Stability and Control Iit Kanpur

AIRCRAFT STABILITY
AND CONTROL
Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Department of Aerospace Engineering
IIT Kanpur
INDEX
S.No Topics Page No.
Week 1
1 Introduction 1
2 Introduction to Static Stability 16
3 Stability and Trim 28
4 Stability: Wing Contribution 42
5 Stability: Tail Contribution and Static Margin 60
Week 2
6 Problems : Stability and Wing Contribution Completed 78
7 Problems : Stability Tail Contribution Completed 89
8 Neutral Point and Fuselage Contribution Completed 104
9 Longitudinal Control Completed 118
10 Longitudinal Control continued.... 132
Week 3
11 Control: Elevator 153
12 CL_trim Vs 𝛿e_trim 167

13 Neutral Point: A Closer Look 180
14 Contribution of Engine towards Stability 192
15 Revision 207
Week 4
16 Trim:Cruse,Climb and Landing 221
17 Trim: Maneuver 237
18 Maneuvering Point: Stick Fixed 251
Numerical: Stick Fixed Maneuvering Point and Flight
19 Demonstration 269
20 Revision(Lecture20) 276
Week 5
21 Directional Stability 291
22 Directional Control 312
23 Lateral Stability and Control 328
24 Numericals : Directional, Lateral Stability and Control 343
25 Lecture - 25 Revision 356
Week 6
26 Stick Free Stability 366
27 Stick Free Stability continued... 378
28 Hinge Moment and Hinge Moment Derivative 393
29 Aircraft Handling Qualities 408
30 Aircraft Handling Qualities continued... 422
Week 7
31 Reversible Control: Stick Free and Trim Tabs 436
32 Numericals: Stick Free 447
33 Numericals: Stick Free Continued... 457
34 Handling Qualities: Maneuvering Flight 468
Determination of Neutral Point and Maneuvering Point
35 by Flight Experiment 491
Week 8
36 Ponit Mass Equation of Motion 506
37 Forces and Moments 520
38 Aircraft Equations of Motion 534
39 Six Degrees of Freedom of an Aircraft 546
40 6 DoF : Angular Momentum Components 564
Week 9
41 Vector in a Rotating Frame 579
42 Euler Angles 593
43 Small Perturbation Theory 604
44 Small Perturbation Theory Continued... 618
45 Perturbed Equations of Motion: Longitudinal Case 630
Week 10
46 Perturbed Force : fz 644
47 Perturbed Force : fz Continued... 656
48 Perturbed Pitching Moment 672
49 Longitudinal Dimensional Stability Derivatives 685
50 Dynamic Stability 694
Week 11
51 Longitudinal Modes 709
52 Short Period and Phugoid Approximations 721
53 Pure Pitching Motion 733
54 Stability Augmentation System (SAS) 750
55 Lateral-Directional Motion 760
Week 12
56 Tutorial - 1 773
57 Tutorial - 2 783
58 Tutorial - 3 795
59 Tutorial - 4 810
60 History of Aviation 822
Aircraft Stability and Control
Prof. A.K.Ghosh
Indian Institute of Technology-Kanpur
Lecture-01
Introduction
Wish you all very, very happy New Year. We are on the tarmac of flight laboratory airship, and
you could see that I am surrounded by so many aircraft, a similar aircraft you might have seen
when you did the performance course, but it’s a customary that I introduce all the aircraft to you
because I do not know really how many students have done this course, first course, which is the
prerequisite for second course that is on stability and control.
So, let me explain you whatever aircraft we have with the specific impetus on the components,
which would be used for, very, very useful for stability and control understanding. This is Cessna
206 airplane. Here you could see the wing is again a high wing configuration and these are the
struts to support the wing and in performance course you know what is this propeller is meant for,
the propeller has a unique role to give power, extract power from the brake, but in performance
also we decided that we understood that we were precise that wing is meant for giving lift, it has
nothing to do with stability because you assumed that in performance analysis that aircraft is most
statically and dynamically stable, okay.
So, in performance course, we are more bothered about what is the lift generated by the wing, what
is the drag generated by all the components lift by all the components and we primarily aiming
towards an L by D which is maximum right. Now but in this course, we will be talking about
stability and control. So, our focus will suddenly go towards this portion, which is called horizontal
tail. This is complete horizontal tail and this horizontal tail will be seen and we will understand
now that this is primary responsible to give the longitudinal stability okay.
And we could see the part of this horizontal tail can move up and down and this is called elevator.
It also has a trimmer which goes up and down in the opposite direction, and we will discuss about
what is the trim tabs we will be doing.
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Most important thing to understand is, this total area both side together is responsible to give both
static and dynamic stability in the longitudinal plane and part of it which is called elevator is
responsible to give the longitudinal control that is if I want to move the airplane up and down, I
will be using this elevator okay.
Similarly, it has a trim tab, you see here I do not know whether it’s visible to you or not, a small
portion which is required to use at the end so that pilot can fly hands off, we will talk about that
okay. Similarly, if you see here, there is a vertical tail which gives you stability in terms of
directional and lateral motion, a part of this is called rudder, which can be moved either way to
turn the airplane this way or that way. So, that is a rudder control. So, we have now elevator
control, rudder control, and now we will go for the aileron.
So, what is the role of elevator? If I want to pitch like up and down like this I will be using elevator,
so it is a elevator control. If we want to move the airplane, yaw in this direction then this is the
rudder okay, so rudder control. If we want to roll the airplane or bank the airplane like this, then
this control is called aileron. So, if I move it down like this you could see as it goes forward, force
will be acting upward and it will give a, left wing will go down. Similarly, if I put it like this other
thing it will bank like this, so this is called aileron, there will be another pair of aileron that side.
So, you can move it together you can move it differentially, so this is called aileron or aileron
control.
So, we have now three primary control, one is elevator for longitudinal control, rudder for
directional control and aileron for roll control or lateral control. These are the primary three
controls surfaces we will be using and when you defined everything about stability, we will also
try to see, how this control forces or moment generated gives the response vis-à-vis the stability
characteristics of the airplane, okay. That will be the total part of this one of the module of this
course, and I will be flying this Cessna 206 with my pilot and also give you live demonstration of
what is the meaning of static stability or dynamic stability in flight.
This is our Hansa 3 aircraft, I will be walking down to Hansa 3 aircraft, which is our nation’s pride,
one of the finest light weight aircraft. You could see that if I compare Cessna 206 and Hansa 3 you
could see this wing is a low wing a high wing configuration. So, from stability control point of
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view, this thing will have implication, that is why I am stressing you please keep back of your
mind Cessna 206, which I showed you just now as a high wing configuration, and this is a low
wing configuration, okay.
Similarly, we have this is Sinus manufactured by Pipistrel, this is called motor glider. Motor glider
because conventionally gliders were launched by cable winch combination, right, it is like flying
a kite, but nowadays we find the gliders, gliders means high L/D ratio, right so that they can loiter
for longer duration, but need to take off. So, instead of cable what has been done, a small engine
has been put.
So, that is used for takeoff, once you go to a particular altitude, you switch on the engine, there are
gliders where the whole propeller will go inside, so that you have very good L/D configuration,
and you fly and then when you find that it has come down to a lower altitude, you will start the
engine and go to another altitude and glide. So, you have a very large endurance from that
perspective.
This glider if you see also has high wing configuration from stability and control point of view,
you please note down that there is a there must be some requirement to have high wing
consideration, sometime low wing consideration and primarily from stability and control point of
view sometime it could be because of maintenance point of view also. So, we will be talking about
those things in detail, okay.
And since I am talking about the gliders, I have talked about Hansa 3, the speeds are less than
around less than 0.3 Mach. You could see this is these are the aileron which by now you know
and these are used to give a bank to the airplane and airplane can be rotated like this through this
aileron, and this is also one of the control, like we have elevator, we have rudder and we have
aileron, okay.
These are extremely important to understand because please understand in this course, we are not
going to talk in terms of performance, we are going to talk in terms of stability and control. So, we
will be really bother about how much moment each component gives what center of gravity and
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whether that contributes to static stability or not, that is very important right. For example, if we
see this airplane, right and if you assume that let’s for a fictitious way, we assume that CG
somewhere here let’s say here okay.
Let’s say hypothetically. So, if this wing sees some angle of attack, its lift force I can represent at
the quarter chord point, so this force will give a nose up moment, okay. As the angle of attack will
increase this will give nose up moment that means with the increase of angle of attack, this wing
will contribute towards the de-stability. It will further take the aircraft up. But if you see the tail
since CG is there, if there is the change in angle of attack, then this will have a force in this
direction, that will give a nose down moment. So, this will try to reduce the angle of attack if there
is at all given through a distance, right.
So, this we will be talking it has a some sort of stabilizing effect, all those things we will be
discussing and in general we find that any component which is located ahead of center of gravity
will give destabilizing effect, any component, which is behind center of gravity will give
stabilizing effect. So, this is in general we need to understand in an airplane and then we will be
talking in detail and formulate it and try to see how can I understand this characteristics and
configure an airplane with adequate, well planned and designed stability characteristics right, that
is the basic purpose of this course.
So, we are talking about low subsonic or low speed aircraft. Now in this course as far as stability
and control are concerned, we will not be restricting ourselves to low speeds, we will also go for
high speeds. So, let me introduce one of our, another pride aircraft, I have the model for that aircraft
and you all must be knowing this is Tejas, right! this is delta wing configuration. This is one of
our pride, Tejas subsonic aircraft, and because it has delta wing, lot of sweep, okay.
And you could see control surfaces are laid in a different than, different manner than what is in a
conventional aircraft and in performance when you’re talking about sweep, we are talking in terms
of critical Mach number primary to reduce the drag, however once the sweep for such high speed
airplane is there, we need to discuss about what is the effect of speed on the stability, what is the
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effect of variation of parameters with speed in terms of dynamic stability, then what is the sweep
is going to do as far as stability and control consideration are there.
So, that is why this Tejas, which I am purposely showing you, I always love to show our own
aircraft, unfortunately out of so many aircraft, only two are our own aircraft, I would like this sort
of a course should held by youngsters that after 10, 15 years this tarmac is full of aircraft designed
and manufactured by India only, okay.
With that aspirations, with that wishes in the New Year, I again say Happy New Year to all of you
and let’s start learning this course with a clear cut ambition in next 10, 15 years, this tarmac will
be full of aircraft manufactured, built, designed by we, we the Indians. Thank you very much.
We are back again and Kanpur is a – it’s basically a pleasant part of the winter session, you will
find during this time people are wearing fancy dresses, warm clothes, lots of fog around, lots of
disruption in flight, but there is tacit freshness among all the individual. With that freshness, we
will start this course title Flight Stability and Control. And I will underline two words, one is
stability and control.
In my first course on airplane performance, at the end we have discussed about these two terms,
stability and control. In this course, will start from there but now we will be unfolding few salient
things in an exhaustive manner to understand the true meaning of stability and control and how a
designer will ensure the stability and control aspects of airplane.
So, that finally the pilot will fly, he is flying at ease do not forget whatever you design with the
flight vehicle, if it is a man flight vehicle we need to be bothered about the human being, the pilot,
the passengers, if we are very, very careful about their comfort, if they are not comfortable then
the vehicle is not well designed. To ensure that we take care of these issues, we need to know more
detail about stability and control. Now the question come, how I am going to take this course
forward?
See in introduction to airplane performance, we were talking about mostly response of the airplane
in terms of translatory motion. So, you assume that yes we apply Newtonians law that is force
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equal to M into acceleration of central mass. So, we simplify the whole description to a point mass
approximation or point mass model, but in this course since we are talking about stability and
control, we will be talking about not only how the airplane is going in a translatory motion.
We also like to talk about is rotational motion right, and the moment something rotation comes,
your point mass approximation or point mass simplification will not work, because you know in
rotation, it is not the total mass, it is the mass distribution or we say it is the moment of inertia that
plays a role, okay.
At the same time, we will be also bothered about what is the moment coming on the airplane at a
given flight conditions. Since these things we have touched upon in last lecture, so you will find
that few of the last lectures will be repeated, so that there is a continuity.
(Refer Slide Time: 14:50)
Why that is important please understand after all we have learned by now some important phases
of airplane motion and this part was taxing and takeoff.
This was climb, this was cruise or it could be accelerated flight, this is loiter, here it is landing.
The question we ask to our self is if I want to climb, I need to generate particular amount of lift
and once I generate particular amount of lift how do I generate that, that is what are the control
surface I deflect and that part is taken care in the topic of control.
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And the next question comes to our mind, if I deflect the control, let’s say elevator whether the
airplane is going to be stable or not or to be more precise, more correct, how this control deflection
will generate response to an aircraft which is stable. Same control input will have a different type
of response if the aircraft is not stable right. So, we need to build a relationship between stability
and control in a very tacit manner and we should understand exactly what it means, what this
relation is going to give us.
For example, so far we have assumed that for a cruise, we have to give some elevator deflection,
but question is if I give a elevator deflection does the airplane immediately comes to the angle of
attack or there are transience, and if you want to really design an airplane better you should know
clearly about the transient response.
So, that is the part of a stability which is we referred to as dynamic stability, okay. So, in stability
we have static and dynamic, both, okay. And by control here we will be primarily meaning this
elevator control, it could be aileron, it could be rudder, there could be canard like this. So, we will
try to understand each of this and try to see how stability and control are connected, how they are
connected and why we are interested in how they are connected, because finally we know through
their relationship what is the handling qualities of the airplane, because we are more bothered
about the pilot and the passenger, okay.
So, that will be the whole direction road map for this course and we will be taking back to our
earlier lectures may be around eight to 10 where we will start the introduction the way we used in
that time, so that there is continuity, okay.
I will use Mann Ki Baat too frequently in the first 15 lectures, so as to make ensure that we are
seamlessly going into direction where the continuity is there, okay. Let us go back to this term
stability and we agreed that we will try to study it through static and dynamic stability, okay. What
is static stability?
