow in packed-beds of solid particles
Application of the basic knowledge of fluid mechanics in understanding the momentum
transfer based chemical engineering unit operations (UOPs), in particular
Filtration
Agitation
Air-particles separation (cyclone)

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Definition of fluid
In the present context of fluid mechanics, it is important to distinguish the behavior of a fluid from that
of a solid when subjected to a shear force (parallel to its surface).
Consider a solid element ‘ABCD' shown below (Fig 1a). The bottom section A B is fixed. A small
horizontal force is applied on the surface CD. The surface is ‘sheared'. The element CD deforms into
C'D' and then, into C”D”. However, an equilibrium position is achieved when the deformation stops.
The top layer is now stationary. The solid has, therefore, resisted the applied shear force.
(Fig. 1a )

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Now, consider a fluid element ‘ABCD' shown in Fig 1b. On the application of a shear force (no
matter how small it is!), the top surface CD will continue to move as long as the force is applied.
There will not be ‘equilibrium' position of any fluid element on the surface CD. Such behavior has
been validated experimentally, using a dye- marker test.
(Fig. 1b )

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We conclude
Fluid continues to deform (or move) under the application of a shear force.
Fluid at rest cannot sustain a shear stress.
Fluid resists deformation by attaining an equilibrium rate of deformation.

Viscosity is a property of the fluid which relates its resistance to the applied shear force.
Newton's law of viscosity

A class of fluids called Newtonian fluids such as water and air follow the behavior: “applied shear
stress varies linearly with the rate of deformation”. The mathematical representation is
for 1D-flow

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Lecture 2: Rate of strain, Non-Newtonian fluid
Rate of strain or strain rate or deformation rate
Revert to Newton's' 1st Law of viscosity
Non–Newtonian fluid (Introduction)

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Rate of strain or strain rate or deformation rate

Consider the flow of a fluid between two solid plates under the influence/application of a force
in X-direction on the top plate.
The bottom plate is stationary. The top surface of the fluid has a constant velocity,
It has been experimentally demonstrated that in such case ‘no – slip' condition exists. The
fluid layer in contact with the bottom solid surface will be stationary, whereas the layer in
contact with the top solid surface will move at the velocity, . The velocity profiles between
the plates will be linear.
(Fig. 2a)
As shown in figure 2a, the fluid element of length at time becomes at time,
. Difference in the displacements of Q and P to , respectively, is because of different
velocity at

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Therefore,
Difference in the length of the segments
elongation

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Revert to Newton's' 1 st Law of viscosity
It has been shown that
in general.
For Newtonian fluid (water, air, glycerin, etc): . For liquids, viscosity increases with
temperature. For gases, viscosity decreases with temperature.
For Non-Newtonian fluid: . Examples are sugar solution and polymers.
Therefore, General expression for shear stress
where, m is the flow consistency and n is the flow behaviour index.

Also known as power–Law model
also known as apparent viscosity

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Non – Newtonian fluid (Introduction)
(Fig 2b)
Newtonian: : air, water, glycerin
Bingham Plastic: : toothpaste
(Fluid does not move or deform till there is a critical stress)

Dilatant: : starch or sand suspension
or shear thickening fluid

(Fluid starts ‘thickening' with increase in its apparent viscosity)
Pseudo plastic: : paint or shear thinning fluid
(Fluid starts ‘thinning' with decrease in its apparent viscosity)
Note:
1. For some non-Newtonians fluids, viscosity or apparent viscosity may be time- dependent.
Such fluids are also called ‘Memory' fluids.
2. Rheology is a science of studying flow and behavior of polymeric fluids.

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Module 2: Fluid Statics

Lecture 3: Pascal's theorem, Basic equation
Fluid as a continuum or continuum based approach
Fluid Statics
The basic equation of fluid statics

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Fluid as a continuum or continuum based approach

Fluid is made of molecules. However, for most of the engineering applications, when we
speak of fluid's properties such as density, or conditions such as pressure and temperature,
we do not imply such properties or conditions of individual molecules, but those of “fluid” as a
whole.
In other words, we refer to the average or macroscopic aggregate effects of the fluid-
molecules, reflected in pressure, temperature, density, etc.
Such an approach to treating a fluid is called continuum based approach. In other words, fluid
is treated as continuum.
However, there is a restriction. The continuum approach can be applied only when the mean
free path of the fluid (largely, gas) is smaller (actually much smaller!!) than the physical
characteristic length of the system under consideration, say, the diameter of the tube in which
the gas flows, or size of a container in which gas is stored.
(Fig. 3a)
The continuum approach is usually not valid when the gas pressure is very small (few milli-
torr like in a vacuum), or the aperture size is small (like in an orifice)
Mathematically, for the continuum approach based model to hold good, where is the mean
free path of the gas molecule and is the characteristic length of the system. Alternatively,
Knudsen defined as .

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Fluid Statics
Concerned with forces in a stationary fluid
Recall. In a stationary fluid, shear stress . However, fluid can sustain the normal stress.
Fluid pressure: It is a normal force per unit area of the fluid element, acting inward onto
the element. Consider a fluid element, ABC:
(Fig. 3b)
Pressure acts inward on all three faces of the element.
Consider another fluid element:
(Fig. 3c)
Pressure also acts inward on the differential element dA

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Pascal's Theorem-Pressure at any point within a static fluid is the same in all directions.
Let us prove it. Consider a triangular fluid element ABC in a 2-D(x-z) scenario. Pressure acts
on all 3-faces of the element inward and normal to the surface.
(Fig. 3d) (Fig. 3e)
Force balance:
Taking limit

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The basic equation of fluid statics

1. First, let us calculate force on a fluid element because of pressure variation. Consider an
elemental fluid volume bounded by (ABCD)-(A'B'C'D') surfaces.
(Fig. 3f)
Pressure at is
Volume of the fluid under consideration is
Force acting on the face AA'C'C:
(+ ve direction)
Force acting on the face
(-ve direction)
(Neglecting the higher order terms or assuming linear variation over )

Differential force, (acting along –ve x-direction)
Similarly,
Therefore, we have expression for differential pressure–force
or,
If there is no pressure variation or pressure is uniform around an element, the net force is
zero,
or

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Lecture 4: Basic equation: derivation, pressure variation in an incompressible fluid
The basic equation of fluid statics (continued)
Pressure variation in an incompressible fluid

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The basic equation of fluid statics (continued)

2- Now, let us calculate pressure – gradient in a static fluid.
Identify all forces: pressure forces, and external body force which is gravity in the present
case.Consider a differential fluid elemental volume, .
Force Balance (in vector form )

(pressure force + gravitational force) = 0
or,
or, (form previous lecture)
or,
This is the basic (vector) equation for fluid statics.
The equation in the scalar form:
: x direction
: y direction
: z direction
Where,
If gravity acts in the negative z-direction
or
where

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Notes:
1. Pressure gradient in a static fluid is zero if there is no gravity. Alternatively, the net force
acting on a fluid volume is zero because pressure–force balances the force due to gravity.
Alternatively, pressure-variation occurs in a static fluid because of gravity only.
2. If the fluid is water, static pressure is often referred as ‘hydrostatic' pressure.
3. If a body is submerged in a fluid, which is in contact with (or open to) atmosphere, the
atmospheric pressure acts uniformly on the body. For most of the engineering applications
one is interested in calculating pressure due to the fluid only, ignoring the atmospheric
pressure. In such case, the pressure is specified as a gauge pressure (above the atmosphere
pressure): . Therefore, the gauge pressure may be negative if
the pressure in the fluid is sub or below atmospheric. Absolute pressure is always positive
4. Pressure in the atmosphere may vary, of course, over a relatively longer altitude, because the
density of air is small (1 kg/m 3 in comparison to 1000 kg/m 3 for water).
Consider an atmosphere consisting of ideal gases.
Static pressure gradient
And,
Substituting, (Fig. 4a)
or,
If or an isothermal atmosphere
And,
or,
The pressure varies (decreases) exponentially with altitude, if temperature variation is considered
negligible.

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Engineering calculations based on the fluid static equation
1. Pressure variation in an incompressible fluid
Integrating,
(Fig. 4b)
Therefore, pressure decreases lineally with altitude, or increases with depth in the fluid
(Fig. 4c)
or,
(Fig. 4d)
( , where is the depth of the fluid measured from the top )

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Lecture 5: Pressure variation in two immiscible fluids, manometer, barometer
Pressure- variation in two-immiscible liquids (one is heavier than the other)
Barometer (instrument to measure atmospheric pressure)
Monometer (to measurer pressure of the fluid in a device or container)
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(2) Pressure- variation in two-immiscible liquids (one is heavier than the

other)
(Fig. 5a)
Consider two liquids of densities . Depth (measured form the top) of the top-
fluid is and that of the bottom-fluid is
Put the co-ordinate axis at the bottom (left). The governing equation for the static fluid is
or
On integration,
Similarly,
or
One can get similar expression by putting the co-ordinate axis at the top of the surface, with z-axis
pointing vertically downward (right):
or,
On integration
Similarly,
or,
Note: Both expressions are same!

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(3) Barometer (Instrument to measure atmospheric pressure)
(Fig. 5b)
Neglect surface tension or capillary effects

Height of the liquid in the vertical tube is h measured from the free surface.
On integration,
But, at the same level and
Therefore, . is nothing but the vapor pressure of Hg in the space over the
liquid Hg in the tube. Generally, (very small at Room temperature). Hence,
. One can experimentally measure to show that
There are two problems in using water-barometer
1. Tube is long!
2. Vapor pressure of water is significantly larger than that of Hg, i.e., and should be
considered in the calculation!!

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(4) Monometer (To measure pressure of the fluid in a device or container)
(Fig. 5c)
On integration between
On integration between C and D
But,
Therefore,
Therefore,
However,
( NOTE at sea - level)

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Module 3: Hydrostatic forces on submerged bodies

Lecture 6: Calculation of vertical component
Hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces
Vertical component
Special case

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Hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces

Consider a surface AB of an object submerged in a liquid (not necessarily water; the name
hydrostatic force is, therefore, misnomer!). Top of the liquid-surface is exposed to atmosphere. The
co-ordinate axis has been placed at the bottom of the liquid.
(Fig. 6a)
Pressure ‘p’ acts normal to the elemental surface, dA at a distance ‘z’
(differential force) acting on the surface
.This is the force acting only due to hydrostatic (liquid) pressure. Therefore,
.Such direct integration can be performed only for special (well-defined) geometries such as an arc
of a circle because the normal to all arcs of the circle will pass through the center of the circle, or a
horizontal surface because in such case .
It is easier to work on the vertical and horizontal components of the force separately.

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Vertical component
Re-consider ‘AB’
(Fig. 6b)
The vertical force
(in the positive direction of Z)
(Fig. 6c)

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. Therefore,
(Fig. 6d)
Consider the following submerged surfaces. In all cases the vertical force (component of the
pressure force) is nothing but where is the volume of the liquid between the surface and
the top surface of the liquid. Think again. is nothing but the weight of the liquid on the
submerged surface.

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(Fig. 6f)
Special case:
(Fig. 6g)
What is the hydrostatic force acting on the horizontal surface AB?
What is the force acting or XY? ?