You recall, you are clear by now through our first course that every system, which is in equilibrium
or any system which is in equilibrium and if it is disturbed above the equilibrium and if it has
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initial tendency to come back to that equilibrium we say the body is in static equilibrium or the
body is statically stable, we will say the body is statically stable that is precisely more correct,
appropriate. Just to recall remember, we have given this example.
I draw this line, this is a ball. Now what happens, it’s must, excite your mind to go back to your
class 10th, 11th where these diagrams were frequently used, let’s say this body is in equilibrium,
this dotted line show the equilibrium position. What is the meaning of the equilibrium, the net
force and its moments are zero, right. The similar case if I come through aircraft….
…one of the equilibrium state is for the airplane is in cruise okay, where lift = weight, thrust =
drag, net force is 0, net moment is 0, so cruise is also in equilibrium state. Now what is the question
you are going to address, you are going to address whether this body at this equilibrium is statically
stable or not, meaning thereby if I come again from here to here, if I have the same question.
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Yes this body is in equilibrium here because net force is 0, whether this body is in body statically
stable or not, how do I check? I say I give a small disturbance. The moment I disturb it from the
equilibrium state, you see there is a component of weight will be there which would try to take it
back to the equilibrium state. So, it has initial tendency to take the body toward the equilibrium
state, the catch word is initial tendency. So, we say this body is indeed in statically stable mode or
statically stable condition.
In contrast if you say this body here, if I displace it by small amount now the component of weight
will take it away from the equilibrium state, so we say, it does not have any initial tendency to
come back to equilibrium. So, this is statically unstable, this is clear. Similarly with this
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understanding if I try to know whether this gentleman or friend aircraft is statically stable or not,
what we have to do, we have to first see what is the equilibrium state because static stability, we
are talking with reference to the equilibrium, a disturbance about the equilibrium.
So, first we find out equilibrium state, here I know the cruise where lift = weight, thrust = drag and
moments are automatically balanced. This is typically a equilibrium state and now what I, if I want
to check whether this is static stability or not satisfying static stability condition or not what I have
to do, I have to give it some disturbance, as Delta Alpha, angle of attack, will be an upward gust
coming like this and if it immediately generates a moment nose down that is to nullify…
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…that Delta Alpha because initially the equilibrium state was let’s say Alpha 2 degree and because
of the disturbance let’s say angle of attack became 3 degrees, so static stability demands that it
should automatically generate a nose down moment, so that it has initial tendency to come back to
2 degree of Alpha, is it clear? Okay. If it has, it is statically stable, if it is does not have, it is
statically unstable. At this point please understand it is not that we cannot control a statically
unstable airplane.
The catch statement is unstable does not mean uncontrollable, you can do an experiment, you can
take a stick on your finger. Imagine a stick is there that’s statically unstable, but you can control
it, okay. In fact your most of our fighter airplane they are marginally stable or marginally unstable
in terms of static stability sense. That is why they are highly maneuverable, okay. Once you do
that static stability we will be spending lot of time on dynamic stability, that is okay, fine.
We understand that suppose I take a mass spring system right and assume that this whole mass
spring system is isolated from the environment, and the spring is linear, there is no air, completely
vacuum you know very well at some point this is the equilibrium. That is here if I draw the free
body diagram I will find MG acting here and here the force because of extension case and they are
balanced so it is at equilibrium.
Now if I want to check whether this body is statically stable or not, what I have to do, let’s say I
stretch it, I stretch it here to some length and then release it. So, what will happen the moment I
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release it, because there will be a force Kx acting opposite so it will start moving towards the
equilibrium, it will overshoot. Again as it overshoots, the force will be acting downward, so it will
again take it like this. So, it will go on oscillating like this and since there are no air no medium a
spring is linear it will keep on oscillating like this.
So, do you call it statically stable or not, let us check from the equilibrium, where I deflected the
body, it has tendency to come back to the equilibrium, so it has initial tendency to come back to
equilibrium but because of inertia it goes up and again as it goes away from the equilibrium, it has
the tendency to come back to this, so it goes on doing like this.
So, it does have static stability but does that mean it has dynamic stability, if you want to know
what is dynamic stability, we have to put another condition there, not only the initial tendency to
come back to equilibrium but also its amplitude should decay in finite time that is it should go on
doing like this and finally it should come here to equilibrium. So, this will not happen here, this is
the case where it is statically stable but dynamically not stable.
Now think of a situation, if I put some water or oil in to this, what will happen? It will have this
and amplitude will come down, so there is a damping. And for dynamic stability not only the initial
tendency, it should also its amplitude also should decay in finite time, so there will be concept of
stiffness, there will be a concept of damping when you are talking about dynamic stability, right.
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And this damping decides the passenger comfort or the handling qualities of the pilot. So, we see
how they get connected, okay. So, we will be talking more and more on the dynamic stability in
this course. Two part of static stability I have covered in the last course.
Because there will be there will be many students who will be joining these course who may not
have the first course exposure, even if they have it may be one time so it’s my duty to see that we
revisit again the important point and we will make you prepare ready to cruise or accelerate into
the stability aspects including dynamic stability aspects. This is one thing. Second would be the
response. That is if we see, let me erase this part. Suppose this is the airplane and this is the tail
and this is the elevator, the wing and there is the rudder and there is an engine.
Let’s say it’s flying at some speed. We have seen whether it is statically stable or not, dynamically
stable or not once we have done that, then we will try to know if I give unit deflection of elevator,
how the angle of attack is building, right. Say, whether it is building something like this or building
something like this or building something like this.
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So, in this 3 diagram, I have shown that they are all finally coming to some angle, let’s say Alpha*
but these 3 graphs also tells you that transience of going to that Alpha star is different. So, we have
to clearly see, how do I calculate Alpha* that the response for a deflection of elevator in time
domain, right, with time how it is happening. So, this is also extremely important topic that we
will be discussing in this course. So, you could see that initial few eight to 10 lectures will be
exactly what we have done.
In our last course, in fact some same video clips will be shown to you. I will be coming again after
two or three lectures, as a Mann Ki Baat session and try to discuss few things more because there
will be many students who are who might not done airplane performance, even if they have done
they have missed few concepts.
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But once we build a solid base, then we go systematically into static stability, what are the control
required, dynamic stability part, response and how do I design the handling qualities. So, this will
cover the whole course, which is it is a huge course, please understand. It will require little bit of
effort from your side, we have to sit with pen and pencil and solve some equations which are again
are not more than a first-degree equation may be some time, I will be using Laplace transform
which I will explain, don't get panic about all these names. I will ensure and take guarantee that it
will be as simple as you are a student of class 12th or the most first year.
So, with that positive note we will take up this course, I hope you will enjoy and this time for a
change you will be allowed to interact with me directly on question sessions through my another
email ID I will be creating or I would like to interact with you directly along with the TA’S right,
so that helps sometimes there is a lag which I learned from last course. Thank you.
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Prof. A. K. Ghost
Lecture- 02
Introduction to static stability
Yes dear friends, we were discussing about static stability, and we realized and we understood
when it defines static stability, we are very clear that it is to do with initial tendency of that system,
if it has initial tendency to come back to the equilibrium. Then, the body of the system is in static
stability okay. And we try to understand this through a diagram here, this is the spring and this is
the mass.
So, this is the equilibrium and equilibrium means all the net forces and movements are zero and
once we want to understand static stability, what we say we disturb this, we stretch this mass, and
release it and we know that the moment I stretch it there is a force Kx , proportional to the
displacement, it tries to take it back to the equilibrium it may over shoot it may oscillates that’s a
different issue, for static stability those things are not important for static stabilities only important
that, it should have initial tendency to go towards the equilibrium that is static stability.
Now for this mass spring system, who is providing these static stability characteristics? It is
through the spring the moment I stress the spring there is a opposing force, which tries to take it
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back to the equilibrium. Now let us come back to the aircraft, If I say for aircraft for time being If
we concentrate on the angular stability that is suppose the airplane is going like this, and If there
is a disturbance which tries to take the altitude up or he have to check.
It will be statically stable if it has initial tendency to come back to the same equilibrium. Okay, or
to the equilibrium, that initial tendency that means for a mass spring system, it has a spring who
does all these works but for an aircraft what is that agency who will ensure that the moment I am
deviating from the equilibrium, they will be a restoring moment which will try to take back it to
the equilibrium.
That is, if it is going like this if it is disturbed and its altitude has increased then the aircraft would
have a mechanism which should try to give a nose down movement, to ensure that it has static
stability is it clear, now the question is for a mass spring system there are physical systems like
spring, mass, a spring is giving that force or forces however for an aircraft all these forces are
being generated through interaction between body, and the medium which is air in this case right.
For example you know aircraft has major component as wings as horizontal tail vertical tail so,
whatever disturbance it experiences if at all in a restoring movement has to be generated, it has to
come from the interaction of the horizontal tail, wing, fuselage from their interaction it should
generate a nose down movement, as long as it generate nose down movement for a positive
disturbance, angular disturbance, angle of attack disturbance, we will say it has static stability.
Now we will try to understand where from it will generate restoring movement almost analogous
to spring.
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Okay let us see we all are aware of aerofoil, let’s for simplicity assume that this is a symmetric
aerofoil, and also we know there is a point called aerodynamic center, and what is the definition
of aerodynamic center? It is a fictitious point mostly for low speed and moderately thickness to
chord ratio aerofoil, this point is at C/4, that is its location is C/4 and we call it quarter chord point
where we are now very clear what is a chord.
And what is the technical definition of this aerodynamic center? It is that point in that aerofoil
about which the pitching movement is independent of angle of attack, is this clear? And even if I
change angle of attack, the pitching movement about that point will be zero right. So it is very
convenient to represent all the forces and movement, acting at C/4 so you will find that for a
aerofoil I will represent like this CL, CD and in general there will be a CM okay.
Now let us try to understand how such configuration can generate a restoring movement, to ensure
it has static stability that is the question we are addressing. It is important to understand that in free
flight if there is any disturbance from the body, it will try to rotate about an axis passing through
center of gravity so, we will like to see whatever movement is being generated, all the rotation
about an axis passing through center of gravity.
So what do we do we say suppose this is the aerofoil, and I can now imagine that this aerofoil is a
cross sectional contour of a wing, we are very clear we have already discussed the aerofoil is two
dimensional concept, where the flow is supposed to follow the contour, there are no lateral flows
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but, for a wing there will be lateral flows but the wing contour is decided by the aerofoil, also we
know lifting characteristics of the wing also depends upon what type of aerofoil we have chosen
right.
But what we are trying to focus is on stability, mostly static stability at this point, so this is
aerodynamic center, let us say this wing I want to fly okay, it has enough area now there are 2
positions are possible one is let’s say center of gravity of the wing is ahead of aerodynamic center
correct If this is the situation let’s see what happens, let’s say this gentleman is flying at Alpha =
Alpha* and that is the equilibrium.
And because of some disturbance ΔAlpha the wing is going to respond we are looking for its initial
tendency, If there is a ΔAlpha disturbance then the, and at ΔCL I say lift coefficient or a lift if I
multiply it with dynamic pressure, will be generated and that can be represented effectively at
aerodynamic center, we have agreed on this point. If this is true then what this ΔCL will do? This
will generate a moment I say ΔCM about CG which will be nose down.
So if there is a positive disturbance of ΔAlpha this wing has a tendency to put the wing down to
make this to zero or to come back to the Alpha*, so we say it has initial tendency and to come back
to equilibrium, so we say if aerodynamic center is behind center of gravity then it processes static
stability is it clear.
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To be more elaborate suppose, the aircraft is trimmed at Alpha 2 degree, I call it Alpha* and there
is a ΔAlpha. Let’s say 0.5 degree, If this is statically stable then what will happen, because of
ΔAlpha now the angle of attack became, 2 + 0.5, 2.5 degree, but if it is a statically stable the
airplane will have a initial tendency or produce a nose down movement so, that finally this get
cancelled or there is a tendency to cancel it, right. I will not use the word finally because finally
once I say I am implicitly talking about time.
Which static stability had nothing to do with time that is dynamic stability, so correct statement
will be the moment there is a changing angle of attack, from 2 + 0.5 that is 2.5 degree, the airplane
will generate a nose down movement to ensure that it has initial tendency to come back to Alpha*
2 degree. And this is possible for a wing alone configuration only when, aerodynamic center is
behind center of gravity, so you could see that the moment ΔCM.
Which is proportional to the angle is equivalent to the spring force Kx, there also the spring force
was proportional to a displacement that was a linear displacement there is a angular displacement
clear, both are in opposing nature.
So that is how static stability is assured you can immediately see that, if this is the aerodynamic
center and if CG is behind aerodynamic center or I say aerodynamic center is ahead of center of
gravity.
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Then what happens? if there is a disturbance ΔAlpha there will be a force here, let’s say in non-
dimensional form I call ΔCL, this will give nose up movement right so, this will actually take this
way nose up so, further this angle will increase so such configuration doesn’t have any initial
tendency to come back to the equilibrium, so you say this is statically unstable. So what is our
learning if we want to make a wing alone configuration statically stable.
I must ensure that aerodynamic center of the wing should be behind center of gravity of the wing
right. And we also realized that, this production of moment, which is proportional to the angular
displacement can be thought to be analogous to the production of force, because of linear
displacement for a spring mass case so, I can always say these separation between aerodynamic
center and center of gravity.
We have some relationship or some similarity with the stiffness of the system, like for mass spring
system, the spring constant K it has some influence on the stiffness of the system, okay so this is
this needs to be understood correctly before you again revisit my lecture on static stability okay.
Now if you recall the aircraft has mainly this is the horizontal, mainly those stabilizer component,
and lifting component what is the lifting component? Primary lifting component is the wing that
is wing has the primary role to generate lift, and these are this part is the stabilizer, and its role is
this is typically horizontal stabilizer, its role is to give stability to the airplane correct. So now if I
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draw a configuration like this and let’s say CG of the airplane is here, and aerodynamic center of
the wing is here, and aerodynamic center of the tail is here.