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The answer is: It is for the 1 st case and for the 2 nd case.
(Fig. 6h)
(Fig. 6i)
It is always the weight of the liquid column trapped between the surface and the free surface of the
liquid.
Note: along ‘AB'. Therefore, the pressure on AB is the same as that on any horizontal
surface at the same altitude or depth.

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Lecture 7: Calculation of horizontal component, buoyancy
Forces on submerged bodies (continued)
Buoyancy

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Forces on submerged bodies (continued)

Horizontal component
Re–consider the submerged surface ‘AB' in a liquid .
(Fig. 7a)
Pressure p acts normal to dA, the elemental surface of AB, at a distance Z from the origin or the
depth ‘h’ from the top of the liquid surface.
differential pressure-force acting in x-direction
(Fig. 7b)
------------(i)

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Let us calculate this integral for simple geometries.
(Fig. 7c)
See the figure presented above. All four surfaces marked as ‘AB' have the same projected area,
marked as A'B', on Y-Z plane because the depths (h1 and h2) of A and B are the same for all four
geometries. Therefore, will assume identical values for all cases as follows:
(Assuming unit width of the surface)
(Fig. 7d)
Let us re-arrange the right hand Side of the expression
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Therefore, it may be said that the horizontal component of the hydrostatic pressure-force on a
submerged surface is the hydrostatic pressure on the centroid of the projected surface on y-z
plane, multiplied by the area of the projection. Alert: line of action of the force doses not pass
through the centroid! One will have to determine it.
This can be shown that this is true for all submerged surfaces. Let us consider an object
whose projection on y-z plane is a triangular surface. Therefore, for such object, F_x may be
calculated as follows:
(Fig. 7e)
Area of triangle ABC where, is the depth of the centroid of
, where AD is the altitude of the triangle ABC.
Area of the triangle
To this end,
Or

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Buoyancy
It is a net vertical force acting on the submerged body in a fluid, due to the hydrostatic pressure
distribution. It is not a fundamental or physical force. It is an artifact of net pressure distribution in
the vertical direction
, where is the volume of displaced fluid. The force acts vertically upward.
Consider a cylinder of length ‘l’ and diameter ‘d’ immersed in the fluid:
(Fig. 7f)
Vertical force acting on the vertical side is zero.
Vertical force acting on the top circular surface
Note that this is the weight of the fluid trapped between the free surface of the fluid and the top
surface of the object, and acts vertically downward)
(Fig. 7g)

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Vertical force on the bottom surface

, which acts vertically upward. Note that this is the weight of the fluid trapped
in the column of height over the bottom surface of the cylinder.
(Fig. 7h)
Net force (vertical) on the cylinder ,which is the same as , where
is the volume of the cylinder. Thus, buoyancy is the weight of the displaced fluid by the cylinder,
acting upward.

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Lecture 8: Examples
Examples on forces on stationary submerged bodies

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Lecture 8: Examples
Examples on forces on stationary submerged bodies
Example1:
See the drawing below. A tank is filled with water. At the bottom of the tank, a gate AB is hinged at
A. To keep the gate in place, a vertical force, is applied at the distance of 1m from the hinge.
Compute . Given g =10 m/s2 . The width of the gate is 2 m.
(Fig. 8a)
Weight of water over AB will make the gate open in the clockwise direction. F acting vertically
upward will keep the gate in place (rotational equilibrium). Note that the weight of the water-column
of height 3 m will be acting on the gate and be uniform.
Therefore,
And, this force will act at a distance of 0.75 m from A.

(Moment about A)
(Fig. 8b)

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Lecture 8: Examples
Example 2:
Consider a vertical water-gate AB of height 2 m hinged at ‘O’, the center of the gate. Determine the
horizontal force required to hold the gate in place. The gate is 1 m wide.
(Fig. 8c)
Consider the section AO (above the hinge). The hydrostatic pressure-force acting horizontally will
make the gate rotate in the clockwise direction, whereas that below the hinge ‘O’ will make the gate
rotate in the anti-clockwise direction. Take moment about ‘O’ of these forces and equate to that of F:
(Fig. 8d)

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Lecture 8: Examples
Example 3:
See the figure below. On one-side of the wall, AB, are filled two immiscible liquids, oil and water.
Calculate the horizontal force acting on the wall. Plot pressure-distribution. Assume the width of the
wall = 0.5 m
(Fig. 8e)
Horizontal force acting on AO

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Lecture 8: Examples
Horizontal force acting on OB
Pressure-distribution is linear
(Fig. 8f)

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Module 4: Fluid Dynamics

Lecture 9: Lagrangian and Eulerian approaches; Euler's acceleration formula
Fluid Dynamics: description of fluid-motion
Lagrangian approach
Eulerian approach (a field approach)

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Fluid Dynamics: description of fluid-motion

Consider 2D flow of a fluid.
(Fig. 9a)
There are two approaches to describe the motion of a fluid and its associated
properties.
1. Lagrangian approach
2. Eulerian approach

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Lagrangian approach:
Identify (or label) a material of the fluid; track (or follow) it as it moves, and monitor change in its
properties. The properties may be velocity, temperature, density, mass, or concentration, etc in the
flow field.
Refer the above-figure. The ‘material’ or ‘particle’ of the fluid ‘A’ at time t has moved to some other
location at time t’. Its property, say temperature, is recorded, as the material moves in the flow-field:
Note that the recorded temperatures are associated with the same fluid particle, but at different
locations and at different times.
Think of a temperature sensor attached to a balloon, both having negligible mass and floating in the
atmosphere and recording the atmosphere-temperature or the temperature of the flow-field. In such
case, the following temperature-data are recorded by the sensor:
The time change of the temperature in such a measurement is denoted as which is called
material derivative or substantial derivative. It reflects time change in the temperature (or any other
properties) of the labeled /marked/tagged fluid particles as observed by an observer moving with the
fluid. Lagrangian approach is also called “particle based approach”.

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Eulerian approach (a field approach)

Identify (or label) a certain fixed location in the flow field and follow change in its property, as
different materials pass through that location. In such case, the following property, say temperature
is recorded by the sensor :
Note that the recorded temperatures are associated with the fixed location in the flow-fluid, having
different fluid elements at different times.
The time- change of the temperature in such a measurement is denoted as which is
called the partial derivativeof the temperature with respect to time. Note that the suffix (x,y,z) implies
that the observer records the change in the property at the fixed location (x,y,z).
is also called the local rate of change of that property (temperature in this case).

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The two derivatives are related to each other:
where, property (temperature, concentration, velocity, etc)
If
: Euler’s acceleration formula.
may be recognized as acceleration or particle-acceleration. It represents a physical acceleration.
For example, one can write
(Newton’s 2nd law of motion)
All it means is that the Newton’s 2 nd law of motion, which is generally applied for a solid
object, can also be applied or written for a fluid element or fluid flow! It also follows that
Physical mass cannot be created or destroyed !!
We will see later, can be, however, zero or non-zero.

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Lecture 10: Steady and unsteady state
Steady state

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In this lecture we discuss steady state/unsteady state condition for velocity fields.
Steady state
The steady state condition for a flow-field implies that the velocity field and any property associated
with the flow field remain unchanged with time.
In other words, local derivative of the velocity is zero.
Mathematically, 0. The concentration and temperature fields, if associated will also be under
steady–state:
As explained below, may or may not be zero.
Consider the flow of a fluid through a convergent nozzle. If the velocity field is steady, or the flow–
field is under steady-state conditions, . However, an observer moving with the flow field will
experience ‘acceleration' as he moves from the larger diameter-section to the smaller diameter-
section of the nozzle. This is because the velocity increases as the diameter of the nozzle
decreases. Therefore, velocity remains unchanged with time anywhere in the flow- field. However, it
has a spatial variation, or
(Fig. 10a)
, , (between 1-2)
The last expression is tantamount to saying that the velocity of a labeled or marked material-particle
is not constant, as it moves from the larger section to the smaller section of the nozzle.

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Example 1: At a certain time, the concentration of measured at a location near a power-plant

(A) is 200 ppm (parts per million). The concentration at ‘B', 1 km downstream, is measured to
be 10 ppm. At this instance, the average wind velocity is 1 km/hr. The wind is blowing in the
direction of the higher (A) to lower concentration (B). If a balloon-sensor floating with the wind
records a decrease of 50 ppm per hour, as it flows past ‘B', determine the rate of increase of the
concentration measured by a stationary observer at ‘B'.
(Fig. 10b)
(Assume that the concentration gradient between two locations is linear)

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Example 2: A boat has a thermo-server attached to it. While floating with the fluid, it measures the
temperature of the fluid. Both flow and temperature are under unsteady-state condition:
Determine the rate of change of the temperature recorded by the sensor at t = 1, when the boat
flows past the location, whose spatial co-ordinates are .
; ;
Here,
Substituting;
(Note:

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Module 5: Reynolds Transport Theorem

Lecture 11: Control mass, control volume, mass-, momentum-, kinetic energy balance
Mathematical analysis of fluid motion and associated properties
Reynolds Transport Theorem

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Mathematical analysis of fluid motion and associated properties
There are two ways to carry out the analysis:
Control mass: In such an analysis, a fixed mass of fluid element in the flow-field is identified
and conservation equations for properties such as momentum, energy or concentration are
written. The identified mass moves around in the flow-field. Its property may change from one
location to another; however, the property must correspond to the same contents of the
identified fluid element. In general, such approach is mathematically or experimentally difficult
to apply.
Control volume: This approach is popular and widely applied in the analysis. An arbitrary
fixed volume located at a certain place in the flow-field is identified and the conservation
equations are written. The property under consideration or analysis may change with time.
If is a general property associated with fluid, then and may be considered
to describe change in the property, of the fluid, following the control mass (CM) and
control volume (CV)approach, respectively.
The surface which bounds CV is called control surface (CS). In the CV approach, the
co-ordinate axis is first fixed. A ‘CV’ is then marked in the flow-field. Choice of location
and shape of CV are important for mathematical formulation.

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Reynolds Transport Theorem
We exclude the derivation of the theorem from the present course; however discuss the significance
and the application of the same. The theorem relates the rate of change of a property associated with
a CV to the material or particle rate of change of that property. Consider a CV bound by the CS
through which a fluid flows, described by the flow field, relative to co-ordinates
. As per the definition, CV is fixed in the flow field:
(Fig. 11a)
N is a property associated with flow field in CV. N could be either mass or momentum or energy or
concentration of a species dispersed in the fluid. The theorem states:
where is the specific property, N/M, where M = mass of fluid in volume .
or,
Note that if the property is mass, .

If the property is momentum, .
If the property is kinetic energy, .

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Let us give physical interpretation to the above three forms of the theorem.
The first term is the rate of change in the property contained in the CV, which is fixed in the
flow field. This term also describes if the property is under steady state or not, or if there is any
accumulation of the property, N in the CV.
The 2 nd term represents the material rate of change of the property and may be seen as the
rate of generation of the property. Note that if because mass of the fluid
particles initially marked in CV cannot change, nor it can be generated or destroyed, as the
particles move in the flow field.
The 3 rd term represents the net rate of change in the property because of the flow of the fluid
in and out of the CV through CS. is the rate of volumetric flux in and out of dA, a
differential area on CS. is the rate of mass flux. is the rate of the property-
flux in and out of the differential area is the rate of the total property over the
entire CV.
Take a simple CV in the flow field, shown by the dotted line.
(Fig. 11b)
It is easier to show that the last term
In such case, the fluid enters and leaves the CS only through and . The remaining surface of
CS is impervious to the mass.

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Lecture 12: Conservation of mass and examples
Conservation of mass

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Conservation of mass
N = property =M; Therefore,
Apply Reynold’s Transport Theorem:
(Fig. 12a)
(Particle-mass cannot be created or destroyed)

The 1st term of the right-hand-side is zero: particle-mass cannot be created or destroyed.
Therefore, : conservation of mass equation
Note that of a fluid in a CV may change with time, for example, in a tank filled with air and
water. If water is drained out, of the mixture (air + water) will vary with time. Message: Be
careful while evaluating the integral, whether under evaluation refers to the density of a
pure fluid or fluids-mixture.

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Example 1: Consider a closed tank partially filled with water. In such case air is trapped at the top.
Tank is filled with water at the rate of 1m/s through a nozzle of 10 cm inside-diameter and drained
from the bottom at the rate of 0.5m/s through a nozzle of 5 cm diameter. Determine the rate of
change in the height of water. The diameter of the tank is 5 m.
(Fig. 12b)
Ans: Consider the drawn above. Note that is chosen in such a way that the CS is
perpendicular to the inlet and outlet nozzles of the tank.
The LHS term of the Reynolds transport theorem or conservation of mass:

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It is assumed that the water velocity is uniform over the inlet- and outlet ports. Also, note that the
velocity vector of incoming water to the inlet of the tank is opposite to the area- vector.
Simplifying,
Example 2: Consider the steady-state flow of water in a circular tube of variable area:
(Fig. 12c)
The velocity at the inlet to the tube is uniform at . The velocity profile in both sections of the tube
is parabolic.
Apply the conservation of mass equation to calculate maximum velocity in the tube (both sections) in
terms of known quantities.
Consider :
(1 st term is zero for steady-state condition)

Therefore,
: , where

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The RHS of the above equation is the integral (over the entire cross-section) of the differential
volumetric flow rate:
(Fig. 12d)
Or Ans.
Apply the conservation law again over larger to show that,
Ans.
Further, (for the 2 nd section) (for the 1 st section)
or,
Re-visit,
or, (volumetric flow rate)

or, , average velocity in the section
Compare to to show that .

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Lecture 13: Continuity, Momentum theorem
Differential form of mass-conservation
B. Momentum - conservation equation

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Differential form of mass-conservation

In the previous lecture, we considered the conservation of total mass over a CV, by applying the
general Reynolds Transport theorem. Now, we obtain the differential form of the equation, also
known as the continuity equation. Consider CV of
(Fig. 13a)
CV is bound by six CSs.

fluid- density
Consider CS marked 1:
Rate of mass-in:
(It is equivalent to to of the Reynold’s transport theorem)
CS marked 2:
Rate of mass-out:

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Net rate of change in mass in x-direction
Similar expressions can be obtained for the other directions, for examples,
Net rate of accumulation of mass in CV
Therefore,
The significance of this expression is the same as that for the total mass-conservation rule applied to
a CV in the earlier lecture
Re- arrange:
This is the vector-form of continuity-equation and readily applied for all co-ordinate systems. In this
course we will focus mostly on Cartesian and cylindrical 1D or 2D geometry. To this end, the above
conservation equation may also be written as:
Re-call the difference between
if the flow is steady
if the fluid is incompressible,

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In other words, local density my change with time ,as the fluid enters and leaves a ‘CV’ at
different rates resulting in the accumulation or depletion of mass of the matter per unit volume of the
CV. This is referred as the unsteady-state. However, if the fluid is incompressible, its density will be
constant and the material rate of change of density will be zero.
(incompressible fluid) can be written for 2D geometries as :
: Cartesian
: Cylindrical
Pay special attention to the last term of the above-equation. For 1D radial flow,
.
(Fig. 13b)
const under steady-state.
To sum-up, total mass flow rate is constant at all locations in the r-direction. However,
mass flux changes because the differential area changes in the r-direction

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B. Momentum - conservation equation
(Fig. 13c)
Reynolds Transport Theorem:
Property,
1 st Term: local rate of change of momentum in CV

2 nd Term: Net rate of momentum in and out of CV through CS.
3 rd Term: material or partial –rate of change of momentum, and it may be seen as the external
body-force or the source term for the generation of momentum by the external forces.
Mathematically,
Re-write

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Lecture 14: Momentum theorem examples
Momentum-Theorem (Example)

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Momentum-Theorem (Example)
1. Consider the steady-state flow of water though a reducing bend. The water-velocity is
uniform at the inlet and outlet cross-section . If the water enters
the bend at and is discharged at to the atmosphere, determine the force
required to hold the bend in place or the force acting on the bend. Neglect the weight of the
bend and water in the bend.
(Fig. 14a)
Choose CV so that CS is perpendicular to the velocity field at the inlet and the outlet. Apply
momentum theorem:
Under steady-state, 1 st term of the RHS is zero.

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Note that , which follows from continuity. Apply continuity under SS:
Therefore,
Let us make free-body- diagram on CV
(Fig. 14b)
There are pressure forces acting on by the water; reaction forces on CV, Rx and Ry
(reaction forces from the support to hold bend in place). Atmospheric pressure acts uniformly over
the entire CV, except on where the pressure is (absolute). Therefore, add and substract
to make the contribution of atmosphere zero on CV. In other words, .

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to hold the bend in place
2. Consider the flow of an incompressible fluid under steady-state in an expander:
(Fig. 14c)
Fluid-velocity is uniform at the entrance and at the outlet . Pressures
are considered also uniform at sections 1 and 2 of the nozzle. Atmospheric pressure acts uniformly
on the nozzle. Calculate the pressure drop .
Choose CV as shown below:
(Fig. 14d)

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(velocity everywhere in the smaller cross-section

Apply continuity over the same CV:
Or,
Substitute,
neglecting viscous forces (friction on wall)
, neglecting viscous forces.
Equating, Ans.
Choice of CV is important. If CV is chosen so that the CS cuts the nozzle, then there will be
reaction forces, which will be unknown:
(Fig. 14e)
; However there is no viscous force as in the previous case!
Weight of the nozzle and the water inside. The latter–CV may be chosen when the question
posed is: determine the force to hold the nozzle in place.

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Lecture 15: Equation of motion
Equation of motion
Time-Smoothening of The Equation of The Change

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Equation of motion
(Differential form of momentum conservation rate).
Before we apply Reynolds Transport theorem, it is important to understand the forces acting on a
fluid-element.
We have earlier noted that the only force acting on a static fluid is the normal force or the pressure
acting normal to the surface of the fluid element.
Static fluid:
(Fig. 15a)
In flowing fluid, there is a tangential force or shear force acting parallel to the surface of the fluid-
element. Thus, there are two types of stress developed in a flowing fluid: one is the normal stress,
and the other is the shear stress, :
(Fig. 15b)

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It is shown that, where is the strain rate.
In the case of a static fluid, at any location in the fluid. In a moving fluid,
however, :
(Fig. 15c)
If fluid is inviscid,
And, , as in the case of a static fluid
For a 3D flow, there are two and one on a plane, as shown below
(Fig. 15d)
There are sign conventions:
x: direction of normal to the plane or the direction of the area
y: direction of shear stress

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Therefore, for a 3D fluid-element, there are six shear stresses and 3 normal stresses
(Fig. 15e)
The stresses are represented as
It can be shown that shear stresses are symmetric: etc, at any location in the flow-field
The Newton’s law of viscosity relates shear-stress to velocity gradient via the viscosity of a
fluid. For 1D flow of a Newtonian fluid,

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is the velocity gradient and can also be represented as the strain rate. In general, when
shear stress is applied on a fluid-volume, there are translation, deformation, dilation, rotation and
distortion, mathematically expressed by strain rates. Analogous to the representation of shear
stresses, strain rates are represented as the combination of the following velocity gradients:
The Newton’s extended law of viscosity relates . For example,
Again, it is obvious that if a fluid is stationary or inviscid

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Equation of motion (conservation of momentum in differential form)

Consider flow of an incompressible fluid
(Fig. 15f)
X-momentum balance:
(Fig. 15g)
See the figure above.

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(due to flow) = Differential force acting on
= shear-stress normal stress
F body force = (due to gravity)
Newton’s 2 nd law of motion can be applied on CV
or,
or,
Insert the expressions for and simplify for an incompressible fluid

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Similarly, one can write (or develop) y-momentum balance equation
In vector form
1 st term: Accumulation or transient or unsteady state

2 nd term: inertial (convective momentum flux)
3 rd term: pressure force
4 th term: viscous forces
5 th term: External body-force
We call this equation Navier-Stokes (NS) equation
Assumptions: (1) (incompressible fluid)
(2) Newtonian fluid
(3) Laminar flow

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Module 6: Navier-Stokes Equation

Lecture 16: Couette and Poiseuille flows
NS equation and example
Ex.1 Couette–flow:

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NS equation and examples
Before we apply the NS equation, let us make a note that the NS equation is a 2 nd order PDE.
Therefore, 2 BCs are required for along each direction to solve for the velocity-field. We should
note the common boundary conditions:
1. No slip condition at the solid surface: it is an experimental observation that the relative
velocity at the surface is zero. So, at a stationary solid surface
2. At the interface of liquid-gas or liquid–liquid (immiscible fluids), there is no jump in the
velocity, shear stress and pressure
(Fig. 16a)
(gradients maybe different)
3. Symmetric BC:
At the center- line of tube or rectangular channel, velocity- gradient is zero.
(Fig. 16b)

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Ex.1 Couette–flow
Consider the steady-state 2D-flow of an incompressible Newtonian fluid in a long horizontal
rectangular channel. The bottom surface is stationary, whereas the top surface is moved horizontally
at the constant velocity, . Determine the velocity field in the channel. Assume fully developed flow.
(Fig. 16c)
Assumption: is applicable
Fully developed flow:

(Note: this statement is equivalent to saying, neglect the end effects)
Apply continuity:
For fully developed flow, first term is zero.

is constant along y direction.
But, at y = ± (no- slip condition)

So, everywhere.

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Module 6: Navier-Stokes Equation ;

Apply NS in x-direction:
1 st term is zero for SS for fully developed flow; . Horizontal Therefore,
the equation is simplified as
No external pressure was applied and in addition, it is a long plate
Integrate twice,
Apply BC (1) (no slip condition)
BC (2)
Solve for to obtain
This is the expression for velocity profiles in a Couette flow
(Note: at ).
(Fig. 16d)

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Example 2: Suppose that an external pressure-drop along x-direction is applied across the
channel, in addition to the conditions mentioned in example 1. Now, calculate the velocity profiles in
the channel.
X- momentum balance is now modified to
Y – momentum balance:
But is a function of y only. This implies that (constant)
Integrating twice,
Apply BCs to obtain
You should check the two BCs.

Special case 1. (Same as in example 1)
2.
, where,

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This is called Poiseuille-flow (velocity profile is parabolic)
(Fig. 16e)
Determine the average velocity in the channel
Simplify to show that
or,
Next, plot for Poiseuille and Couette flow

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1. : Poiseuille flow
(Fig. 16f)
2.
(Fig. 16g)

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Lecture 17: Tubular laminar flow and Hagen-Poiseuille equation
Steady-state, laminar flow through a horizontal circular pipe

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Steady-state, laminar flow through a horizontal circular pipe
(Fig. 17a)
Assumptions: (no swirling, circulation)
We are interested in solving
Continuity:
Fully developed flow :
Therefore, r
But (No- slip condition)
everywhere.
So, the problem is reduced to solving .