So by seeing this diagram can we simply tell or can we not answer a question by seeing this
description. And neglecting the fuselage effect so, let’s say fuselage effect we are neglecting with
this assumption, that we are neglecting fuselage effect by seeing the location of aerodynamic
center, vis-à-vis CG of the airplane this is CG of the airplane, please understand when I am
drawing here this notation this is CG of the airplane, earlier since it was only wing so I was talking
about CG of the wing, but this is a whole airplane this is the CG of the airplane why CG of the
airplane ??.
Because airplane will rotate in free space through an about an axis, which passes through CG of
the aircraft right, once I have represented the location of aerodynamic center of wing, as well as
tail vis-à-vis the CG of the airplane I can easily comment, that this configuration will necessarily
be statically stable. I am assuming there are no fuselage effects on neglecting fuselage effect why?
I know because aerodynamic center of the wing is behind CG of the airplane.
So this will be stabilizing any way aerodynamic center of the tail is behind CG of the airplane, so
this will be stabilizing so this aircraft has to be statically stable, there is no issue. Now think of it
different case, think of a case where CG of the airplane is behind aerodynamic center of the wing,
however aerodynamic center of the tail is behind CG of the airplane, can I directly say this aircraft
will naturally be statically stable, I am assuming that in fuselage effect is neglected.
Can I directly tell let us investigate, as far as wing is concerned since aerodynamic center of the
wing is ahead of CG it is giving destabilizing okay, so this is not giving stabilizing contribution
because, I know for a stabilizing contribution aerodynamic center has to be behind center of
gravity. But for tail it is of course behind for stabilizing, so whether the aircraft will have adequate
static stability or not or to be more stretch.
Whether the aircraft will be statically stable or not will be decided by the actual contribution of
wing, which is destabilizing and the actual contribution of tail which is stabilizing and they will
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try to nullify each other, and how so ever wins that will decide statically stable or not. If the
contribution of tail is more than the contribution of wing, than I will say statically stable.
For example, the restoring moment, which is primary reason for static stability in this case so, the
restoring moment generated by the horizontal tail, if it is more than the disturbing moment or
destabilizing moment generated by the wing, then only this airplane will be statically stable. The
restoring moment is decided by what? you could see not only the horizontal tail whatever lift is
coming or area, but also the distance between the horizontal tail, aerodynamic center and the CG
because, it is a moment okay.
So soon you will understand that, when we talk about static stability we talk about the area we talk
about the momentum, and we define so term called tail volume ratio. So this is just to warming
up, this concept should be clear to you, also please understand.
Suppose this is an airplane, let’s say this is CG of the aircraft, and let us see AC of wing and of
course this is AC of tail okay, let’s say this is the configuration, again I am assuming fuselage
contribution is neglected. If I see this I could easily check yes, AC of the wing is behind CG of the
aircraft, so this will give stabilizing contribution, and we see the ac of tail is behind the CG of the
aircraft, this also give a stabilizing contribution.
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So it is having naturally having static stability, but now suppose I add some surface here okay,
which are typically called CANARD, then what will happen? The static stability will increase or
decrease. How do I see this as a designer okay, I know that the moment it is like this the
aerodynamic center of this CANARD, is ahead of CG of the aircraft, so what it will do it will give
again destabilizing clear?
We know that aerodynamic center is ahead of center of gravity of the aircraft it will be
destabilizing, clear. So whatever static stability it had without this CANARD, now the moment I
put CANARD, its static stability will reduce, and if it is not properly designed, it may be become
unstable also right statically unstable also.
So this is what the scenario and what is the gross learning for a designer, that any sub lifting surface
please note this important any lifting surface, which are located behind the center of gravity of the
airplane will generate stabilizing effect, any lifting surface which are located ahead of center of
gravity will generate destabilizing contribution, If you understand this then major part of the static
stability is understood.
It doesn’t require more the knowledge level of class 11th or 12th you have to know how to find out
the moments is it clear? okay let us take another example before, you go through the lectures.
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Let say very simple case, let us say this is the hinge point, and let us say I have put the horizontal
surface like this, and I kept this in a wind tunnel, you were all aware of this nomenclature you
know what is a wind tunnel, okay when I say hinge point means so this is a horizontal tail.
So the lower end like this and it can rotate about this point in a pitch plain, and we say you
remember we will call longitudinal motion right, but it cannot go forward or backward only 1
degree moves like this and now if this is the case, can we talk about whether this is statically stable
or not?
What is the way to think you first identify what are the lifting surface, we have only one lifting
surface, that is this one and you know the aerodynamic center will be C/4 of this, so let’s say this
is the aerodynamic center, and now what is the check since it is rotating about hinge point, so it is
like the center of gravity for a free space in free space also it rotates about center of gravity axis
passing through center of gravity right?
So this is the hinge point so now this we could see aerodynamic center is behind the hinge point,
so this will give necessarily static stability okay, as per our understanding but mechanics wise let
us check how it happens, okay suppose these are systems and suppose I have given let me draw it
clear once you understand this is the tail, so I am drawing the cross section okay assume the tail is
something like this okay, so now I want to check whether it has static stability or not do we
understand we have become expert.
We know the aerodynamic center is behind the CG of the hinge point in this case, so it will
definitely contribute towards static stability right? Let us see by mechanics wise what happens
let’s introduce some disturbance of 2 degree remember this is the equilibrium okay? Equilibrium
is at let say Alpha = 0 degree, now I introduce 2 degree disturbance, so equilibrium is at Alpha =
0 I introduce a disturbance of two degree.
So what this two degree will do at C/4 it will generate lift, I am representing by CL is coefficient,
and we know very well if I multiply with the local dynamic pressure and area, I will get the total
lift here is one assumption, generally as per definition the lift should be perpendicular to the
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velocity vector, but since Alpha is small 2 degree, we are assuming it to be straight that’s all right,
what this CL will do? This Cl this will immediately generate a moment about hinge point.
So which will also depend upon what is the length LT the moment you generate say nose down
moment meaning thereby what? It will try to nullify this to degree so it has a initial tendency, to
make or to it ensure it comes back to Alpha = 0 which is the equilibrium, so you say yes indeed it
has static stability, is it clear?
But there is a catch please understand what happens suppose I have fired a rocket, which has
thrust T and it is statically stable. This is the CG and this is the aerodynamic center or center of
pressure for this is statically stable, and it was having Alpha = 0 now, because of the disturbance
of 2 degree what will happen? Because it is statically stable it has initial tendency to ensure that
is 2 degree becomes 0 so that or the equilibrium Alpha = 0 is achieved so, it gives a nose down
moment the moment it gives the nose down moment the rocket initially rocket turns like this but
the thrust is on already,
right.
So it will have a serious effect on the range of the rocket because, it is supposed to go like this it
is now turn like this, and thrust is on so the elevation angle will change so the range of the rocket
will change, that is why it is important, when you talk about stability how much stability? So as
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far as static stability is concerned, it talks only about initial tendency, but it has larger influence on
its sensitivity or in performance in dispersion vis-à-vis wind.
So it is very, very important, we should also clearly know, how much static stability we want and
our lecture will address this question, as I told you these are warm up for this course, my role is to
orient you to a stability to understand and to have a love and hate relationship with static stability,
you love it, don’t love it too much, don’t hate it okay. So how much I should love, and how much
I should hate that will be decided by, what do you require and how much you understand. Okay
clear.
So that’s why I always say static stability and control has a very tacit relationship, one has to
respect it, if we don’t respect, the whole relationship can break and you may lead it to a disaster,
okay. Thank you
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Aircraft stability and control
Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 03
Stability and Trim
Good morning, we will be discussing about stability and control of an airplane. The aspects which
need to be understood in the exhausted manner, we will be putting extra effort on that, and there
are some mathematical parts, which we will also mention but, it is expected that you will refer text
book to understand the mathematics related to understanding of this phenomena. If I take you back
to airplane performance.
Let us understand one thing when you are trying to understand airplane performance, we will have
a different approach we will see an airplane in a different manner, then when you are trying to
understand stability and control, we will try to understand an airplane same airplane in a different
manner.
For example, when I am talking about performance, even if there is an airplane our approach and
understanding it was through point mass model that is we assume that all the masses are
concentrated at the center of mass, why? Because this was okay for us because we wanted to know
the response of this airplane in a rectilinear motion, or response of this airplane for the given
external forces right?
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No angular rotations were considered, since no angular rotation was considered so we are happy
with the point mass perception, and in that the moment I talk about performance, this diagram was
good enough, thrust equal to drag lift equal to weight that was good enough and we took each
component.
The drag lift thrust and weight and try to understand the implication of this in terms of airplane
performance which are primarily take off, climb, cruise, loiter, landing and maneuver okay? And
of course yes, we also wanted to have an understanding about what is the ratio of L/D means to us
for an aerodynamics and for a flight mechanics man, typically we try to understand what is the
significance of having CL/CD maximum.
But nowhere explicitly, we talk about in a rotational motion. Now see when you come to stability
and control, this will not work okay? How will you see this for example in performance if we are
visualizing a wing we are only concerned about one, how CL is modeled CL0 + CL Alpha into
Alpha, that is you know we have CL versus Alpha graph, and why it was required from
performance point of view.
Because I wanted to know if required to generate this much of CL, what is the angle of the attack
required? I will ensure that the angle of the attack is not here, it should be somewhere here,
somewhere here in the linear zone, it should not go into the stall, so that was the only thing we are
looking for an aerofoil, explicitly we would like to know that whether the aerofoil is cambered or
symmetric depending upon what is the value of CL0, and how I can see model CL? With this
specific goal in performance.
I want to know whether the CL, which is required to balance lift equal to weight can be achieved
with a requisite Alpha or not? And the Alpha should be such that it does not go into the stall, right?
So that was the performance perception.
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But now from stability and control point of view same wing, now our approach will be different.
What we like to know first of all, where is the aerodynamic center which is which was also there
here in this case also, last case performance also, and if we recall the aerodynamic center is a
fictitious point about which the pitching movement is independent of angle of attack. And typically
it is at C /4 or quarter chord point.
That is if I tell this is at the chord, then this will be C/4 right? So one is yes we need to know the
aerodynamic center, second thing which is extremely important, is how the moment variation
about a point about? let say C/4 it could be about leading edge of the of the aerofoil, with the
leading edge of the aerofoil at any point if I know I can easily find out about any other point.
In stability and control we are not only interested in what is the aerodynamic center, we are also
interested the moment variation, because of aerodynamic forces and about any point and as you
know, this aerodynamic center is a point about which moment is independent angle of the attack,
so it is a convenient way to represent the effect of all the aerodynamics or aerodynamic forces
generated around the aerofoil, on the wing and they are represented conveniently at aerodynamic
center C/4.
And as you know, ideally when there is a pressure distribution over the aerofoil, say typically let
say something like this, and if you want to transfer the resultant of all these things about a point or
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to a point C/4, you need to transfer into the force, net force and a moment okay? And that is why
it is extremely important, to also know what is CMAC wing. This was never considered in
performance, what is CMAC wing let us have some understanding, we have already explained this
and we will showing you those lectures.
But just to have little bit of warm up for newcomers, If say this an aerofoil which is symmetric,
and you know let’s say at Alpha = 0, if there is a pressure distribution and further there is a net
force in the top surface, I can get by integrating the pressure distribution over the area, similarly
in the bottom surface we will also have in this direction right? And if it is symmetric these two
points will or these two forces resultant forces will be on the same point, and they cancel each
other.
That is why you say at Alpha equal to zero the net force will be zero, and net moment also will be
zero, okay about any point. But if it is a cambered aerofoil, you will find on a top surface if the
forces in direction, the bottom surface this is F1 this is F2 the bottom surface.
Is not align with the top surface resultant, and so net force will be definitely F1- F2, however,
when I try to shift this point shift these forces to a point C/4, so now when I shift this force from
here to here, I would shifted by the force and the moment, so this also a force into moment so
finally what you will find? This will have cambered aerofoil at C/4, will have CL, CD, and CMAC
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wing. What CMAC wing is considerate moment that came into existence because, we are
transferring all these forces to a point C/4 right?
And that is an important thing what we must understand when you are studying stability and
control okay? Typically, for a cambered aerofoil these values are minus let’s say -.01, to -.1 typical
number. So If I see this cambered aerofoil, it has a concentrated moment about C/4 which has a
negative sign, and we know as our pitching moment is concerned, the convention is nose up is
positive nose down is negative right?
So this a difference major difference that I see that there will be a CMAC wing are that is going to
create an effect terms of the angular motion of the airplane okay?
Now let us go little bit more into it before we go for our regular systematic build up, so let us now
do an experiment, this is a cambered aerofoil and you this is CL, CD and CMAC, wing and we
know CMAC wing is negative. Suppose if I throw this cambered aerofoil or a wing made up of a
cambered aerofoil, if I throw it what will happen? Now, there are two cases I will discuss one
assume that.
The CG is ahead of C by four, why I have brought CG now that you know in free space when I
throw something or somebody is flying or some aircraft flying, this rotation will be about an axis
32
passing through the central of gravity right? In free space rotates about an axis passing through
central gravity. So now let’s see when I am throwing this wing made up of cambered aerofoil.
And if the is CG ahead of it, what sort of response you expect? First of all, I will ask a question is
it statically stable? Right, as I was telling let us do an experiment, this is a wing made up of a
cambered aerofoil, and let say this size I am just throwing it in air. The first question which comes
to my mind is, is this configuration statically stable or not?
And you remember what is the meaning of static stability? Static stability means if a body is
distract from its equilibrium state, and if it has initial tendency to come back to that equilibrium
we say it has static stability right. Now see here, If I am throwing it like this and let say some
disturbance of Delta Alpha is here, okay and then what did Delta Alpha will do? you know that it
will give additional lift Delta CL also Delta CD but I am taking Delta CL.
We are being predominant in this case, and then what happens the Delta CL will do what? It will
give a nose down moment okay, correct? That means it will try to nullify this disturbance, it will
try to come again back to the Alpha equal to zero which was perhaps this is the case right.