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NS (X-direction):
From the formulation of the problem, 1 st , 2 nd , and 3 rd terms on the LHS are zero.
r-
direction:
O-
direction:
Note:
Re-look at last two equations.
and depend on gravity. There is no viscous effects
depends on viscous forces only. There are no gravitational effects.
Therefore, define non-gravitational pressure, so that
or
Check: this definition of satisfies the above momentum-balance equation.
Therefore,
Substitute,
Say, (const )
integrate twice to obtain

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Apply BC1: (symmetric BC)
(No slip BC)
where,
Note that velocity profile is parabolic in the tube.

Calculate,
volumetric flow rate
You should be able to show that
Or,
Re–arrange,
This equation to calculate pressure-drop in a horizontal pipe of Length L and inside-diameter D, for a
viscous incompressible fluid flowing under steady-state fully developed laminar condition, is known
as Hagen-Poiseuille equation

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Lecture 18: Macroscopic momentum balance for pressure-drop in a tubular flow
Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid - macroscopic pressure-drop balance

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Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid - macroscopic pressure-drop balance

In the previous lecture, we applied the NS equation to obtain an expression for the pressure–drop in
a tube for the condition of the steady-state laminar flow of a Newtonian fluid. We can also derive the
same expression, the Hagen- poiseuille equation, by making an integral (macroscopic) force balance.
(Fig. 18a)
If the flow is laminar (Re<2100) the velocity profile is parabolic:
For the Newtonian fluid,
and,
Therefore, : shear-stress varies linearly in r-direction of the tube.
Now, make a force balance over
which is the same as that obtained by applying differential momentum balance (NS equation) and
then integrating with BCs.

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From the above expression, one can also determine viscosity of a fluid by measuring
pressure- drop across a tube for different flowrates:
(Fig. 18b)
The above-plot is known as pseudo-shear diagram, which is generally used to determine the
viscosity of a slurry-mixture. A similar approach can be followed to determine the viscosity or
effective viscosity of Non-Newtonian fluids.
Bingham plastic fluid
Such a fluid has the following shear-stress vs strain rate characteristics:
-----------(1)
where is known as the yield stress. Fluid is supposed to be ‘frozen’ if
or,

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If the flow is laminar, the velocity profile is parabolic near the walls and is uniform in the central core of
the tube. Shear-stress in such fluid also varies linearly with r:
(Fig. 18c)
Equation (1) can be integrated with to obtain:
Therefore,

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The uniform velocity within the core of the tube
Again,
Integrate as an exercise to obtain
(Fig. 18d)

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Module 7: Energy conservation

Lecture 19: Mechanical energy balance
Energy Conservation Equation

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Energy Conservation Equation

Similar to the derivation of continuity and momentum conservation equations, one can also apply
Reynolds Transport equation to obtain the energy-conservation equation. In this course, we
will, however, not derive the expression and restrict our discussion to the salient features of the
equation and its application to the fluid-flow.
For a flow-system, (specific property) for energy consists of three terms :
where, N = total property
Re-call, for N= mass
for N = momentum
for N= energy (J)
KE PE IE
The three terms may be recognized as kinetic energy, potential energy, and internal energy,
respectively.

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Reynolds transport equation:
has two components; (1) surface-work because of flow and (2) shaft-work.
, surface-work also consists of two terms, or is contributed by two forces

(shear and normal )
(Fig. 19a)

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If (stagnant fluid) there is no surface work,
is the shaft- work, for example, due to a turbine or a pump or blower, which delivers
energy to the fluid or vice-versa. if the machine is turbine
if the machine is pump or blower
can also be written as
Note that is zero if
(inviscid fluid)
(tangential velocity) = 0
(choice of CS)
The general energy-balance equation can be re-arranged to obtain the following expression for a
CV:
The terms of the equation are accumulation, conduction, shaft-work, viscous work, and energy efflux
across CS, including pressure- energy .
For most engineering applications of steady-state, two–port system (one inlet and one outlet),
uniform flow over the ports (1-D flow), and being perpendicular to CS (by a suitable choice), one
can obtain the following expression for energy- conservation:

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Moreover, if the flow is under isothermal condition without exchange of heat with surrounding
(insulated system) and
Note: unit of each term is or
If (no pump or turbine)
over two ports system, for example, in a tube or pipe or a tank:
(Fig. 19b)
The above conservation equation is also known as mechanical energy balance, consisting of
KE, PE, and pressure- energy. Each term is also known as ‘head’. We re-note the assumptions
made in obtaining the above ME balance equation.
(1) SS (2) isothermal (3) No shaft work (4) negligible viscous work, .
It is important to note that viscous work can be neglected if the fluid is inviscid or a suitable choice
of CS so that is perpendicular to CS.

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Lecture 20: Bernoulli equation and applications
Bernoulli equation and applications

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Bernoulli equation and applications

In the previous lecture, we obtained an expression for the conservation of mechanical energy in a
flowing system. We will like to apply the same expression between two points or location in the flow-
field. Before that, let us understand ‘streamlines’ and “stream tubes”.
Streamline – it represents a line drawn in the flow field such that tangent drawn at every point of it
is in the direction of the local velocity vector,
(Fig. 20a)
Note that streamline will change in the unsteady-state flow field. Also, note that laminar flow is
represented/ characterized by streamlines (turbulent flow is characterized by eddy, irregular, unstable
flow patterns). If we inject dyes or color at a certain location in the laminar flow, we can track the
path of dyes and visualize streamlines. Similarly, if we inject or sprinkle several tiny (mass-less)
needles in the fluid under steady- state laminar flow conditions, the needles will align themselves
along the fluid- flow path. A hypothetical line connecting the head of the needles may be considered
to be ‘streamline.
Two streamlines cannot cross each other, because there will be two velocities at the point of
intersection, which is not possible.
On similar note, mass cannot cross a streamline. Based on the understanding of streamlines,
one can visualize a stream tube as a hypothetical 3D tube encompassing streamlines inside,
whose surface also consists of streamlines.
Note that at the entry and exit of the stream tube

(marked in bold lines), velocity is perpendicular to
the CS.
(Fig. 20b)

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It can be said that fluid cannot cross the CS of the stream tube, and therefore, the outer boundary or
CS of the tube may be replaced with a solid wall!
We can now apply the mechanical energy balance equation to the CV of a stream tube
between ports 1 and 2:
constant, with the assumptions
(a) (2) (3) laminar flow (4) inviscid fluid or no viscous loss, and (5)
isothermal.
Under the extreme case of zero width or diameter of 3D stream tube, the equation may be
applied between points 1 and 2 along a streamline
(Fig. 20c)
The same equation gets a name, the famous “Bernoulli equation” with the additional constraint (6)
that this equation must be applied along a streamline. See the figure below. The BE cannot be
applied between ‘1’ and ’3’, because they do not lie on a streamline, but can be applied between ‘1’
and ‘2’.
(Fig. 20d)

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It is interesting to mention that if there is a pump which delivers energy to the fluid and if there are
viscous losses because of friction with the walls or expansion or contraction, the BE is modified as
an engineering approximation :
Example: An inverse U-tube is used to drain water from a tank or reservoir. The bend of the
inverted tube is 1m above the free surface of the water in the tank and 10 m above the ground
where the water is discharged. Water exits the tube at atmospheric pressure. Determine the
pressure in the bend.
(Fig. 20e)
To apply BE, assume
, and neglect viscous losses (losses in the bend or due to wall-friction)

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Apply BE between (1) and (B). (It is obvious that we have chosen a streamline along (1) and (B),
shown as a dotted line)
, where
and are the elevations from a reference line.

(considering that the tank area is significantly larger than the tube’s size,
which is always true). Mathematically, one can apply continuity in such case:
Therefore,
Obtain . How? Apply continuity between ‘B' and ‘2’
Obtain . How? Apply BE between ‘1’and ‘2’
Substitute to obtain
Substitute to obtain

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Lecture 21: Minor loss, kinetic energy correction factor
Energy balance equation: Minor losses

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Energy balance equation: Minor losses

The energy balance equation contains a term, ‘ ’ which represents irreversible conversion of
viscous work to thermal energy and is always ‘+ ve’:
(neglecting any shaft work)
(Note: it has been shown that

Minor losses refer to the losses in pipe bends, fittings, valves, and nozzles, etc, whereas major
losses refer to the same in a long pipe or tube. We will first minor losses.
Example1 Consider the following system of pipe flow, consisting of several fittings such as pipe
bends, and valves:
(Fig. 21a)
As the fluid flows through pipe and associated fittings, including valves, there is invariably loss of
mechanical energy, which may be mathematically quantified as: , where, is often calculated
at the inlet to the fitting or valves and K is known as loss coefficient and depends on Reynolds
number and type of fittings. The manufacturers of valves and fittings provide ‘K’ value. For example:
Fitting K
Globe - valve (fully-open) 10

half open 20
Gate- value (fully- open) 0.3
half open 5

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In general, loss in the globe valves is more than that in gate valves, because of the fact that fluid
changes its direction sharply in the former. The globe valves are preferred over gate valves because
of better flow-control.
Losses also occur in flange or weld joints connecting two pipes or fittings. Losses are also accounted
for in diverging or converging nozzles or expanders, or where there are geometrical changes:
(Fig. 21b)
Apply mechanical energy balance between 1 and 2:
(assuming velocity profiles are uniform over the cross- sections at 1 and 2)
One can also apply continuity and momentum-balance equations between ‘1’ and ‘2’:
(1)
(2) (CV is marked with dotted line)

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(Fig. 21c)
It is an experimental observation that .
Therefore,
Or,
(It is left as an exercise to the students to obtain the above–derivation from combined mass,
moments, and energy conservations)
Thus, we have shown that,
For a converging channel, viscous loss, is also estimated as
Note that is the velocity in the converging section and is the cross-sectional area at the
section where “Vena-Contracta" (or, the minimum flow area) occurs:

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(Fig. 21d)
We revert to “Vena–Contracta” later in the course.
Before we take–up the topic on flow measuring devices, which are related to the application of
mechanical energy balance, we address kinetic energy correction factor:
Consider the flow of viscous fluid in a tube. The flow is under laminar conditions and the velocity
profile is parabolic:
(Fig. 21e)

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We are interested in evaluating total KE across the section:
One can also evaluate KE based on the average velocity, as
where
Kinetic energy correction factor is defined as
or
It is left as an exercise to show that

If the flow is turbulent, is approximated between
The advantage of defining is now clear. For a tubular laminar flow, one can write the energy
conservator equation in terms of average velocity, , without evaluating the complex integral:
= constant
KE correction factor

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Lecture 22: Flow measuring devices
The energy balance equation–flow measuring devices

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The energy balance equation–flow measuring devices

In this lecture, we discuss a few common devices, which are mostly based on the principle of
general mechanical energy balance, to measure the volumetric flow rate of a fluid:
1. Venturimeter
2. Orificemeter
3. Pitot tube
4. Rotameter*
The first three devices are based on the mechanical energy balance. *The last instrument is based
on a simple force balance.
(a) Venturimeter: it is a simple instrument having a converging–diverging section installed in a
pipe. Pressure-drop is measured across two sections and is correlated to the flow rate, accounting
for the viscous (minor) loss.
(Fig. 22a)

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(Neglecting minor-loss)
(Minor–loss can be minimized by slowly or gradually expanding the diverging section. That is why,
the venturimeters are long, bulky, and expensive)
(without loss)
For Venturimeters, or actual flowrate is calculated as, where is

called the discharge coefficient and accounts for minor–loss or viscous–loss, because of non-
uniform flow– patterns in the converging–diverging sections and at throat. The supplier of the
instrument provides a plot to calculate :
(Fig. 22b)

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(b) Orifice meter: The instrument has an orifice–plate (circular plate with a small hole) inserted
across the section of the pipe or tube:
(Fig. 22c)
In such a device, the flow from the upstream–section accelerates as the flow-area decreases from
the section 1 to 2 at the orifice. The flow continues to accelerate, or the main flow area continues to
decrease till the section 2 and further downstream of the orifice at C, before it starts increasing
downstream. The section at C contains the minimum flow area, known as vena–contracta.
Similar to the analysis carried out for venturimeter, one can calculate the ideal or theoretical flow
rate:
To account for viscous-losses, a parameter is defined, so that
and
C is known as the discharge coefficient and is the velocity-of-approach factor.
A single factor, flow coefficient is used to express
K is reported in a graph supplied by the manufactures.

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(Fig. 22d)
(C) Pitot tube: In such a device, part of the flow is made stagnant so that the entire KE of the
fluid is converted into pressure–energy. A small opening is made in the device, parallel to the flow,
where the pressure is the same as the fluid pressure.
(Fig. 22e)
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 1’
(along the same–streamline; flow is parallel to opening )

Static pressure
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between 1and 2
But,
Therefore,
By measuring the difference between stagnation and static pressures, one can calculate the velocity
and the volumetric flow rate.

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Lecture 23: Major loss in pipe flow
Mechanical energy balance: Major loss (frictional loss in pipe)

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In earlier lecture, we obtained an expression for pressure-drop in a pipe or tube for the flow of a fluid
under laminar conditions:
The expression was obtained analytically by applying the NS equation and integrating the same with
appropriate boundary conditions. The expression (also known as the Hagen–Poiseuille equation)
was also derived by making the force-balance over a CV in the tube. It is important to note that
such mathematical treatment can be carried out, only if the flow is laminar.
Laminar flow refers to the flow which can be characterized by streamlines. The flow is
controlled by viscous effects and the fluid velocity is relatively smaller. A parabolic-velocity
profile obtained in a tube for a fluid–flow at small velocity is a good example of laminar-flow
conditions.
(Fig. 23a)
Turbulent flow: Such flow occurs at relatively larger velocities and is characterized by chaotic
behavior, irregular motion, large mixing, and eddies. For such flow, inertial effects are more
pronounced than viscous effects. Mathematically, velocity field is represented as , or the
velocity fluctuates at small time scales around a large time-averaged velocity. Similarly,
etc

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In the latter lectures, we will see that a parameter called Reynolds number is used to
characterize laminar flow vis a vis turbulent flow. If for a tubular flow, the flow-
characteristic is observed to be laminar and , the flow is turbulent.
Re- visiting the Hagen–Poiseuille equation for pressure- drop:
or,
It follows that, if we apply the mechanical energy balance equation between two sections of a
horizontal pipe through which there is a laminar flow under steady-state conditions, we can show
that
where,

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Thus, we have obtained an expression to calculate , major loss in the pipe because of viscous-
effect.
Considering that, for turbulent flow the velocity or pressure–fields may not be exactly
(analytically) represented, one resorts to dimensional analysis.
(Fig. 23b)
The experimental observations suggest that pressure drop in a pipe–flow under turbulent conditions
depends on Reynolds number and surface roughness.

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Taking an analogy from the major–loss for a laminar–flow
wl =
At this point, an engineering parameter called friction–factor, f is defined as
so that
for a laminar–pipe flow, and
in general. This equation is known as Fanning equation. Here, f is experimentally
shown to be dependent on the surface roughness and Reynolds number, and is obtained
from a plot called Moody’s plot:
(Fig. 23c)

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The bottom most curve shown for represents the friction factor for nearly hydraulically
smooth tube or pipe, for which the friction factor has reached the smallest value with increasing
smoothness.
Now, we have an expression to calculate energy loss for a pipe–flow under both laminar
and turbulent conditions:
where,
A common empirical formula to calculate friction factor is proposed in literature:

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Lecture 24: Examples on Bernoulli equation
Examples on Bernoulli’s equation
Apply BE

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Examples on Bernoulli’s equation

Example 1: A pump delivers water from one reservoir to
another reservoir at through 120 m of 0.05-m-diameter pipe.
See the figure below for several pipe–fittings installed on the pipe-line. The surface
of the pipe is rough . Calculate the power of the pump required for
the water–transfer.
(Fig. 24a)
Before writing energy balance equation, one should make a note that there are several minor losses
between (1) and (2) and a major loss due to friction in the pipe. Let us list such minor losses:

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(a) Entrance loss–when the fluid enters into pipe from the tank, there is a loss.
(Fig. 24b)
(b) Valve:
(c)
(d)
Exit loss: When the fluid enters into the tank, there is a
(e)
frictional loss.
(Fig. 24c)

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All it implies is that K-factor is required to calculate minor-losses:
K
Entrance 0.5
Exit 1.0
Gate value (half open) 2.7
- bend 0.95
Globe value (fully open) 6.9
Assume: valve at (b) is a gate-valve (half open) and that at (e) is a globe–valve (fully open))
Apply BE :
(top-surface of water level; it is nearly stationary)
= shaft work
= viscous – loss = Minor loss + major loss
Minor–loss =
(Note: is the same for all fittings)
(assume that the pipe–size is the same for suction and discharge segments)

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Therefore, minor-loss = 94.272
Major- loss, =
(Flow is turbulent; )
From Moody’s plot, f = 0.02
Therefore, major–loss
Substitute,
(Assume 100% efficiency of the pump)

If pump is 70% efficient, total pump–power
required
Note: very–often mechanical energy balance equation is written as
= power delivered by the pump

= flow rate of the fluid.

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Lecture 25: Centrifugal pump: characterisitcs, efficiency, NPSH
Centrifugal pump
Efficiency of pump
Net positive-suction head (NPSH)
Performance characterstics of a pump

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Centrifugal pump
The fluid turbo machinery essentially consists of an impeller rotating in a casing. Fluid enters the eye
of the impeller (the center of the impellers) and exits though the space between the impeller blades
to the space between the impeller and casing walls. The velocity of fluid elements is in both
tangential and radial directions, as the impeller rotates. The velocity as well as the pressure, both
increase, as the fluid flows through the impeller
(Fig. 25a)

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Efficiency of pump
Difference between heads at location (A) and (B) may be calculated as
where the terms in each parenthesis consist of pressure, kinetic energy and potential energy.
The increase or difference between the kinetic and potential heads is usually negligible. Therefore,
The efficiency of the pump is defined as where the term in the numerator represents
power delivered by the pump because of the pressure-developed. BHP is the brake–horse power;
required to drive the pump. BHP depends upon the speed of the pump, vane angle (design of the
impeller) and the flow rate of the fluid.

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Net positive – suction head (NPSH)
Defined as the net head developed at the suction port of the pump, in excess of the head due to the
vapor pressure of the liquid at the temperature in the pump. NPSH must be positive for preventing the
liquid from boiling. Boiling or cavitations may damage the pump.
where, is the vapor–pressure of the liquid. If the pump is placed at a height above the free
surface of a liquid where the atmosphere pressure is the NPSH may be evaluated by writing the
Bernoulli’s equation between the free surface and the suction port of the pump as
where frictional loss in the suction pipe between the liquid–surface and the pump.
Therefore, it is obvious that for NPSH to be positive or maximum, Z and should be minimum.
Most ideally, for maximum NPSH, and

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Performance characteristics of a pump
There are there performance characteristics of pump:

1. Head developed by the pump (H)
2. Brake horse power (BHP)
3. Efficiency of the pump
-all plotted against the flow rate.
(Fig. 25b)
As seen from the graph, head decreases with increasing flow rate till the pump cannot deliver the
fluid at . Horsepower increases with flow rate. Efficiency of the pump initially increases
with increasing flow rate, reaches a maximum, and then decreases to zero at . Pump is
operated at .

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Module 8: Flow at low and high Reynolds numbers

Lecture 26: Creeping flow, Stokes-law and terminal velocity
Creeping, potential and boundary-layer flows
Low Reynolds-number flow

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Creeping, potential and boundary–layer flows
In the previous lectures, we took-up couple of examples on the application of the NS-equation, in
particular, the flow in a circular tube. You must have realized that the NS–equation is non–linear on
velocity, and the velocity and pressure–fields are coupled. In general, it is difficult to solve the NS
equation, and more often numerical techniques are used to solve the equation. In this context.
approximations are made to simplify the equation for solution. In this lecture, we will make use of the
dimensional analysis to non–dimensionalize the NS equation, and then, explore the possibility of
approximation.
x-momentum
Non–dimensionalize the variables as follows:
The characteristic variables are generally chosen to make the dimensionless quantities vary between
0-1. Therefore, L may be the length of a tube or channel.

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is the average velocity of the fluid, and and are the up-and downstream pressures. On
substitution, the following equation is obtained:
Let us define,
The non–dimensionalized equation is, therefore, written as
From the above-equation, it is clear that several approximations can be made to drop–out one or
more terms from the equation, depending upon the range of , the three
dimensionless groups obtained for the NS-equation. We will continue our discussion in this lecture to
only two approximations of common engineering application:
1. Low Re
2. High Re

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Low Reynolds-number Flow: Under this condition, the viscous effects dominate the inertial
effects.
Mathematically and
Such flow is called as creeping-flow

One of the most common examples of creeping flow is the flow past a spherical object at low
Reynolds number.
We will not derive the expression for velocity fields in this lecture. Readers can refer to an advanced
book on fluid mechanics.
However, it may be mentioned that the total force comprising of normal and shear can be combined to
obtain the well–known Stoke’s law for the drag (force acting along the flow–direction) on a sphere:
Where, Fluid Viscosity

= Diameter of the particle
=Relative velocity of the particle with respect to the fluid–velocity
This equation is valid for

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One of the applications of Stoke's law is to calculate terminal velocity of a sphere in a

quiescent fluid. Let us consider a sphere falling under gravity in stagnant fluid :
(Fig. 26a)
There are 3 forcess acting on the sphere
1. Gravity
2. Buoyancy
3. drag (viscous) forces
Therefore,
When the particle acquires a steady-velocity or it reaches a constant (terminal) velocity
Therefore,

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Lecture 27: Flow at high Reynolds numbers (Boundary layer theory)
Flow at high Reynolds number

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Flow at high Reynolds number

(Boundary layer theory)
Re-visit the non–dimensionalized NS equation:
At high Reynolds number, viscous effects are considered negligible in the flow away from a solid
surface. In other words, fluid is supposed to be inviscid or .
In such case the equation is simplified to
, or in the dimensional form
Neglecting the gravitational effect, one can state that the inertial force is balanced by pressure force.
Such flow is termed as potential flow.
Assuming 1-D flow, the equation can be integrated to obtain
Re-call. We have previously obtained the above equation as Bernoulli’s equation.