So it will try to give a nose down moment, So it has initial tendency to counter this disturbance
initial tendency to come back to Alpha equal to zero, initial tenancy to come back to its
33
equilibrium. So this is a statically stable case and we know very well, as long as aerodynamic
center is behind center of gravity it will be statically stable. If it was a other situation if AC was
here and CG was here then you could see slight disturbance.
Delta Alpha, there will be a Delta CL here and that will give a nose up moment and the angular
disturbance will further increase and it will not have a initial tendency to come back to Alpha equal
to zero or Alpha equilibrium. So it is statically unstable right. This is one thing, now let us see
what is this CMAC will be doing right? CMAC wing will do. CMAC, wing negative cambered
aerofoil, so if I throw it CMAC negative means it will try to always give a constant negative
moment. It is not proportional to angle of a attack in constant negative moment so the airplane or
the wing here will have a tendency to do like this, it will very difficult to trim, even if it is statically
stable right?
If I go back again, we define CL as lift divided by half row V square S, we say lift non-
dimensionalised by dynamic pressure and area okay. Similarly, CD we know it’s a drag divided
by half row V square S again you could see here CD is nothing but which we term as drag
coefficient is nothing but, total drag non-dimensionalised with dynamic pressure and area. Now
what is CM? CM is the pitching moment.
What is this pitching moment? Let us understand, if this is the airplane, and let’s say this is the CG
and let me draw it I will explain, is there X, Y, Z axis passing through center of gravity the pitching
34
moment is motion about Y axis. So it goes up sign is positive, goes down sign is negative, Yawing
and about Z axis is a Yawing motion that is it a Z axis this is the Yawing motion, if the right wing
going back, that means Yawing moment is positive, left wing going back Yawing moment is
negative and about X axis is a role so.
If right wing is going down it is a positive rolling moment and left wing going down is a negative
valve moment right. We are at present talking about pitching movement, which is essentially
motion about Y axis okay correct. Nose up positive, nose down negative. So what is CM? CM is
again is a pitching movement coefficient like it was lift coefficient it is a pitching movement
coefficient right.
How do I define it is the total pitching movement about center of gravity divided by half row V
square S, this is a dynamic pressure and into area reference area but we have to non-
dimensionalised this. So we have to put a length down so generally we put mean aerodynamic
chord. Okay, this is a definition of CM correct.
Now let us see either CM positive nose up, CM negative nose down, if I plot, CM versus Alpha,
let say for this case, I take a symmetric aerofoil or to more precise wing having symmetrical
aerofoil and let say this is C by four and let say this CG expression, XCG okay, XCG1 I put. Now,
here If I want to plot qualitatively the variation of CM and Alpha (())(17:13) how do I do that?
35
See, first I have to assume, with my understanding that no angle of attack CM versus alpha
variation will be linear, right, okay. So if it is linear, if I drawing a line I need to know its intercept
and slope okay. So what is the slope between the CM and Alpha that will first trying to see in
terms of sign. From here what do you see, if I am give a some Alpha to this wing having symmetric
aerofoil immediately I know there will be a delta CL and that will give me a negative moment, or
pitch down movement. That means for a positive alpha, I will have a negative movement.
Similarly, for a negative alpha, I will have a positive pitching movement is it clear? So this much
I know that the CM Alpha that is Delta CM by Delta Alpha or if I write DCM by DAlpha these
signs should be negative okay. So once I know this slope is negative I need to find out what is the
intercept because we have assumed that CM versus alpha variation is linear. To get an intercept
means I need to know what is the value of CM at Alpha equal to zero since this is symmetric,
aerofoil wing, I know at Alpha = 0 there will not be any CL right, and there is no CMAC also for
a symmetric wing.
So at Alpha = 0, CM will be always be zero so this is the intercept here and slope is negative so I
will draw this curve CM versus Alpha like this, check it here, the slope is negative yes slope is
negative. And intercept Alpha is equal to zero there will not be any CL and there is no CMAC
because of symmetric aerofoil wing. So that will be zero so this is the line for symmetric aerofoil
wing right? Now, let us see we do one change, this is important please be careful.
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What we do is, we now take a cambered aerofoil and AC is exactly here where earlier it was there
CG is also exactly where earlier it was there right only the aerofoil has changed nothing has
changed. In this case if you see again the slope CA vs Alpha will be what positive or negative we
could see here if I give a disturbance it is like this and nose down moment and I know that since
the aerodynamic center is behind center of gravity it will be statically stable as we see here the
aerodynamic center is behind center of gravity and you know it will statically stable.
So in our language now we say the DCM by D Alpha CM Alpha will be negative. So slope will
be negative no problem but what about at Alpha = 0 what will happen that is the question. Now
see here the moment I draw cambered aerofoil I should also understand it will have CMAC from
negative value which I have not drawn earlier. So a Alpha = 0 what will happen let’s see if I see
CL vs Alpha for a cambered aerofoil at Alpha = 0 it will always had positive lift coefficient CL0.
Correct? So that will also act here or let me draw a neat diagram so that you’re not confused we
are trying to find out at Alpha = 0, we know that Alpha = 0 there will be CMAC wing which is
less than a zero now at Alpha = 0 what happens at Alpha = 0 you could see from this graph for a
cambered aerofoil there will be a positive lift coefficient I name it as CL0 so this CL0 will act here.
For a symmetric aerofoil the CL0 value will be zero but for the cambered aerofoil there will be a
positive lift coefficient this.
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This will do what this will also give a nose down moment which is CL0 into let’s this is be X bar
that is X bar and I put the minus sign if I take X bar positive X bar is the thing but this physical
distance divided by chord clear. CL0 into X bar and if I assume this sign to be positive.
Then I need to generate a negative moment represent a negative moment because the CL0 will
give a nose down moment is it clear? So at Alpha = 0 we have CL0 into X bar I put absolute signs
for that no confusion with sign as long as we put a minus sign here over and above what will be
there over and above CMAC wing is here CMAC wing. So this will be basically your CM at Alpha
= 0 are you clear with this?
I repeat this is cambered aerofoil at Alpha = 0 there will be a CL0 which I know for a cambered
aerofoil CL versus Alpha looks like this. So this CL0 into this physical distance which I have non-
dimensionalized with chord and that will give a nose down moment so we have put this term okay
if you have any confusion we can put a bar here.
And put this minus sign then no confusion this is the physical distance between AC and CG non
dimensionalised with the cord. So that one moment will come at Alpha = zero in addition do not
forget because of cambered aerofoil CMAC wing already there so that also will get added so total
of this see it will generate a large negative value okay to see that this part is negative this is X is
behind CG it is statically stable.
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So it will give a nose up moment so negative value CMAC wing is always negative for cambered
aerofoil the total will be negative so if I come back here for a cambered aerofoil for this slope will
be negative, which ensures statically stable but the intercept will be negative this is for cambered
aerofoil wing. See it has static stability because AC of the wing is behind CG of the wing however
because of cambered aerofoil at Alpha = 0.
It will have contribution of negative moment because of CL0 and because of concentrated CMAC
wing so in this intercept will be negative. Now what is the repercussion of this why you want fly
you want to fly at an angle of attack so that it produce enough lift to balance weight now if you’re
flying at this point which is negative angle of attack you may not be able to generate that much of
lift even if it is cambered to produce the enough force for a restricted speed to balance the weight.
So that is why we have selected this point because these are called trim points why they are called
trim points you will be knowing it explicitly why they are called trim points because these are the
equilibrium point at which net moment net force is zero or in this case net moment is zero right.
39
So I if I want fly cruise I want the moment should be zero so my trim point for this aerofoil
configuration is this for symmetric it is this for symmetric unfortunately Alpha = 0 so I will not
(()) (26:13) be able produce any lift so this is meaningless for me for cambered theoretically
speaking some lift to generate because of some angle here but that is not a good way of flying
when you have velocities so this is also not accepted for us.
What we look for this can I configure whole airplane so that CM and Alpha variation look like this
that is its slope is negative so statically stable slope is negative slope so statically stable and CM
at Alpha = 0 which you called CM0 is greater than zero what is the advantage here this variation
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will tell you the yes statically stable but trim point is that a positive angle of attack, so I can easily
generate a configuration where lift = weight and thrust = drag.
I can fly the machine at the positive angle and give enough speed so that in our (()) (27:12) dynamic
pressure so that I get enough lift to produce force which balances the weight okay so why my aim
is to fly at a positive angle of attack. So that is why most of the airplane will be designed in such
a manner that CL vs Alpha graph (()) (27:32) is like this or in a nutshell that CM0 is get us a zero
and CM Alpha is less than zero CM Alpha less than zero ensures.
It is statically stable and CM0 greater than zero ensures that you can trim the airplane at positive
angle of attack. If CM0 was not zero if it was somewhere here even it was statically stable the
slope was negative you are not able to trim it at positive angle of attack. If the angle of torque less
than zero we do not want that we want this and trim my airplane Alpha = 0 so what are the
conditions I must have for static stability I must ensure CM Alpha less than zero and for trim
positive Alpha at positive Alpha.
I must ensure CM0 is greater that zero how much CM Alpha how much CM0 these are matter of
details and as you go through the lectures you will get this would be answered. Is it clear so up to
this point this is totally (()) (28:31) warm up. You have got enough exposure what you are going
to have for first 10, 15 lectures and my lectures on static stability will continue after one or two
lectures of this and we suddenly enter into again with something called dynamic stability or lateral
stability directional stability I do not want to mix up mind focus here try to understand the static
stability concept.
And once my other force surround seven lectures are over we will be again discussing about little
more on this topic in a lateral mode, directional mode and we have a nice time we will be solving
lots of the examples in this course, please remember lot of numerical problem we will be solving
here may be in a week if the full lectures there might be one or two numerical lectures or lectures
solving in numerical okay. So please when you are watching my video take a note book calculator
pen and try to solve those problems okay thank you very much.
41
Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 04
Stability: Wing Contribution
We have been talking about CM0 and DCM/DAlpha, or DCM/DCL. Let us cross
check whether we are ready to generate or develop a field for this numbers through some
examples, okay. Let’s say, we have a symmetric aerofoil. I will take only wing as a medium to
explain this and we want to draw CM versus Alpha. If it is symmetric wing and let's say AC is
here, and CG is somewhere here, First case.
So how this CM vs Alpha will look like qualitatively we want to do that, this will tell us where
they really have got the final points clear or not. when I try to do for wing literacy, similar thing
can be extended for tail, if I am trying to draw variation of CM versus Alpha for a
symmetric wing and I have to draw CM versus Alpha that means I need to know what is CM at
Alpha = 0.
Because I know, I am looking for something CM = CM0 + CM Alpha into Alpha, okay?
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝛼
42
So it is very simple you go back to a school level, it is Y = C+ MX, where M is nothing but CM
Alpha X is nothing but Alpha C is nothing but CM0, Y=MX + C to be more precise its is a linear
fit right.
Straight line. Now let us see what is C here, so C means what? CM0. CM0 means what? What is
CM0? CM0 in this case is, CM at Alpha = 0. Correct, because of I am writing CM = CM0 +, CM
Alpha into Alpha
if I have written CM = CM0 + DCM by DCL into CL
𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝐿
then I would have defined CM0, as CM at CL =0.We are not doing that, we are doing CM = CM0
+ CM Alpha into Alpha, right. So what is CM 0? CM0 is CM, CM is what?
Pitching moment coefficient about which point about CG, right. At what condition at Alpha =0.
So See Alpha = 0, because symmetric aerofoil will there be any CM about CG. No because they
already no net force. So this will be this point to be here that is, at Alpha = 0, CM = 0, that
means CM0 = 0, first point we have got, to draw Y = MX+C we need two information’s, one
is intercept that already have got C =0, second is the slope, that is DCM by DAlpha so
CM Alpha will be what DCM by D Alpha
𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝐶𝑚𝛼 =
𝜕𝛼
since we are doing it qualitatively.
So we will just put the sign, that’s all right we will not be bother about actual magnitude, but from
here you could see that as I give some Alpha, because its CG is ahead of AC it will give nose
down moment about CG right? So that will be pitching moment coefficient negative as per
signature. So DCM by DAlpha will be negative so for this CM versus Alpha will look like this,
clear.
For let’s say case 1 is it clear. CM at Alpha = 0, Which is CM0 which is 0, now DCM
by DAlpha that is the slope of this line and you know since AC is behind CG for any all positive
43
Alpha it will give a nose down moment, nose down is negative, so the sign will be negative so the
slope at equilibrium this is the equilibrium point, at this slope has to be negative. So I have drawn
a negative slope here correct. Now let us see what happens if I keep everything same but I just
convert this into a cambered aerofoil, okay.
So again, AC is here and CG is ahead off, and let's say this distance is X bar, X bar is what about
absolute distance none dimensionalize with mini aerodynamic chord. Again we want to plot
CM=CM0+ CM Alpha into Alpha,
what will happen? Once I draw a cambered aerofoil, I know that at AC there will be CM,
AC which is magnitude by that is less than 0. That is like a concentrated moment it is there that
you know already good transferring of forces. Now, if I give some sort of an Alpha as a disturbance
I see because AC is behind CG, so it will have stabilizing effect. It will give pitching
moment negative for a positive Alpha.
So one thing I know DCM by DAlpha will be negative, so statically stable. Our next
question comes what is CM0=? CM0 we know, CM0 at Alpha =0, what happens that Alpha =0,
for a cambered aerofoil. at Alpha = 0 let us see you go back to this diagram, CL and Alpha,
remember this graph looks like this, and this is CL0 this is that Alpha =0.
So at Alpha=0 there is a positive lift, so that will happen somewhere here, okay? This is CL0 now
what this CL0 will do. I am trying to find out what is CM at Alpha =0, CM0, so at Alpha =0 we
realized there will be a CL0, which is will be acting at CMAC at AC we also know CMAC is less
than zero which is typically -0.02 to -0.1.