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It is important to note that the potential theory or inviscid flow–condition predicts ‘zero–drag’ on
a solid surface. The common examples of potential flow are source/sink, free vortex, doublet,
and Rankine’s half–body. We skip the analysis of such flows.
To overcome the paradox of zero drag on a solid surface, Prandtl (1903) came–up with the
boundary–layer theory. As per the main postulate of the theory, the viscous term cannot be
dropped from the NS equation for the high–Reynolds number flow. Physically, viscous effects
are important at or near the solid surface, even at high Reynolds number.
By choosing the appropriate characteristic variables, it can be shown that one of the viscous
terms, namely must be retained. This is possible if we assume that the characteristic
length in y–direction is much smaller than that in the x–direction.

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Re–defining variables as
where, one obtains the following dimensionless form of the NS equation:
At the limit of , the 1st viscous term is neglected. However, the 2 nd term is retained
because
The dimensional form of the NS equation (for x-direction) may now be written for boundary–layer flow
(at high Reynolds number) as:
momentum

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Blausius has proposed an approximate solution to the above equation for the flow near the solid
surface. From the solution, , the gradient at or near the surface may be calculated
to obtain drag
(Fig. 27a)
For the flow over a flat plate, the local shear stress has been calculated as
where,
Defining drag coefficient, , where is the drag on the plate (or any solid surface) and
‘A’ is the plate-area, is calculated as
-----(A)

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At higher Reynolds number, turbulence is observed. For a wide-range of Reynolds number, plots are
available to calculate for the flow over a flat plate or past a sphere.
(Fig. 27b)
(Fig. 27c)
In general,
, where , the drag–coefficient can be read from the plots. Empirical equations
are also available.

There are several features of fluid flow at high Reynolds number, such as boundary layer
separation, eddies, and adverse pressure gradients. These topics and the other related topics
such as bluff body, streamline body, Von–Karman Street, etc, are excluded from discussion in
this course.

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Lecture 28: Examples on drag
Examples on drag

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Examples on drag
Example 1: A large container 360 m long, 70 m wide and 25 m deep is being dragged in sea at a
constant speed of 10 m/s. Calculate power required to drag such container. The temperature of sea
water is .
(Fig. 28a)
As an approximation, the tank can be modeled as a flat plate of length L and width

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(Fig. 28b)
Therefore ,
For a flow over a plate, can be obtained from the graph or from a correlation of vs.
(Such graph or equation are available in the prescribed texts)
Therefore,

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Example 2: Determine the steady-state velocity of steel spheres of diameter 1m falling in water at
. Assume
Answer: There are three forces acting on the sphere:

Weight, buoyancy, and drag.
(Fig. 28c)
At const speed (steady-state velocity)

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But, is dependent on Reynolds number, which is not known. In such cease, iteration may be
required. Assume that the flow is turbulent for the large–size sphere. for flow of a fluid past a
sphere is approximately 0.2 (you may like to confirm the data from the graph available in the text)
Therefore,
Substituting,
= 21 m/s >> check Reynolds number
For this Reynolds number, is better approximated at Therefore, is re-calculated as
. Re–check, which is more accurate than the previous case. For
, answer is m/s.

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Module 9: Packed beds

Lecture 29: Drag, particles settling
Flow through a packed bed of solids
Drag
Criteria of settling
Hindred settling

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Flow through a packed bed of solids
Packed–beds of catalyst–particles are extensively used in chemical industries. Packed beds of

solid particles are also used in absorption, adsorption, and distillation columns to increase
interfacial area of contact between gas and liquid. In the next couple of lectures, we will
address pressure–drop in packed beds of solids. Before that there are some definitions:
a’ = Specific surface area of a particle
where the subscript ‘sph’ refers to the sphere having the same volume as that of the particle

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Table
Particles
Spheres 1
Cubes, cylinder
Berl saddle 0.3
Ranching rings
a = specific area of the bed
(Fig. 29a)

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Drag: We have already introduced this term in the previous lecture. There are two types of drag:
form drag and wall or shear drag. The former is because of the fluid–pressure on the solid–surface
and acts perpendicular to the surface wall. Drag is because of shear–forces and acts parallel to the
surface.
(Fig. 29b)
A horizontal plate parallel to fluid flow will experience drag only because of wall shear.
form drag wall drag
(already defined in previous lectures)
(Stoke’s Law for Rep < 1)

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in general depends upon Reynolds number, but is also dependent on the shape and
orientation of the particle with respect to the flow. Charts are available to determine drag
coefficient.
(Fig. 29b)
Terminal or settling velocity of a single particle in fluid may be calculated as
If the fluid moves–up with velocity , velocity of the particle with respect to a stationary
observer,
, so that the relative velocity or drag remains the same.
depends on which cannot be directly calculated because the velocity (settling) is not
known. Therefore, iteration is required to determine . In the previous lecture, we took-up
such an example. However, there is a criterion to check if the settling is in the Stoke’s regime
(creeping flow) or in Newton’s region (high flow when inertial effects are important), which is
calculated independent of velocity:

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Criteria for settling
y (Stoke’s regime)
(As an exercise, substitute in the expression for terminal velocity with , and use
the criterion to obtain the above expression, for the Stoke’s regime)
Hindered settling
If there are particles in the fluid, then the settling of a single particle will be influenced by the
presence of the neighboring particles. In such case, the settling velocity is larger than that of a
single–particle.
where is the volume–fractions (not bed–porosity) of fine–suspension of

particles in fluid,
The viscosity of a suspension is also affected by the presence of the dispensed phase and should be
accordingly used in the calculation of Reynolds number:
= viscosity of suspension; = viscosity of pure fluid

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Lecture 30: Pressure-drop: Ergun's equation
Flow through packed bed (continued)

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Flow through packed bed (continued)

Pressure–drop calculation:
Notes
1. Actual or real packed beds are randomly packed with irregular size particles
2. The flow–path of a fluid though the packed bed is tortuous.
For the theoretical analysis to calculate pressure–drop, actual flow channels are replaced with
parallel cylindrical conduits of constant cross–section. Particles are assumed to be of the
same size and shape having constant sphericity, .
Pressure–drop occurs due to inertial and viscous effects. At high Reynolds number, inertial
effects prevail, whereas the viscous effects are important at low Reynolds number. In general,

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For a packed–bed
(Propose)
(Re-call: wall shear-stress in tubular laminar flow,
Similarly, pressure–drop at high Reynolds number, . Therefore, Pressure-drop in packed

beds is related to pressure–drop due to viscous and inertial effects via two empirical constants,
.
(multiply both numerator and denominator by L)
, SO = cross sectional area of packed–bed

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Therefore,
Substituting,
Or,
Setting (based on experimental data)
We obtain
--------- Ergun's equation

One also defines as the friction factor for a packed–bed

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Therefore,
If
(Blake – Plummer equation)

It is pointed out that the Ergun's equation is applied to calculate pressure- drop across packed bed
consisting of small size particles
Also, note that is to be interpreted as energy loss due to drag or friction per unit mass of
the fluid , so that the term can be substituted in the general mechanical energy balance
equation, consisting of KE, gravitational and shaft-work heads.
where frictional–pressure drop

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Lecture 31: Examples on pressure drop calculations
examples on packed bed calculation

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Examples on packed bed calculation

Shown below is the schematic of a 0.2 m ID U-glass tube to a depth of 1m with 10,000 spherical
quartz particles ( ). What will be water (
) flow rate required through the bed if the water level is
kept 2 m above the top of the packed bed? The particles are held between the two sieves.
(Fig. 31a)
Solution: Apply the ME balance between (1) and (2) incorporating frictional loss in the packed–
bed:
Here, ,

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Therefore,
Or,
Spherical particle
Substitute,
Or
liters per min.

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Example 2:
Partial oxidation is carried out by passing air with 1.2 mol percent hydrocarbons through tube
packed with 8' of cylindrical catalyst pellets. The air enters at and 2.0 atm
with a superficial velocity of 3 ft/s. Calculate the pressure–drop because of friction.
Assume, .
Answer:
(Fig. 31b)
First calculate of the packed material (pellet).
diameter of a sphere having the same volume as that of
cylindrical pellet.
, surface area of cylindrical pellet, length or diameter of the pellet . And,
( = volume of the pellet)

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Therefore,
Calculate
Therefore, both viscous and inertial terms are important and Ergun's equation should be written as:
Substitute,
(Note: It is assumed that the variation in gas–velocity because of variation in pressure is negligible.
are calculated at the inlet conditions).

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Lecture 32: Fluidization
Fluidization

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Fluidization
When a liquid or gas is passed at a relatively small velocity though a bed of solid particles,
the particles do not move. Fluid moves through the voids between the particles; pressure–
drop is calculated by Ergun's equation. If the flow rate is steadily increased, pressure–drop (or
drag) increases. Eventually, particles tend to move and bed expands a little. A stage is
reached when the pressure–drop balances the weight of solid particles and buoyancy. Now,
the bed apparently seems to be boiling. Particles–movement increases; yet they do not leave
the bed. Such bed is termed as ‘fluidized bed'.
Mechanistically, the frictional force (drag) between particles and fluid just counterbalances the
weight of the particles; the vertical component of compressive forces between particles
disappear and equates the effective weight.
A simple experiment can be carried out to observe the movement of particles packed within a
glass or Perspex made column. The height of the bed and the pressure–drop across the bed
can be measured with accuracy:
(fig. 32a)

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Fixed bed Bed expands a little Incipiently or minimum fluidized bed

(No movement of particles) Particles are unlocked and
the bed expands from an Bed continues to expand
height of (for liquid only) till there is a carry-
over of solid particles
For gas–solid system, bubbly or segregated fluidization is observed, with large-size bubbles–
formation .A qualitative graph showing the variation of packed–bed height and pressur–drop with the
superficial velocity of the liquid is produced below:
(Fig. 32b)
1. Fixed bed of height and porosity
2. The bed expands at (minimum fluidization velocity) from
3. The bed continues to expand with increase in the bed porosity from to higher porosity

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(Fig. 32c)
Very-often a hysteresis is observed, if the velocity is gradually decreased:
(Fig. 32d)

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Fluidized–bed has fluid–like behavior. It will appear boiling at the surface, with the particles
moving up and down in the bed, especially on top of the surface.
The minimum fluidization porosity, or the porosity at the minimum fluidization condition is
particle–size and type–specific. Some examples are:
Size
Sharp sand,
Adsorption carbon 0.72 0.69
Fischer-Tropsch catalyst 0.58
For liquid, the state of fluidization past the minimum fluidization stage is called homogeneous/
smooth/particulate/non–bubbling fluidized bed, as the bed expands smoothly. At higher
velocity, there is a carry-over of particles. Slurry flow ensues.
For gases, the particulate or homogeneous fluidization occurs only for small (fine) particles.
For large particles, bubbles are formed. At even higher velocity, vigorous fluidization occurs,
with turbulent motion of solid clusters and bubbles. Such state is called “Fast Fluidized Bed”.
There may be carryover/entrainment of particles with the outgoing gas.

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Lecture 33: Minimum fluidization velocity
Minimum fluidization velocity

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Minimum fluidization velocity

The minimum fluidization velocity can be calculated by equating the pressure–drop across the fixed
packed–bed, calculated from Ergun's equation to that from the expression for fluidized bed under
particulate (smooth) conditions.
Let us calculate the pressure-drop from the 2 nd expression:
Under fluidization conditions, pressure–drop equals effective weight of solid, as intraparticle forces
disappear and solids float in the bed exhibiting ‘liquid–like ‘behavior. For a fluidized bed of length of
L and bed-porosity of ,
Weight of solid-particles–buoyancy
Or
, etc.
where
R-call:
(Fig. 33a)

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At the minimum fluidization condition:
Apply Ergun's equation for ‘fixed–bed' at minimum fluidization condition or at the incipience of
fluidization:
, where superficial average velocity
at minimum fluidization state

Equate:
The above-equation is quadratic on (minimum fluidization velocity) and may be written in the
following form:
, where
For small particles
For large particles

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To avoid or reduce carryover of particles form the fluidized bed, keep the gas velocity between
. Recall
Terminal velocity, for low Reynolds number and,
for high Reynolds number
With the expressions for and known for small (viscous–flow) and large (inertial flow)
particles or Reynolds number, one can take the ratio of and :
For small
For spherical particles, and assuming
Therefore, a bed that fluidizes at 1cm/s could preferably be operated with velocities < 50 cm/s, with
few particles carried out or entrained with the exit gas.
For large
Or,
Therefore, operating safety margin in a bed of coarse particles is smaller and there is a
disadvantage for the use of coarse particles in a fluidized bed.
However, make a note that the operating particle size is also decided by the other factors such as
grinding cost, pressure-drop, heat and mass-transfer aspects.

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Lecture 34: Examples on fixed and fluidized beds
Fluidized bed condition:
Ergun's equation:

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Example Catalyst pellets 0.2” in diameter are to be fluidized with of air at 1

1: atm and in a vertical cylindrical vessel. The density of the catalyst particles is
. If the given quantity of air is just sufficient to fluidize the

solids, what is the vessel diameter?
Answer: Assume (inertial effects are dominant)
Check,
(So the assumption of inertial effects being dominant is correct)
As an exercise, the students can calculate

:
Check.,
(So the flow is not viscous)
Vessel-Area (cross-section)

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Example 2: We plan to pass air upward through a bed of solids resting on a screen. Will the
solids fluidize?
Solids:
Air:
Bed: 2m (Height);
Answer:
(Fig. 34a)
Therefore, bed will not fluidize

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Example 3: A packed bed of spherical particles is fluidized

using air at and pressure . The packed–bed density is
and superficial air velocity is from Ergun's
equation and fluidize bed condition-equation.
Solution:
Fluidized bed condition:
(Fig. 34b)

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Ergun's equation:
Therefore, there is a difference of one-order of magnitude

To sum–up, Ergun's equation is valid only for fixed–bed, when

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Module 10: Filtration

Lecture 35: Plate and frame press filter, Rotary filter
Filtration
The plate and frame press filter
Principles of filtration (cake)

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Filtration
Removal of solids from fluid (gas or liquid) by a filtering medium on which solid particles are
deposited.
For filtration, external force is applied to a (gas or liquid + solid) mixture to make it flow
through the medium.
Filtration, when applied to gas cleaning, usually refers to the removal of fine particles
like dust from air or flue gas. In such case, a polymeric fiber or cloth is wrapped
over a pretreated metallic cylinder, capable of capturing micron size particles, including soot
and fly-ash.
Very large size ceramic based filters for high temperature applications are also commercially
available.
In this and the next lectures we will confine our discussion to liquid – solid
filtration .
The liquid–solid filtration is often called “cake–filtration”, because the separation of solids from
the slurry by the filtering medium is effective during the initial stages of filtration. Later, the
‘cakes' or deposits collected over the medium act as the filter. Therefore, cake thickness
increases during filtration and the resistance (hydraulic) offered by the cake–material is larger
than that by the filtering medium.
There are two types of operation:
a. Constant-pressure
b. Constant filtering rate

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In the 1 st case, filtering rate varies with time, whereas in the 2 nd case, pressure–drop increases with
time.
For ideal cake filtration, cake should be stable and large porosity. There are two common
types of filters:
a. The plate and frame press
b. Rotary-drum filter
The plate and frame press filter

Consists of series of plates and frames sandwitched alternatively; cakes are built-up inside the
frame–clamber. Cloth, filtering medium, is supported on a corrugated material. There are slurry
and filtrate ports.
(Fig. 35a)

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While designing the plate and frame press filter, dismantling and re–assembling times, removal of
cake from each frame, and other operations such as washing and drying of cakes should also be
taken into consideration.
Rotary Filter
(Fig. 35b)
See the schematic above. The portion of the cylinder (rotary drum) submerged in the trough is
subjected to vacuum. A layer of solids builds upon the drum as the liquid is drained through cloth,
slots, compartments, pipe to the tank, which collects the filtered water.
In the washing/drying zone; vacuum is removed; cakes are removed by scrapping it off with a knife,
doctor blade. The process is continuous whereas the plate and frame press filter is a batch process.

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Principles of Filtration (cake)
(Fig. 35c)
Pressure–drop is applied across the filter:
Assuming that the flow of filtrate is under laminar conditions (low Re and viscous flow), one can
apply the Ergun's equation, neglecting the inertial forms:
Consider a differential thickness of cake = at a distance of from the filter-medium.
where, viscosity of the filtrate
bed-porosity or porosity of the cake
surface area and volume of the cake-particles (solids of the slurry), respectively
(Important to note is the time–change of pressure and cake–thickness)
superficial velocity of filtrate

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Lecture 36: Pinciples of filtration, constant pressure and volume filtration
Principles of filtration (continued )

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Principles of filtration (continued )

Case 1: Constant Pressure-drop Filtration
differential mass of the cake
Substituting,
Assuming, incompressible cake (Const )
(pressure–drop) through cake
, where, total mass of cake.
upstream-pressure of filter–media
Define,
= property of cake
Pressure–drop through filter medium
hydraulic resistance of filter medium

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Now ‘C' as the mass of the particles deposited in the filter per unit volume of the filtrate,
It can be shown that
where,
If turns out that
Replacing in the expression for
This is the working equation for cake filtration.

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Case 1: constant–pressure filtration
(Fig. 36a)
Therefore, (one can calculate form the initial filtration-data when resistance
due
to cake = 0)
One can also write,
= constant (known)
(Fig. 36b)

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Or
on integration
The above expression can be integrated to develop an expression for the amount of cake formed
over time ‘t' or the production rate of cake for the rotary- drum filter:
(Fig. 36c)
A = Total area of filtration

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Case 2: Constant Rate Filtration
(Fig. 36d)
Or
(neglecting )
here, v is constant.
varies linearly with time.

(Such operation is difficult to run, i.e, keeping volumetric flow rate constant)

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Lecture 37: Examples
Examples on filtration

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Examples on filtration
Example 1: A rotary drum filter with submergence is used to filter a concentrated aqueous
slurry of containing of solids per cubic foot of water. The pressure–drop
is If the filter cake contains 50% mixture (wet basis), calculate the filter area required to
filter 10 gal/min of slurry. The filter cycle time is 5 min. The specific cake resistance depends on the
pressure–drop as:
Viscosity of the filtrate . Density of

.Neglect filter medium resistance.
Answer:
Re–call the expression for the production rate of cake.
Here, production rate of cake

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where concentration of slurry
Submergence–fraction
Speed of the drum
Cycle-time
(density of filtrate)
Slurry–density
On substitution,

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Example A calcium–carbonate slurry is to be filtered in a press having a total area of and

2: operated at a constant pressure drop of 2 atm. The frames are thick. Assume
that the filter medium resistance is per ft. Calculate filtration time and the
volume of filtrate obtained in one cycle. Cake density . The specific cake
resistance,
Concentration of slurry
Answer:
Thickness of the cake
total mass of the cake formed in one cycle
(cake density)

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Note:
Volume of the filter in one cycle
Re-call the expression for constant pressure–drop filtration
where
Therefore,

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Example 3:
The following relation between specific resistance and pressure drop has been determined:
This relation is valid over a pressure range of . A slurry of this material

yielding of cake solid per cubic filtrate is to be filtered at a constant pressure drop of 70
. The resistance of filter per ft. Determine
square feet of the filter surface area required to give gal of filtrate in a 1-hr-filtration?
Answer:
Re-call the expression:
Substitute,
Or

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Module 11: Dimensional analysis and similitude

Lecture 38: Buckingham Pi-theorem
Dimensional analysis and similitude
Buckingham Pi-theorem

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Dimensional analysis and similitude

In many engineering applications, scale-up or scale-down of a chemical process or equipment is
frequently required. It is not practical to conduct experiments for all conditions of a process to predict
the data. The dimensional analysis is a commonly employed technique to scale-up or down a
process, and also, predict the results for different conditions.
As an example, consider drag on a sphere falling in stagnant water. If Reynolds number based on
the particle size is less than 1, drag can be theoretically calculated as
Alternatively, we can write a general symbolic equation based on our experience:
. A few experiments may also be conducted to gain insight into numerical values
for F. It is easy to show that is a dimensionless quantity, which can be interpreted as the
force per unit kinetic energy per unit cross-sectional area. Realizing that Reynolds number has a
mechanistic role to play on the drag, one can write
This is the basis of the dimensional analysis. We now introduce Buckingham Pi-theorem, a very
popular technique to obtain a mathematical expression for a complex problem:

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Buckingham Pi-theorem
Consider ‘n' number of independent variables for a physical option:
Or
The theorem may be interpreted to state that one can form independent dimensionless
groups of variables so that are the dimensionless
groups, and M (mass), L (length) and T (time) are the primary dimensions used to describe the
system. For some systems, angle may also be taken as a primary group, for which one can
have (n-4) independent dimensionless groups. We explain the utility of this method in the following
examples:
1. Reconsider the previous example of drag on a sphere immersed in a flowing fluid. From the
physics of the problem, the independent variables that govern the drag are identified as
. Therefore,
As per the Buckingham Pi-theorem, the number of dimensionless groups that can be formed is
.
Therefore,
Or
Choose,

Objectives_template

Note that there are there repeat variables and two non–repeat variables
Choice of selecting repeat variables is often arbitrary. Therefore,
Substitute and equate dimensions of :

For
Solve to obtain
Therefore,
Similarly, for
Solve to obtain
Therefore,
Or where
The exact form of h is found by experiment

Objectives_template

Lecture 39: Geomteric and dynamic similarities, examples
Dimensional analysis and similitude–continued
Similitude:

Objectives_template

Dimensional analysis and similitude–continued

Example 2: pressure–drop in pipe–flow depends on length, inside diameter, velocity, density and
viscosity of the fluid. If the roughness-effects are ignored, determine a symbolic expression for the
pressure–drop using dimensional analysis.
Answer: We will apply Buckingham Pi-theorem
Variables:
Primary dimensions:
No of dimensionless (independent) group:

Objectives_template

Similitude: To scale–up or down a model to the prototype, two types of similarities are required
from the perspective of fluid dynamics: (1) geometrical similarity (2) dynamic similarity
1. Geometric similarity: The model and the prototype must be similar in shape.
(Fig. 39a)
This is essential because one can use a constant scale factor to relate the dimensions of model and
prototype.
2. Dynamic similarity: The flow conditions in two cases are such that all forces (pressure
viscous, surface tension, etc) must be parallel and may also be scaled by a constant scaled
factor at all corresponding points. Such requirement is restrictive and may be difficult to
implement under certain experiential conditions. Dimensional analysis can be used to identify
the dimensional groups to achieve dynamic similarity between geometrically similar flows.
For example, in the flow past a sphere, drag on a model can be related to the prototype by a scale–
factor if Reynolds numbers are matched. In other words,
Therefore, the types of fluid in two cases may be different:

. Yet the drags on the two objects may be
scaled as long as .