44
So now, we want to calculate what is the CM, at Alpha = 0 about CG, this will be CMAC of the
wing, which is a concentrated moment, and for a cambered aerofoil, for a cambered aerofoil it is
negative so this + XCG bar - XAC wing bar into CL0, right.
𝐶𝑚 |𝑎𝑡 𝛼=0 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐶𝐺 = 𝐶𝑚 𝑎𝑐,𝑤 + (𝑋̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑋̅𝑎𝑐,𝑤 )𝐶𝐿0
You know that at Alpha =0 there will be CL0. So what is happening for a cambered aerofoil. This
man is negative, what about XCG – XAC.
Since XAC is behind CG so X if I measure it from here you see XCG is this distance XCG and
then XAC is this distance XAC, So XCG - XAC of the wing will be negative right. Please
understand CG is here AC is here so XCG this distance - this distance will be negative so this
gentleman also will give a negative value. So what will happen CM0 of the wing will become
negative, for a cambered aerofoil?
If AC of the wing is behind CG, although it will be statically stable, so what we learned? That
slope will be negative, but its intercept will be also negative. So the intercept just to somewhere
here which is negative, and the slope also will be negative, so I draw it like this, so this is for
configuration two cambered. What is the message from this wing? It says, it is statically stable but
you cannot this value is at negative angle of attack.
45
So message is you are not able to trim this airplane or trim this flying wing, at a positive angle of
attack right. That is you cannot trim a cambered aerofoil at a positive angle of attack, correct. That
is why, what is done you know we put a reflex aerofoil on reflects aerofoil you put this becomes
positive or slightly positive correct. So this part is cleared, as well CM and Alpha variation, is
extremely important. Right. now let us see for the tail.
So in this course we have to go on doing all these sort of an example exercise, because just writing
some expression will not make you a flight mechanics man, just writing for expression will not
make you a designer, we have to go on doing integration to put numbers see it try to get feel out
of that numbers.
Then all you could be a designer, then in my opinion then only you are fit for aerospace flight
mechanics man, else you are as good as any good mathematician or anything for that matter, right.
So I will be doing this in this lecture module you will find many times I will be swapping from
derivations to numerical, numerical to derivations your different interpretations at different level
so that, you get the insight of all those expressions.
If I take a case of a tail, let’s see, tails are typically symmetric tails, unless it is the CG of the
aircraft, right. so if I plot CM versus Alpha for tail, what will be the slope again before you start
thinking you please create a map in your mind CM = CM0+CM Alpha into Alpha,
46
and we are talking about tail now, we are also assuming that there is no influence of wing on the
tail as per as downwash etcetera, etcetera is concerned which already you have seen but to develop
physics of the situation to make the situation simpler.
I am neglecting it downwash and all, if the tail is after CG of the aircraft, what is going to be its
contribution, we know, very well now, since AC of the tail, is behind CG, so naturally it will have
a stabilizing component, fundamentally you could see if there is a Alpha disturbance this will give
a lift, this will give a lift, and that will give a moment you nose down about CG so DCM by DCL
because of tail is negative.
So I know slope is negative, so this part because of tail is less than 0 right. Now, what about CM0?
If there is a Alpha=0 if it sees, I am neglecting all downwash effect of wing etcetera, etcetera, or
fuselage in this isolated case if Alpha=0 if this is a symmetric tail, it will not produce any lift so it
will not give any CM at Alpha=0. This is clear? So this again this will be tail contribution on the
something like this. Tail without downwash due to wing.
So I have neglected that, you will understand why I am saying that, but I want, slope is negative
is fine, stabilize but I want it should also gives CM0 positive because finally for the aircraft I want
CM0 of the whole aircraft positive, and we have seen that once we use the cambered aerofoil where
every possibility having larger CM0 wing negative, so you have to neutralize that so you have
generate CM0 positive value through tail so how do I do that? The moment I, put some setting
angle say (It)
What will happen now? Let us again see CM Alpha is okay, AC is behind CG it is negative, but at
Alpha = 0 what happens now? Now because of tail setting angle at Alpha = 0 there is a lift acting
downward which will give movement upward, right. So now at Alpha = 0, CM0 is greater than
zero because of tail, clear? At Alpha = 0, force will act downward, which will give a nose up
movement, so that Alpha = 0, that is CM0 tail which is greater than 0.
47
So, the moment I put tail setting angle this will become something like this, where this is CM0
tail, that is why we give tail setting angle. So, what is the understanding? If I want to give positive
CM0 generate positive CM0 one of the option is, you can put tail setting angle. Negative tail setting
angle. We have been discussing about static stability of airplane, and we have understood one thing
that, if there is a positive angle disturbance to an airplane.
About its trim suppose trim means about the airplane is flying at Alpha = 2 degree, and because of
some gust there is a say point five degree disturbance, so the aircraft will be said to be in static
stability if the aircraft automatically generates a nose down movement nose down pitching
movement ensuring it has initial tendency, to come back to equilibrium that is two degrees, and
then I say the aircraft is statically stable.
Just to illustrate this point, suppose this is an airplane, this is the horizontal tail, this is the wing,
and let’s say this airplane is flying, at Alpha = 2 degree, which is trim that means it is in
equilibrium. Let’s say cruise flight it is flying at Alpha 2 degree, so that lift equal to weight, thrust
equal to drag as there is no net pitching movement also, now because of some disturbance let’s
say,
Some 0.5 degree, disturbance is encountered by this airplane may be because of upward gust, then
If the airplane automatically generates, nose down pitching movement, okay. then we say it has a
48
initial tendency to nullify this 0.5 degree, so that it has the tendency to come back to Alpha = 2
degree or we say it has a initial tendency to come back to the equilibrium, then we say this airplane
is statically stable, okay.
Now the question is who will help in generating this nose down movement nose down pitching
movement, so that it is statically stable, before you understand that, we should again recall that the
airplane has three basis components, one is wing, another is tail, then third is fuselage, and then
fourth engine and etcetera, right.
Landing here so many other things miscellaneous components could be there. If I try to see what
the role of the wing, wing primary role is to generate enough lift so that it can do its mission but if
it is equal to weight mission that is cruise mission, is the wing is primary responsible to generate
that much of lift.
If it’s the maneuver, then load factor to be generated then again the wing is responsible to generate
that much of extra lift. What about tail? Tail we have seen and we will see also in more explicit
manner, its primarily, it is there to provide stability. okay. First task what about fuselage, fuselage
is basically for cargo, passenger, etc. and of course engines primary role you know that to deliver
trust, okay.
So when I am talking about static stability I am being talking so many times about pitching
movement, let us understand what is the sign convention to understand the positive pitching
movement, negative pitching movement, so what we agreed upon is, as per sign conversion is
concerned if I draw it here, if I put it as an X axis which is, located at CG, is Y and Z axis is like
this body fixed axis.
So these XYZ body are fixed axis located at center of gravity, okay. And what is the pitching
motion? Pitching motion is about Y axis, so if this is the airplane this is the Y axis pitching
movement is about Y axis, and nose up by convention is positive and nose down by convention is
negative, okay.
49
So, we are talking about pitching movements. We will not talk about any other movement now
because the aircraft can rotate about Z axis or about X axis which we will discuss later at present
we are talking about angular motion about Y axis that is pitching movement and you know we
work in a non-dimensional quantity so we will define CM as pitching movements non-
dimensionalized with half rho V square to dynamic pressure free stream and of course you need
the length term.
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐶𝑚 = 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔
1
(2 𝜌𝑉 2 ) . 𝑐̅
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚
So, if you use Cbar which is mean aerodynamic chord you will be knowing something about mean
dynamic chord. But, I will just touch upon here and while solving a problem, we will understand
how to compute it. If this is the span of the wing and this is the chord, here the chord is constant
so its mean aerodynamic chord is also C in terms of magnitude in terms in terms of its location.
However, if it is something like this it is a trapezoidal wing like this then you see that chord is
changing at every span location. So, there is a need to define mean aerodynamic chord at present
you understand that something like an average chord and which is, which will be located
somewhere here and it will be categorized by the length of the mean aerodynamic chord and also
the location where from its starting so, with this simple background.
I am moving forward at present you think some sort of the chord some sort of its average chord
and less dimensions to see that this is non-dimensional so as far as static stability is concerned in
pitch motion what we have realized that if there is a positive Alpha disturbance then it should
generate pitching movement and hence, I call it CM nose down and as per the convention nose
down is negative that’s why you say.
Delta CM by Delta Alpha this slope should be less than zero for static stability we have been
discussing that right. But now the question is who will be generating those forces and movement
so that for a positive Alpha it will indeed give a negative pitching movement. So, who are the
component wing, tail, and fuselage and engine so we will first start with what is the wing
contribution towards generating
50
A nose Down movement for a positive angle of attack or in a more general way we will now find
out through formulation what is the contribution of wing towards static stability okay? So that is
the first exercise we will be doing.
Let us draw our attention here what I have represented here is the wing through mean aerodynamic
chord. This is the wing is the aerodynamic center of the wing this is the V the free stream velocity.
When I say stream means? It is the velocity of relative velocity which is not disturbed by the
presence of the aircraft right. So that is why we said theoretically at infinite what is the direction
and magnitude of velocity or dynamic pressure in general.
So, this the velocity direction and let say this wing is set such that it has IW (𝑖𝑤 ) setting angle with
respect to fuselage reference line so the wing if a normal aircraft mostly we will find the wing will
be if this is the wing if it is most of the airplane we find it is set like this. So wing setting angle is
zero if it is set like this then, I say it has a positive wing setting angle and which is denoted by IW
(𝑖𝑤 ). So, now tell me if this is the velocity vector and this is the mean aerodynamic chord, the
angle of attack seen by that wing or mean aerodynamic chord is Alpha W (𝛼𝑤 ) .
Which is angle of attack seen by the wing and for our mathematical explanation, we are also
denoting the angle between velocity vector and fuselage reference line as Alpha FRL(𝛼𝐹𝑅𝐿 )
51
is stand for fuselage reference line okay. And you could see in this wing I have put MAC wing and
it is a general case if it is a cambered aerofoil MAC wing (𝑀𝑎𝑐,𝑤 ) will be negative or CMAC will
be negative with symmetric aerofoil the CMAC wing will be zero right.
And this is the general description of CG location here so I am measuring every dimensions of the
length with respect to leading edge of the wing so I am denoting the CG location along X is XCG
the location of aerodynamic center as XAC and ZCG is the vertical location of CG of the airplane
with respect to fuselage reference line. Please understand this CG is CG of the aircraft, it’s very
important, right.
That means, it has tail, it has engine, it has cargo, it has everything, fuel finally that is the CG, CG
of the airplane, don’t get confuse it is not the CG of the wing it is the CG of the airplane. okay.
𝜕𝐶𝑚
So, now, what is our aim, our aim is to see DCM by DAlpha because of wing ( ) is what in
𝜕𝛼 𝑤
terms of magnitude in terms of sign, in terms of magnitude and in terms of sign positive or negative
correct. Now, let us also understand very clearly in free air or in once the aircraft leaves the ground.
It is suppose to rotate above the axis passing through center of gravity. That is why we will be
writing all the moment contribution of the wing next you will see about tail, fuselage or engine all
about center of gravity of the airplane.
52
So, let us first see since we are doing the wing contribution let us write this wing under this
condition of V what are the forces it will see? It will see experience of drag force to DW drag of
the wing, it will experience lift on the wing because cambered aerofoil there is a MAC of the wing
and if I now try to find out the effect of this force in terms of, moment about CG what will be the
expression? So, let me write the expression you can easily see this M moment about CG because
of wing I can write it as let me write this LW COS Alpha W - IW into XCG- XAC wing.
And DW because of drag of wing SIN Alpha W - IW into XCG - XAC wing similarly because
of SIN component of lift we have another term - DW into COS of Alpha W - IW to ZCG then of
course there is term MAC wing let us see this term,
𝑀𝐶𝐺,𝑤 = 𝐿𝑤 cos(𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 ) [𝑋𝐶𝐺 − 𝑋𝑎𝑐,𝑤 ] + 𝐷𝑤 sin(𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 ) [𝑋𝐶𝐺 − 𝑋𝑎𝑐,𝑤 ]
+ 𝐿𝑤 sin(𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 ) [𝑍𝐶𝐺 ] − 𝐷𝑤 cos(𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 ) [𝑍𝐶𝐺 ] + 𝑀𝑎𝑐,𝑤
let us see how these terms are here, if I see this if I take LW component along here, this will be
LW COS of Alpha W - IW (𝐿𝑤 cos(𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 )) right you can see from this angle so this will give
about CG what type of moment?
It will give forces like this to give a nose up movement so there is a nose up contribution okay?
Similarly DW SIN you could see here DW is here take the SIN component and you will again get
this term all these terms come straight forward, and I’ll advice you draw the vector and find out
these terms okay, what is our aim? Our aim is to find DCM by DAlpha.
Because of wing so this is M from M how do I come to CM see, CM is pitching movement

coefficient, and CM is defined as pitching movement non-dimensionalize with free stream
dynamic pressure, reference area and mean aerodynamic chord okay.
𝑃𝑀
𝐶𝑚 =
1 2
𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑐̅
2
So I have to go for expression for DCM by D Alpha so I need CM so what I will do I will divide
left hand side and right hand side by half rho V square S Cbar.
When I understand S is the wing area sometime I may use S instead of SW but in general, please
remember if I write S it is the reference area for aircraft in the wing area so if I divide it by this
53
then I get for this CM similarly I have to divide every term here by half rho V square S so what
will happen? You see half rho V square S comes here under this and the Cbar.
I take it under this is it clear? if it is not clear let me do one term for you so that you understand
what I am telling. Since I need to convert pitching movement M to CM I am dividing left hand
side and right hand side by half rho V square S Cbar so I will be doing in the right hand side also.