Objectives_template

Example: A sphere of diameter 1 ft is to be dragged at a speed of 8.45 ft/s in seawater at . To

predict the drag, we want to conduct an experiment on a 6” diameter sphere in air flowing past the
model sphere. The drag on the model is to be kept at 6 lb-f. Determine the drag on the prototype.
Answer:
Ignoring any cavitation or compressibility effects, we have expression for drag:
Therefore, to predict the drag on the prototype one has to first match Reynolds number of
two cases:
and
if
Therefore,
Therefore,

Objectives_template
Module 12: Agitation

Lecture 40: Equipment, flow patterns, power requirement
Agitation of liquids
Why agitation?
Power requirement

Objectives_template

Agitation of liquids
The unit operation is used to prepare liquid–mixture by bringing in contact two liquids in a
mechanically agitated vessel or container.
Agitation refers to the induced motion of liquid in some defined may, usually in circulatory
pattern and is achieved by some mechanical device.
Why agitation?
Dispenses a liquid which is immiscible with the other liquid by forming an emulsion or
suspension of few drops.
Suspends relatively lighter solid particles
Promotes heat transfer between the liquid in the think or container and a coil or jacket
surrounding the container
Blends miscible liquids
(Fig. 40a)

Objectives_template

The equipment consists of a tank with an insulated jacket, baffles, shaft with motor, impeller,
and other accessories such as thermometer and dip- leg.
The role of baffles is to remove stratification in the radial direction and improve mixing,
(Fig. 40b)
Typical configuration-dimensions are:

Objectives_template

Two types of impellers:

Radial flow impellers (flow is induced in radial or tangential directions)
Axial flow impellers (currents are parallel to the axis of impeller shaft)
Two types of geometrical configurations:
(Fig. 40c)

Objectives_template

Flow patterns in agitated vessels

There are three principal currents in the vessel during agitation: (a) radial (perpendicular to the shaft)
(b) tangential (tangential to the circular path) (c) longitudinal (parallel to the shaft)
1. Radia!
2. Longitudinal
3. Swirling
(Fig. 40d)
Notes:
Tangential component induces vortex and swirling, which in turn create stratification
responsible for non–uniform mixing. In such case fluid particles are followed by another fluid
particle.
At relatively higher rpm, the center of vortex may reach impeller and air may be sucked in.
This may not be desirable.
Swirling can be minimized by placing the shaft slightly away from the center of the vessel, or
by putting baffles. In the latter–configuration, tangential streamlines will also be reduced.

Objectives_template

Power requirement
Dimensional analysis is used to determine the power requirement. Variables are
Relatively larger viscous fluid requires high power for mixing. Similarly, high density fluid–mixture
also require large power for mixing:
From Buckingham theorem, no of independent dimensionless groups can be formed. For (6+m)
variables, there will be (3 + m) groups:
a. Power number, ,
b. Reynolds number, , where is the tangential velocity of the tip of the impeller or
c. Froude number
The other groups are
(Power number is analogous to friction factor and equals drag force on an unit area of impeller per
KE of unit-fluid-volume )
Or,
(Here, Reynolds number is based on peripheral speed and diameter of impeller)

Objectives_template

Graphical results are available for different types of impellers to calculate power number:
(Fig. 40e)
(Slop is -1 on log–log plot for )
As in the case of tubular flow flow, viscous effects are predominant and density of fluid is not
important at low Reynolds number.
(Tables are available to calculate )

Or
At high Reynolds number , power number is independent of the Reynolds number

and viscosity is not important. Flow is fully turbulent.
Or
(Tables are available to calculate P)

Objectives_template
Module 13: Cyclone

Lecture 41: Equipment, theoretical cut diameter, efficieny
Cyclone (Centrifugal settler)

Objectives_template
Module 13: Cyclone

Cyclone (Centrifugal settler)

The equipment separates solid particles from a gas (eg. dust laden flue gas), based on the
principle of centrifugal force, which is much stronger than gravitational force. Cyclone works
relatively more efficiently at high gas flow rates.
The equipment requires large flow rates/velocity to create a swirling movement inside the
column. Cyclone, as such, does not have moving parts but may require a blower upstream to
impart KE to the gas laden with particles.
(Fig. 41a) (Fig. 41b)

Objectives_template
Module 13: Cyclone

a. The real trajectory of gas and particles is difficult to analyze. The particles laden gas enters
the cyclone from the sideway (see top view) at a high flow rate and moves downward in a
swirling/ spiral path.
b. Solid particles are thrown outward radially due to centrifugal force. They strike the walls of
cyclone and settle down. Gas, on the other hand, will move radially inward, then upward
through the least hydrodynamically resistance – path to the exit.
c. Gas moving in spiral reaches the apex of the cone, then moves upward in a smaller spiral
( ) path to the exit at the top, as the opening at the bottom is filled with solid
particles. For the gas, the least resistance – path is the exit at the top. For the particles, the
least resistance- path is the exit at the bottom.
d. Mechanistically, if the centrifugal force acting on the particles is larger than the drag (inward)
by the gas, the particles will strike the walls and settle down, else they will move inward
alongwith the gas. At a radius r, where these two forces are equal, particle will rotate in
equilibrium and move downward till they hit the slant walls and are collected. Gas on the other
hand has a very high upward flow rate at the center, typically in the core-diameter of .
Any particle in the zone will be carried upward.
(Fig. 41c)

Objectives_template
Module 13: Cyclone

Theoretical ‘cut-size' of a cyclone is the particle size above which all particles will be
collected. A theoretical expression considering drag and centrifugal forces on a particle, has
been obtained to estimate the ‘cut size' of cyclone. The calculation takes into account the
experimental observation that the equilibrium rotation-radius of all captured particles in
cyclone is do, where do is the diameter of the nozzle at the top of the
cyclone though which the gas exits.

The settling velocity of captured particles,
where,
Form , the theoretical cut–diameter, d p is determined from the settling velocity equation:
(Note that it is assumed that particles settle in Stoke's regime)

Objectives_template
Module 13: Cyclone

All particles having diameter will have equilibrium radius within 0.5 do so that they will
be carried away with the gas.
All particles having diameter will be captured in cyclone.
Cyclones are very effective in removing particles from gas. Disadvantages are large flow rate
required and large pressure–drop because of the tortuous path of the gas.
gas velocity at the inlet
Separation factor of a cyclone, s is defined as
Cyclones are effective typically for particle size

Efficiency (capturing) of cyclone,
Design graphs are available to calculate the efficiency.
(Fig. 41d)
End

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NPTEL Online - IIT Kanpur

Course Name Fluid Mechanics

Instructor Dr. Nishith Verma

file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20Nishith%20Verma/local%20server/fluid_mechanics/lecture1/main.html[5/9/2012 2:57:12 PM]

Suggested text books:

file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20Nishith%20Verma/local%20server/fluid_mechanics/lecture1/1_1a.htm[5/9/2012 2:57:12 PM]

Newton's law of viscosity

file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20Nishith%20Verma/local%20server/fluid_mechanics/lecture1/1_1.htm[5/9/2012 2:57:13 PM]

file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20Nishith%20Verma/local%20server/fluid_mechanics/lecture1/1_2.htm[5/9/2012 2:57:13 PM]

file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20Nishith%20Verma/local%20server/fluid_mechanics/lecture1/1_3.htm[5/9/2012 2:57:13 PM]

file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20Nishith%20Verma/local%20server/fluid_mechanics/lecture1/1_4.htm[5/9/2012 2:57:13 PM]

Fluid resists deformation by attaining an equilibrium rate of deformation.

Newton's law of viscosity

file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20Nishith%20Verma/local%20server/fluid_mechanics/lecture1/1_5.htm[5/9/2012 2:57:13 PM]

Rate of strain or strain rate or deformation rate

Revert to Newton's' 1st Law of viscosity

Non–Newtonian fluid (Introduction)

file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20Nishith%20Verma/local%20server/fluid_mechanics/lecture2/2_1.htm[5/9/2012 3:00:53 PM]

Rate of strain or strain rate or deformation rate

file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20Nishith%20Verma/local%20server/fluid_mechanics/lecture2/2_2.htm[5/9/2012 3:00:53 PM]

Difference in the length of the segments

file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20Nishith%20Verma/local%20server/fluid_mechanics/lecture2/2_3.htm[5/9/2012 3:00:53 PM]

Revert to Newton's' 1 st Law of viscosity

It has been shown that

For Non-Newtonian fluid: . Examples are sugar solution and polymers.

Therefore, General expression for shear stress

where, m is the flow consistency and n is the flow behaviour index.

also known as apparent viscosity

file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20Nishith%20Verma/local%20server/fluid_mechanics/lecture2/2_4.htm[5/9/2012 3:00:53 PM]

Non – Newtonian fluid (Introduction)

Newtonian: : air, water, glycerin

Bingham Plastic: : toothpaste

(Fluid does not move or deform till there is a critical stress)

or shear thickening fluid

(Fluid starts ‘thinning' with decrease in its apparent viscosity)

file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20Nishith%20Verma/local%20server/fluid_mechanics/lecture2/2_5.htm[5/9/2012 3:00:54 PM]

Module 2: Fluid Statics

Fluid as a continuum or continuum based approach

The basic equation of fluid statics

file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20Nishith%20Verma/local%20server/fluid_mechanics/lecture3/3_1.htm[5/9/2012 3:02:10 PM]

Module 2: Fluid Statics

Fluid as a continuum or continuum based approach

file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20Nishith%20Verma/local%20server/fluid_mechanics/lecture3/3_2.htm[5/9/2012 3:02:10 PM]

Module 2: Fluid Statics

file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20Nishith%20Verma/local%20server/fluid_mechanics/lecture3/3_3.htm[5/9/2012 3:02:10 PM]

Module 2: Fluid Statics

(Fig. 3d) (Fig. 3e)

file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20Nishith%20Verma/local%20server/fluid_mechanics/lecture3/3_4.htm[5/9/2012 3:02:11 PM]

Module 2: Fluid Statics

The basic equation of fluid statics

(Neglecting the higher order terms or assuming linear variation over )

Therefore, we have expression for differential pressure–force

file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20Nishith%20Verma/local%20server/fluid_mechanics/lecture3/3_5.htm[5/9/2012 3:02:11 PM]

Module 2: Fluid Statics

The basic equation of fluid statics (continued)

Pressure variation in an incompressible fluid

file:///D|/Web%20Course/Dr.%20Nishith%20Verma/local%20server/fluid_mechanics/lecture4/4_1.htm[5/9/2012 3:03:02 PM]

Module 2: Fluid Statics

The basic equation of fluid statics (continued)

Force Balance (in vector form )

or, (form previous lecture)

If gravity acts in the negative z-direction