So I am taking the first term LW COS Alpha W - IW XCG - XAC wing (𝐿𝑤 cos(𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 ) [𝑋𝐶𝐺 −
𝑋𝑎𝑐,𝑤 ]). So, I will be dividing this by half rho V square S Cbar so what I do? LW by half rho V
square, for this I write this as CLW (𝐶𝐿𝑤 ) non-dimensional and the Cbar I take it here so, I write
it by Cbar by Cbar so what happens this term get reduced to CLW into COS of Alpha W - IW into
XCG by C bar - XAC wing by C bar this is clear okay.
𝑋𝐶𝐺 𝑋𝑎𝑐,𝑤
𝐶𝐿𝑤 cos(𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 ) [ − ]
𝑐̅ 𝑐̅
Similarly, I can now do for all the other terms so if I am smart which you are smarter then what I
can do I need not write any other expression, I simply erase this I write here CL, I write here CM
so CLW and here I write divide by C bar divide by C bar similarly here, I write + CDW and divided
by Cbar divided by Cbar and here again I write + CLW and again divided by C bar and here I write
CDW and divided by C bar, and this MAC wing becomes CMAC wing is this clear or not? Let me
repeat.
54
𝑋𝐶𝐺 𝑋𝑎𝑐,𝑤 𝑋𝐶𝐺 𝑋𝑎𝑐,𝑤
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝐿𝑤 cos(𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 ) [ − ] + 𝐶𝐷𝑤 sin(𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 ) [ − ]
𝑐̅ 𝑐̅ 𝑐̅ 𝑐̅
𝑍𝐶𝐺 𝑍𝐶𝐺
+ 𝐶𝐿𝑤 sin(𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 ) [ ] − 𝐶𝐷𝑤 cos(𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 ) [ ] + 𝐶𝑀𝑎𝑐,𝑤
𝑐̅ 𝑐̅
(Refer Slide Time 32:25)
From moment, the momentum was LW COS of this into XCG - XAC wing since we are non
dimensionalizing into CM I am dividing by half rho V2 S and C bar what I have done force divided
by half rho V2 S so this become non-dimensional, this becomes CL wing and Cbar I took
underneath the length term so, I get CLW COS of this into XCG by C - XAC wing by C
accordingly.
I modify whole expression clear. And what is the CM? This CM because of wing about CG of the
airplane this is wing contribution this is CM because of wing about CG of the whole airplane clear?
55
Okay, now we do approximation, that Alpha W – IW [(𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 ) ≈ 0] is very small right ZCG
almost 0 [𝑍𝐶𝐺 ~0] that is very small and CL by CD is greater than one [𝐶𝐿 ⁄𝐶 𝐷 ≫ 1] that is CL is
much higher than CD okay, so the aircraft these are the approximation I am doing to get some feel
for numbers right, in actual practice you need not do that you can actually compute what is the
CM because of wing about the CG of the airplane.
If I do all these things then you find what is happened to the first term this becomes one because
this is very small so CL, CM, CG will have only CLW into XCG by Cbar - XAC wing, by Cbar
what about this term this term we will go because, we have neglected CDW, CD of the wing we
have neglected right? What happens + SIN this number is also small. What about here although
CLW is there you cannot neglect it but we have neglected ZCG.
We have said ZCG is 0 that means the center of gravity is on the fuselage reference line what about
the third one again same you see ZCG we have taken 0, so this term was vanishes but this term
remains so this is this + CMAC wing okay.
𝐶𝑚𝐶𝐺 = 𝐶𝐿𝑤 [ − ] + 𝐶𝑀𝑎𝑐,𝑤
𝑐̅ 𝑐̅
Is this clear? I repeat again this is the general expression we have assumed that Alpha W - IW is
very small so this is one, we have assumed that, CL of the wing is higher than much higher than
CD of the wing in fact practically we’re neglecting the drag contribution.
56
So this goes off here ZCG we have assumed to be zero that means the CG is on the fuselage
reference line so this term goes see because ZCG is zero however this remains finally, I get a
expression this.
So let me write this in a neat fashion let us see CMCG wing is now with the simplification it
becomes CL wing into XCG - by Cbar of course, - XAC wing by C bar correct. This is there +
CMAC wing [𝐶𝑚𝐶𝐺 = 𝐶𝐿𝑤 [ − ] + 𝐶𝑀𝑎𝑐,𝑤 ] correct now we that CLW can be written as CL0
𝑐̅ 𝑐̅
+ CL Alpha into Alpha wing [𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿𝑜 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 ∗ 𝛼𝑤 ] which is obvious because you know.
We have assumed a general aerofoil for the wing so if it is a cambered then you know this part is
CL0 the slope is CL Alpha this is CL, and this is Alpha so CL can be presented as CL0 + Alpha
into Alpha wing. And if I substitute this expression, here then I get CMCG wing is = CL0 + CL
Alpha into Alpha wing this is for this term then, this is XCG by C - XAC wing by C this is this +
CMAC wing correct?
𝐶𝑚𝐶𝐺,𝑤 = (𝐶𝐿𝑜 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 ∗ 𝛼𝑤 ) [ − ] + 𝐶𝑀𝑎𝑐,𝑤
𝑐̅ 𝑐̅
I repeat what is the expressions telling me this is the contribution of wing for pitching movement
above center of gravity which is now after simplification, can be represented by this to expression
57
where CMAC wing is the wing because of cambered aerofoil if it is a symmetrical aerofoil that
value is zero, for a cambered it is minus right. Now with these two expression, I can write within
this just closely see this it has two terms one is constant term that is CL0 into XCG by C - XAC
wing by C + CMAC wing constant term another term.
Which is changing with Alpha W so I can write this as CMCG wing as CM0 + CM Alpha into
Alpha wing where CM0 = CL0 into XCG by C - XAC wing by C + CMAC wing and CM Alpha
as CL Alpha wing into XCG by C - XAC wing by C.
𝐶𝑚𝐶𝐺,𝑤 = 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝛼𝑤
𝐶𝑚0 = 𝐶𝐿0 ( − ) + 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐,𝑤
𝑐̅ 𝑐̅
𝐶𝑚𝛼 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 ( − )
𝑐̅ 𝑐̅
So if I write this two terms again here for clarity and try to see what is the interpretation and
designer would like to have from this that is very important, as I have been telling you again and
again these expressions need one time derivation after that as a designer you should know.
What is happening. And for CM Alpha, we have CL Alpha wing into XCG by C - XAC wing by
C bar let us concentrate here what do you mean by that what is the message I am getting from
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these two expressions. Remember we have discussed that if I want to trim a machine at a positive
angle of attack I need to have CM0.
Greater than 0 (𝐶𝑚0 > 0) right. this portion this is CM this is Alpha. So to get CM0 greater than
0 who will contribute to CM0 greater than 0, we are seeing that wing also will contribute also for
the slope wing also will partially contribute okay now, if I see here in this case if this is my
cambered aerofoil wing and let’s say this is the CG of the airplane it clearly tells me if the AC of
the wing is behind CG if AC of the wing is here right then definitely CM Alpha will be less than
zero see here if AC of the wing is behind CG then.
If I check CM Alpha AC is behind CG that means this is absolute, while this is larger than this so
this sign will be negative, so CM Alpha will be less than zero we will say the contribution of the
wing towards stability stabilizing. You also know that if AC is behind CG it will be stabilizing CG
of the airplane right however if I do that then what see in CM0 then this becomes negative, because
XAC is behind CG isn’t it so this part will give negative this is also negative for the cambered
aerofoil. So what will happen this CM0 will become further negative.
That means whatever our initial aim was there to have a CM0 positive if you are making the wing
giving stabilizing contribution towards aircraft static stability, then you should be sure that it is
going to travel you in terms of CM0 it will give you a CM0 negative right and that is perhaps one
of the reason you will find most of the cambered wing in airplane you will find that the AC of the
wing is actually located little ahead, little ahead of CG of the airplane by doing that.
What has being done CM Alpha has become positive destabilizing however CM0 has become
greater than zero because, now XCG is greater than XAC so this becomes positive so CM0 we are
getting positive however CM Alpha is also getting positive so, though wing is destabilizing in this
case does not matter the tail will take care of stability part right you will see in detail when you
solve some problem.
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Prof: A. K. Ghosh
Dept of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Lecture- 05
Stability: Tail Contribution and Static Margin
Now we will be talking about tail contribution. If I draw this diagram, you know the wing was
here and this is Alpha FRL (𝛼𝐹𝑅𝐿 ). We are talking about tail contribution, let me draw the
diagram, this is the wing part, we have already done CG somewhere here. This is ZCG okay and
this tail somewhere here and we are having tail also having some setting angle we called IT (𝑖𝑡 )
right? And then, please understand one thing if this is the V direction the velocity direction free
stream.
When tail sees this dynamic pressure the velocity vector is no more the same as free stream
velocity vector. You know very well as there is the lift under wing, this is the higher pressure and
the lower pressure. There are vortices, and their vortices travel like this and induces a downwash
at the tail to the velocity vector, which was free stream like this okay? But, because of downwash
it gets tilted and I call it V prime (𝑉 ′ ) and this is V. So, if I draw here
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I have to draw 1 line parallel to this, which is not the local velocity direction. Local velocity
direction is V prime (𝑉 ′ ) direction and the angle between these two is Epsilon (𝜖), which is the
downwash, not clear okay? Let me explain, you know that if this is the wing and here there is a
tail right and because of lower and higher pressure there are vortices and that induces a downward
component at the tail. That is if this is the tail and wing is somewhere there because of vortices the
downward component will be induced at the tail.
Let see the velocity vector free stream was like this because there is another downward component
because of downwash so velocity vector will be tilted downward that is exactly as happened. This
is the V free stream direction because of downwash this velocity vector is tilted. Tilted by how
much by epsilon (𝜖) which is called downwash angle, right. You know that lift and drag
are perpendicular and along the velocity vector respectively.
That is lift on the tail will be perpendicular to V Prime (𝑉 ′ ) lift tail and it will be drag tail will be
like this okay clear? Please note that it will not be perpendicular to the free stream direction V, it
will be perpendicular to the local V because that is causing the dynamic pressure that is
definition of lift. So, if I do that and now I again use this diagram. So, I understand two things here.
What is one is what is AlphaT (𝛼𝑡 )? What is the tail angle of attack?
So, from the diagram you could see AlphaT will be what is AlphaT you see here this is the tail
okay. AlphaT will be let me write then you understand better AlphaW- IW- Epsilon + IT.
𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 − 𝜖 + 𝑖𝑡
Is it clear or not? See AlphaW – IW, (𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 ) is nothing but this angle which is Alpha FRL
right from Alpha FRL your angle is reduced by Epsilon downwash also we have to be sure that I
have given a IT angle setting angle here so, your Alpha tail is simply this.
Is it okay? This is the velocity vector this is Alpha FRL So the angle seen by the tail is if Epsilon
was not there Alpha FRL + IT that would have been the angle seen by tail. But now what was
happened because of Epsilon there is reduction in the angle so that is being put here okay. Once
you know that now you can see also see from this diagram that this angle is nothing but Alpha
FRL – Epsilon (𝛼𝐹𝑅𝐿 − 𝜖). So if that is true, nothing stop us from writing this expression.
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Let me write the expression MT because of tail is LT into COS of Alpha FRL - Epsilon + D of
tail SIN of Alpha FRL - Epsilon okay. And then we have another term minus ZCG, I will explain
you that wait for a minute D of tail COS of Alpha FRL - Epsilon - LT SIN of Alpha FRL, minus
Epsilon, plus MAC tail let us see what it is.
𝑀𝑡 = −𝑙𝑡 [𝐿𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼𝐹𝑅𝐿 − 𝜖) + 𝐷𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝛼𝐹𝑅𝐿 − 𝜖)]
− 𝑍𝐶𝐺 [𝐷𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼𝐹𝑅𝐿 − 𝜖) − 𝐿𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼𝐹𝑅𝐿 − 𝜖)] + 𝑀𝑎𝑐,𝑡
What is LT first of all LT is this is AC of the tail and LT is this is the distance from XCG to AC
of the tail that is called to tail moment arm okay. Now you could see this is LT so this component
LT COS Alpha FRL – Epsilon, this into LT so LT COS of Alpha FRL - Epsilon is this component
so this into LT will give a nose down movement so I have - SIN and LT is here LT COS Alpha
this part is done. Similarly, you could see for other term as well okay. Next is what we have
already learned what is next from MT.
Next from MT I will come to CMT okay. How do I come to CMT? CMT means pitching moment
because of tail that is you divide MT by half row V square S into C bar okay.
𝑀𝑡
𝐶𝑀𝑡 =
1 2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑐̅
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If I do that please remember here, I am dividing by half row of the V square free stream not half
row V prime square that is why this needs, draws an attention okay. Please understand this is the
lift stage perpendicular to the V prime and one component of the lift which is a along V is indeed
induce a drag right.
Because we are non-dimensionalizing everything every coefficient with respect to free stream
speed or velocity or dynamic pressure. That is the point to you should clearly understand. If CMT I
define as MT by this and also now I put Alpha FRL - Epsilon all these small quantities and
again CL tail greater than CD tail and ZCG is to zero. If I do this simplification then I get the neat
expression.
𝑀𝑡
𝐶𝑀𝑡 = , 𝛼𝐹𝑅𝐿 − 𝜖 → 0, 𝐶𝐿𝑡 ≫ 𝐶𝐷𝑡 , 𝑍𝐶𝐺 → 0
1 2
𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑐̅
2
Which is MT = - LT into LT from because when I put this one this I put to zero because drag I’m
neglecting ZCG is zero, so I only have pitching moment as a lift because of tail into LT tail
moment arm, minus because it will give a nose down moment right?
So, from here I know how to get CMT, I have to do this trick divide by half row V square SC, so
I will get CMT as mimus LT into LT by half row V square free stream into SC bar watch here
carefully what will be LT, LT will be say - LT is
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−𝑙𝑡 𝐿𝑡
𝐶𝑚𝑡 =
1
(2 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑐̅
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚
The tail moment arm lift from the tail it will be half row V square at tail into St into CLt right?
This divided by half row V square free stream into S Cbar so what is this CMT now stands
for? What is the modification and expression of CMT when you take care of a local dynamic
pressure at the tail which is different from free stream dynamic pressure.
1
𝑙𝑡 (2 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝑡
𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝐶𝑚𝑡 = −
1
(2 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑐̅
𝑓𝑠
So this CMt finally takes the shape as minus lt, St by SC bar into eta (𝜂) into CLt. What is eta (𝜂)?
eta is the ratio of dynamic pressure of the tail and free stream dynamic pressure. So, the eta is half
row V square at the tail by half row V square free stream right. And you could see ST LT SC bar
has been separated out this is eta into CLt and what is this St Lt by ST LT by SC bar this is very
popular parameter called tail volume ratio tail volume ratio we’ll soon discuss what is the
importance of this?
1
(2 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡
𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝜂= ; = 𝑉𝐻 (𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜)
1 𝑆𝑐̅
(2 𝜌𝑉 2 )
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚
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But one thing at this point you should be able to appreciate that pitching moment because of
tail will largely depend upon this ratio tail volume ratio for a given CLt. That means and what is
this? This tells to a designer if you want to increase VH you can increase this contribution and
increasing the VH means either to increase the tail area or tail moment arm or both right or in a
combination. So that gives a very good design flexibility.
So, we are continuing with tail contribution. We have seen CM tail as - VH eta into CLt. What is
CLt? CLt will be equal to what CLt is the lift coefficient at tail what is the angle of attack at tail
we already know Alpha T = Alpha W - IW - Epsilon + IT right where the IT was the tail setting
angle. So CLt will be what very it’s very straight forward this is CL Alpha tail into Alpha W - IW
- Epsilon + IT. You may ask me a question, why not this is equal to CL0 + CL Alpha T into all
those thing why CL0 is not here.
𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 − 𝜖 + 𝑖𝑡
𝐶𝐿𝑡 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 {𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 − 𝜖 + 𝑖𝑡 }
Answer is very simple tail is generally symmetrical and is advisable to have tail symmetrical that
is why here there is no CL0. Is this clear? So, once I have this then, what is my next step? Let us
revisit again what is Alpha W it is a wing angle of attack what is IW the wing setting angle what
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is the Epsilon it's a downwash because of wing and IT is the tail setting angle correct now how the
downwash is going to be change can be approximated by.
This model of wing where D Epsilon by the D Alpha written as 2CL Alpha wing by PI aspect ratio
of wing, this is very approximate thing, but it works and assuming that e is one and Epsilon we
can write as 2CL wing by PI aspect ratio okay. Please take this, you can read some books, you
can take to read my first lecture on introduction to airplane performance or any good aerodynamic
books, flight mechanics book will tell you this, give this expression.
𝜕𝜖
𝜖 = 𝜖0 + 𝛼
𝜕𝛼 𝑤
𝜕𝜖 2𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 2𝐶𝐿0
= ; 𝜖0 =
𝜕𝛼 𝜋𝐴𝑅𝑤 𝜋𝐴𝑅𝑤
We are now coming back. How do use these things that we will be seeing. So, once I have written
this let me go step forward do not forget, what are you going to have what we are looking for we
are looking for the contribution of tail in terms of giving pitching moment about CG of
airplane and if you can still write that contribution also as CM0 tail + CM Alpha tail into Alpha
tail or Alpha wing or Alpha then I will get a general expression okay. That’s exactly I am trying
to do.
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So from this I can write CL Tail as CL Alpha tail to Alpha W - IW for epsilon I am writing Epsilon
0 - D Epsilon by D Alpha into Alpha wing + IT. If that is true then what is CMT? CMT already
you know expression of CMT has minus VH so minus VH eta see here eta CL tail so for CL tail.
I will write this expression. So, I will write CL Alpha tail into Alpha W - IW - Epsilon0 - D
Epsilon by D Alpha into Alpha wing + IT. This further I can simplify as - VH eta CL Alpha tail
into 1 - D Epsilon by D Alpha into Alpha W - IW - Epsilon 0 + IT.
𝜕𝜖
𝐶𝐿𝑡 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 {𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 − 𝜖0 − 𝛼 + 𝑖𝑡 }
𝜕𝛼 𝑤
𝜕𝜖
𝐶𝑚𝑡 = −𝑉𝐻 𝜂 {𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 [𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 − 𝜖0 − 𝛼 + 𝑖𝑡 ]}
𝜕𝛼 𝑤
𝜕𝜖
𝐶𝑚𝑡 = −𝑉𝐻 𝜂 {𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 [(1 − ) 𝛼𝑤 − 𝑖𝑤 − 𝜖0 + 𝑖𝑡 ]}
𝜕𝛼
What I have done I have just taken this common Alpha W and D Epsilon by D Alpha W so I
have written like this, rest term I have preserved it the way it is and this is CMt. Now have a closer
look here also we have seen in the CMt, that is contribution of tail to pitching moment about CG
here also there is a one term first term that depends upon Alpha W changes with Alpha W and
other is the constant.
So, immediately your mind should think. “Oh” this is constant, which means this part will give me
CM0 tail and this part will give me CM Alpha tail. So, I can write CM tail = CM 0 + CM Alpha
tail into Alpha wing. So if I do that then what expression I get is very simple and you can handle
it.
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So I am getting CM0 tail equal to eta VH you could see here eta VH and minus observe and
change the signs. So, I will have eta VH into Epsilon 0 + IW - IT into CL Alpha tail that will be
CM0 tail and CM Alpha tail will be minus eta into VH. This term this into this is the CM Alpha
term minus VH into Neeta into CL Alpha tail 1 - D Epsilon by D Alpha this will be CM Alpha
tail.
𝐶𝑚0,𝑡 = 𝜂𝑉𝐻 (𝜖0 + 𝑖𝑤 − 𝑖𝑡 )𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡
𝜕𝜖
𝐶𝑚𝛼𝑡 = −𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − )
𝜕𝛼
Let us also now go back to the expression what we develop up for CM0 tail. I have written already
here Neeta VH is tail volume ratio CL Alpha tail Epsilon 0. What was the Epsilon 0? Epsilon 0
is because of cambered wing right even at Alpha = 0 there will be a pressure difference that
will give you lift and that will give Epsilon 0 and if you further understand Remember this is CL
VS Alpha at Alpha = 0 there is a CL0 and CL 0 is there means there is the pressure difference so
because of CL 0 there will be or because of pressure.
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Difference, there will be vortices and their vortices will give a downwash at tail even at Alpha = 0
is the key point here that is why Epsilon 0 okay and you know how to calculate that okay. What is
IW, IW was wing setting angle and IT was tail setting angle. Now from here you could see if there
is cambered aerofoil wing some value of Epsilon 0 will automatically come which 2CL0 by
PI aspect ratio I am assuming ‘e’ to be one roughly
So if there is a cambered aerofoil wing that will give some value of positive Epsilon 0 right. What
about IW. See this is just the wing setting angle IW. This is the wing right if you see
this expression here IW wing setting angle IT is the tail setting angle right, if all only we are
thinking in terms of tail setting angle that is that is no wing setting angle wing is like this then we
need to be a negative IT to generate a positive CM0 from here also you see all are positive.
For time been, even if I do not include that this is a positive number, a small number. But if IW is
0 if IT is negative that is like this the then this gives positive CM0 tail this is the case when IW is
zero. But, the question comes you can still get CM0 positive if you put IT positive. How it is
possible as long as this difference is greater than zero you will get CM0 because of tail is positive
that is suppose if this is IW is 3 degree and IT is 2 degree although 0 - 2 degree not negative angle.
But If we cleverly 3 degree here and 2 degrees here you see the differences 1 degree positive
which will give you CM0 tail as a positive. So, you can get CM0 positive by giving tail setting
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angle negative one CM0 positive by appropriately calibrating IW and IT in a fashion that IW -
IT is a positive number. So these all the aspects are optimize to get a appropriate value of CM0 that
could be generated through configurational design.
But, please remember what will be the value of CM0, who decides that the designer decides that
depending upon the stability margin or degree of stability they want.
And what is the trim here this is CL and CM, which designer will say DCM by DCL will be minus
0.1 that is 10% static margin and CL, I say around 0.7 I want to trim the airplane at 0.7.
So, designer will tell you have to configure the airplane such that.CM0 is 0.7 you could find from
here okay.
And the moment in the design stage you know that yes, I have to generate 0.7 CM0 and DCM by
DCL as -0.1 you now align your wing, fuselage, tail everything. So that finally, you can get these
values clear. So, this is the tail contribution okay. Now if you recall we had similar expression for
wing contribution also. So, if I now add wing plus
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Tail, what is the final expression looks like. So, I will get CM0 will be because of wing and tail I
will add there things together so I write CM0 wing + eta VH CL Alpha tail into Epsilon 0 + IW -
IT and let me add CM not fuselage which we have not done but we are adding get we will do in
some example exercise right. Similarly, CM Alpha will be CL Alpha wing into XCG by C bar -
XAC wing by C bar, this thing all we have derived okay.
𝐶𝑚0 = 𝐶𝑚0𝑤 + 𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (𝜖0 + 𝑖𝑤 − 𝑖𝑡 ) + 𝐶𝑚0
𝑎⁄𝑐 𝑓𝑠
Plus let us say this is because of tail is - eta VH just now we have completed CL Alpha tail into 1
– D Epsilon by D Alpha and let’s add plus CM Alpha fuselage this two things we haven't done
but, we are putting this number for contributing let us revisit this, this CM0 of the whole airplane,
this CM Alpha of the whole airplane, and this CM0 is CM0 wing for CM0 wing.
𝑋𝑐𝑔 𝑋𝑎𝑐,𝑤 𝜕𝜖
𝐶𝑚𝛼 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 ( − ) − 𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − ) + 𝐶𝑚𝛼
𝑎⁄𝑐 𝑐̅ 𝑐̅ 𝜕𝛼 𝑓𝑠
You know that the expression derive was CM0 wing was CM AC wing plus CL0 into XCG by C
minus XAC wing by C already we have developed that.
𝐶𝑚0𝑤 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐,𝑤 + 𝐶𝐿0 ( − )
𝑐̅ 𝑐̅
And all these expressions now we know. So, if I want to really ensure that I have particular
CM0 of aircraft required I can manipulate this VH, I can manipulate location of CG and AC of the
wing and you see how we do it by through example. Now next question comes if this is the
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expression, how do I find a neutral point? okay so that is next I’m doing neutral point of
the airplane using this expression.
We generally call it stick fixed. Soon, you will realize that stick fixed means we are not allowing
the elevator to float what is neutral point? Neutral point stick fixed is that CG location at
which CM Alpha is zero or aircraft neutrally stable.
Suppose if I am talking about simply a wing then if this is the AC then suppose CG was here it
is statically stable. But, as the CG coincide with AC of the wing. So, this wing along
configuration becomes neutrally stable. For airplane there will be tail so this point may not be the
aerodynamic center of the wing somewhere here if I bring the CG we will find the aircraft will
become neutrally stable so what is that CG location. I am trying to find out can I do I write the
complete expression of CM Alpha for the whole the airplane.
We have seen CM Alpha is here, yes CM Alpha, of the whole airplane is this one. Now, if I want
to find out neutral point I call it XNP then what is the condition it is that CG location at which
CM Alpha is zero. So it is that CG location at which this gentleman become zero. If I do that then
I get XNP by C equal to XAC wing by C minus CM Alpha fuselage by CM Alpha wing plus eta
VH CL Alpha tail by CL Alpha Wing into 1 - D Epsilon by D Alpha.
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𝑋𝑁𝑃 𝑋𝑎𝑐,𝑤 𝐶𝑚𝛼𝑓 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝜕𝜖
= − + 𝜂𝑉𝐻 (1 − )
𝑐̅ 𝑐̅ 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝜕𝛼
You see here I am putting this zero. So, I want to the find what is that XCG. So, this term will come
on the left-hand side, this becomes positive then divided by CL Alpha wing which is here CM
Alpha comes here changes its sign minus divided by CL Alpha because of this and of course CL
Alpha divide by this, so XAC wing. So, this is the neutral point stick fixed for an airplane. So, if
you want to calculate neutral point what do you require is, you need to know,
What is the XAC location or wing aerodynamic center location. What is the value of CM
Alpha fuselage what is the value of CL Alpha wing what is the tail volume ratio CL Alpha tail
and D Epsilon by D Alpha so immediately you will know what is the point which is the neutral
point.
So we should be careful enough when you’re layout your aircraft your CG should not go
beyond neutral point in fact it should be little ahead of neutral point. So, that we have got static or
stability margin. That exactly we are now going to talk so this is the neutral point expression what
is the meaning of neutral point it is that CG location at which the aircraft will become neutrally
stable right? So, it depends upon what it doesn't depend upon CG please understand this.
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It depends upon what is the AC of the wing, it depends upon what is the CM Alpha fuselage
CL Alpha of the wing what is the tail volume ratio what is CL Alpha tail what is the D Epsilon by
D Alpha right? So, it is on the characteristics of wing fuselage aerodynamic characteristics
right. So manipulating this you can always adjust your neutral point okay of the Airplane right. It
is very important because in no case CG should go beyond the neutral point okay.
But, If you want to make it statistically stable so you need to have your CG of the airplane little
ahead of neutral point, how much ahead of, that is we’re going to plan out. Let us do
some approximation and try to see can you we get some better feel in terms of what is that
separation should be between neutral point and center of gravity of the airplane.
We have seen DCM by D Alpha can be written as let me write this CL Alpha wing. Please be
careful I'll be doing some approximation, fuselage minus eta VH CL Alpha tail into 1 minus D
Epsilon by D Alpha this is the CM Alpha expression what I will do I will try to see DCM by DCL
equal to what? So now I am doing that approximation what I am doing is I am writing DCM by
D Alpha into 1 by DCL by D Alpha equal to DCM by DCL right? Okay.
𝜕𝐶𝑚 1 𝜕𝐶𝑚
=
𝜕𝛼 (𝜕𝐶𝐿 ) 𝜕𝐶𝐿
𝜕𝛼
What are the assumptions I have made? I have made one assumption that CL Alpha of the wing
and CL Alpha of the aircraft are same almost same right is this clear one is CL Alpha of the wing
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is basically close to CL Alpha of the aircraft and also we have assume the Alpha the wing is Alpha
of the aircraft. This approximation we are making to get some useful understanding about the static
margin we defined, just see that so what I have to do.
𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 ≈ 𝐶𝐿𝛼
𝑎⁄𝑐
𝛼𝑤 ≈ 𝛼𝑎⁄𝑐
I will divide these by CL Alpha of the wing and we have assumed that they are, these assumptions
could be made for this specific study okay. That should not be forgotten. We are doing
these approximations for a particular case.
So if I divide by CL Alpha the wing so left hand side will become DCM by DCL and this will
become XCG by C minus XAC wing by C right then plus CM Alpha fuselage by CL Alpha wing
minus eta VH CL Alpha tail by CL Alpha wing into one -D Epsilon by D Alpha. But, see
here carefully I can write this DCM by DCL also have XCG by C minus XAC wing by C minus
CM Alpha fuselage by CL Alpha wing plus Neeta VH CL Alpha tail by CL wing into 1 minus D
Epsilon by D Alpha.
𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝑋𝐶𝐺 𝑋𝑎𝑐,𝑤 𝐶𝑚𝛼𝑓 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝜕𝜖
= − + − 𝜂𝑉𝐻 (1 − )
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑐̅ 𝑐̅ 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝜕𝛼
𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝑋𝐶𝐺 𝑋𝑎𝑐,𝑤 𝐶𝑚𝛼𝑓 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝜕𝜖

= −{ − + 𝜂𝑉𝐻 (1 − )}
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑐̅ 𝑐̅ 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝜕𝛼
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What is this term this is nothing but X what neutral point okay this is X neutral point by C. So,
now we have DCM by DCL as XCG by C minus X neutral point by C or this is equal to I can write
it like this minus of XNP bar means divide by C bar - XCG bar and dear friend this separation I
was asking you, upto what point I should take the central of gravity. So, that in case when central
of gravity beyond neutral point it will because statically unstable. But, I was telling you if this a
neutral point if CG comes here it is unstable but CG has to be ahead of neutral point but the
question was how much ahead right.
So, this is the answered partially by this what do you say that your DCM by DCL is minus of static
margin, static margin is what XNP bar XCG and typically for transport airplane static margin it
could be 5% to 10% of mean aerodynamic chord. If suppose it is 10% let’s understand this. How
beautiful this expression is how wonderful this expression is for a designer. What does it tell
you let us have a closer look.
DCM by DCL equal to minus static margin and let say we are talking about -0.1 or say
10% of chord. What is 10 % of chord means if this is the neutral point and this is a CG, this
distance is the 0.1 C bar. So, when you plot CM versus CL. if we know I need CL of 0.6 to at
a particular speed to ensure lift equal weight so you could always have suppose you are doing
cruise and you have a lift and this the weight, for lift equal weight suppose CL required for that
condition is 0.6 so mark here 0.6 and you know.
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That aircraft starting margin will be around 10% or DCM by DCL is -0.1 so draw line slope
straight line slope is -0.1. So, this will tell you CM0 required will be 0.06. We will see that CL
0.6 come from your trim, 10 % static margin comes from here it’s the guideline. So, if you
draw slope of -0.1 it cuts CM axis somewhere here and from here and we will find this distance
will be 0.06 so for a designer CM0 aircraft should be equal 0.06 and where from we will get 0.06?
We will now come back to wing contribution come back to tail contribution and ensure that tail,
wing, etcetera are set in such a way that CM0 of the aircraft is 0.6 then the aircraft once flying will
be automatically trimmed as CL equal to 0.6 so this is the beauty. We will be solving
some example on that okay. Thank you
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Prof. A.K.Ghosh
Indian Institution of Technology Kanpur
Lecture No. 06
Problems: Stability and Wing Contribution
So dear friends, now as I was promising you that we will soon try to solve a problem so that
you get more clarity. But there is every possible chance that because of all those equations and
terms you may lose insight of the airplane. So as I promised that we will be doing some
problems so that you get physical feel of whatever equation, whatever expression we have
developed. Today we will be solving a problem on stability.
As this course title is stability and control, so today we will be solving a problem on stability
so that you get a feel. Before I solve this problem, let me again reiterate the role of wing is not
to provide stability. The role of wing is to give enough lift. That’s why large aspect ratio or
large wing area but who provides the stability? Whose responsibility is to give stability? It’s
the tail. For longitudinal stability it is horizontal tail, for directional stability it is vertical tail.
So we are now talking about longitudinal stability.
We will try to solve the problem of longitudinal stability and try to see how whatever the
expression we have developed how can we very conveniently use it for solving a problem
okay? So let’s start with a problem and this problem I’ve given from a book which is ‘Flight
Stability and Automatic Control’ which is a second addition by Robert C. Nelson. It is a very
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good book. I’m not campaigning for this book but its my duty to tell you because I follow many
books one of those is ‘Flight Stability and Automatic Control’ by Robert C Nelson and this
problem is from that book only.
So we will be now using this opportunity and to use this beautiful example and try to
communicate more on stability right? So what is the problem? Problem let me define the
problem. The problem says, the wing fuselage, pitching moment characteristics is given by Cm
W-fs (𝐶𝑚𝑊−𝑓𝑠 ) means wing fuselage is -0.05-0.0035 Alpha.
𝐶𝑚𝑊−𝑓𝑠 = −0.05 − 0.0035𝛼

And please understand this part is what and this part is what? That is more important before
you solve a problem.
What does it say if I try to understand by drawing a diagram? Actually there is fuselage has
been designed and the wing has been designed okay and some CG, we’ll soon should know
what is the location of CG of the aircraft is given. Now, the CM characteristics is given by this
for a wing fuselage combination. This is the fuselage and this is the wing. So do you think it is
statistically stable? How do I check? I write this like this. CM wing fuselage is -0.05-0.0035
Alpha and I try to understand through our understanding of the expression we write CM equal
to CM0 plus CM Alpha into Alpha.
𝐶𝑚𝑊−𝑓𝑠 = −0.05 − 0.0035𝛼
So if I compare these two things, what is CM Alpha? CM Alpha is coming out to be -0.0035
and for this we can assume that this is per degree okay. As per the problem states and what is
CM0? CM0 is -0.05. So this is the characteristics of pitching moment and we are seeing that
this is only for fuselage and wing and the expression after whatever plane has been designed,
for wing fuselage, it is something like this and when I try to interpret the way we have
understood we have seen that by comparing I find CM0 is -0.05 and CM Alpha is -0.0035 per
degree okay?
Now let us see what is the meaning of that? Are you happy with it or not? So if I try to plot,
CM versus Alpha, right? What type of plot or variation you really expect for a stable airplane,
statically stable airplane and which can be trimmed at positive angle of attack, we all know it
should be something like this. That is slope should be negative. That is slope, CM Alpha (𝐶𝑚𝛼 )
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should be negative, and CM0 (𝐶𝑚0 ) should be positive. Then only I can trim at positive alpha
for most of the cases, right?
𝐶𝑚𝛼 < 0 & 𝐶𝑚0 > 0
This part is clear? But if I try to see this here, yes, CM Alpha is -0.0035 so CM Alpha less than
0 is satisfied. So this configuration whatever has been given for fuselage and wing, this is
statically stable. To what degree stable, that is decided by the CM Alpha. So as for static
stability is concerned, this configuration is statically stable, no doubt about it because CM
Alpha is negative and that is the condition here.
But if you want to trim at positive angle, then what is the condition. That CM0 (𝐶𝑚0 ) should
be greater than 0. But what is happening here? Here CM0 is less than 0. So, I wouldn’t be able
to trim this airplane at positive alpha. That is, if you see here, CM0 some negative value here.
Let’s say this is -0.05 and statically stable so the line will be something like this for this
variation. So what is the problem? Although this is statically stable, but I cannot trim it at
positive angle of attack. It is having a CM equal to zero at negative angle of attack. So I don’t
want that right? So problem definition starts from here.
So what is obvious question for the problem. If I want to trim the airplane at a particular alpha,
positive alpha and I may require CM Alpha little more, because I may require to design an
airplane for a particular value of stability, static stability. So I may have decided number, CM-
alpha should be -0.5, -0.1, -0.8, depending on what sort of an airplane I am designing. So this
problem has been designed to give you that concept of CM0 and CM Alpha.
Let us see what is the problem. Once you understood this, now we will read the problem and
try to understand what is the problem. Problem is, although wing fuselage is giving a statically
stable configuration.
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But we want to design a tail such that CM-wing fuselage and tail gives a combination, which
should be something like this. This is a problem from Nelson. So please you can read it +0.15
-0.025 alpha.
𝐶𝑚𝑊−𝑓𝑠,𝑡 = 0.15 − 0.025𝛼
So what is the difference now? Try to appreciate the wing fuselage was like this where CM
wing fuselage is -0.05 - 0.0035 alpha. That means, CM0 was -0.05. Now we want to design a
tail for the same airplane so that overall CM0 becomes point, that is CM0 wing fuselage and
tail becomes 0.15 and CM Alpha wing fuselage and tail, it becomes -0.025 per degree.
𝐶𝑚0 = 0.15 & 𝐶𝑚𝛼 = −0.025 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝑊−𝑓𝑠,𝑡 𝑊−𝑓𝑠,𝑡
So what is the problem to a designer, I should do something so that CM earlier it was something
like this. This value was -0.05 and now what I want? I want it should be like this where this
becomes 0.15 and the slope also becomes -0.025 compared to the slope, which it was here, -
0.0035 okay? So not only we are changing the CM0 value to get a positive Alpha trim, but also
we have to make it more statically stable. That is the problem.
Who will do that? We all know, this is the role of the primary role is of the tail, horizontal tail
in this case. So we will be finding out what is that tail area required to change the CM-alpha
from -0.0035 to CM-alpha equal to -0.025. Similarly, by giving some tail setting angle okay
how can I change CM0 of the whole aircraft from -0.05 to +0.15? That is the question okay
0.15 this the value. This is we are designing we want to go for it. So let me repeat again and in
a very small and crisp manner. What is the final problem to us?
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It was given CM wing fuselage was -0.05, so CM wing fuselage was -0.05 – 0.0035 Alpha.
The new what I want CM wing fuselage and tail to be 0.15-0.025 alpha. So this is the problem.
How this can be done? By through design of tail. Design of tail means what, what is the tail
area? What is tail setting angle? Where should I locate the horizontal tail or what is the tail
volume ratio I look for? So these are the question that will come into our mind okay.
𝐶𝑚𝑊−𝑓𝑠 = −0.05 − 0.0035𝛼 (𝑜𝑙𝑑)
𝐶𝑚𝑊−𝑓𝑠,𝑡 = 0.15 − 0.025𝛼 (𝑛𝑒𝑤)
So this is the basic simplified problem. Now how do I approach it? okay That is the question.
From this you can understand how much delta CM0 (Δ𝐶𝑚0 ) you require from tail, required
from horizontal tail. How much it will be? I want 0.15 CM0 here 0.15, so it will be 0.15 minus
already available -0.05. So this will be equal to 0.20 right? How much delta CM Alpha you
require? See again if I see it from here -0.025 – (-0.0035) and that is equal to -0.0215 per
degree.
(Δ𝐶𝑚0 ) = 0.15 − (−0.05) = 0.20
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐻−𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑙
(Δ𝐶𝑚𝛼 ) = −0.025 − (−0.0035) = −0.0215 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑔
Again I repeat, this is the additional CM0 and CM Alpha will be required to convert the pitching
moment characteristics from this -0.05 - 0.0035 to +0.15 -0.025. So how much we have to do?
We have to generate CM0, 0.2 and CM Alpha additional should come 0.0215. And who will
provide this? The horizontal tail. How do I get it? By appropriately selecting the horizontal tail
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area and the location of the horizontal tail from the CG of airplane or together we call tail
volume ratio and for CM0.
We also will try to use tail setting angle that is if this is the horizontal tail, instead of having
like this if I set it, little at negative angle of attack, you know even at Alpha equal to zero, there
will be force downward which will give a CM0 positive. Which we are already knowing. Now
we will be using those formula to solve this problem okay. Let us go back to those formula,
whatever we have realized. So let me erase this now.
And we write the formula, CM Alpha tail which already you know eta VH CL Alpha tail into
1 – D Epsilon by D Alpha okay.
𝜕𝜖
𝐶𝑚𝛼,𝑡 = −𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − )
𝜕𝛼
Let me repeat again this is CM Alpha tail which is eta for this example we will take eta as 1
VH is tail volume ratio CL alpha tail is the lift curve slope of the tail based on the tail area and
D Esilon by D Alpha is the downwash gradient and you know already in first course you have
seen D Epsilon by D Alpha I can compute as CL Alpha wing by π aspect ratio.
𝜕𝜖
𝐶𝑚𝛼,𝑡 = −𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − ) ;𝜂 = 1
𝜕𝛼
𝜕𝜖 2𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑤 2 × 0.07 × 57.3
≅ = = 0.35
𝜕𝛼 𝜋𝐴𝑅𝑤 𝜋 × 7.3
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Approximately this is I am taking equal to 1 and if you see here in the initial slide, I’ve given
and now also you could see here CL Alpha wing is 0.07 per degree and D Epsilon by D Alpha
I can use it, this also will be aspect of the wing. If I put those number I will get this is 2 into
0.07 into 57.3 because I have to convert into per radian,it was per degree, by π aspect ratio is
7.3 and this we’ll get value as 0.35. So D Epsilon by D Alpha is purely mechanical, you put
those numbers CL Alpha wing if you see here it is given CL Alpha wing as 0.07.
When I write CL-alpha wing, please understand one thing. Here I have written CL-alpha wing
and fuselage. So there is an approximation we are neglecting the contribution of fuselage
because this D Epsilon by D Alpha in the first approximation is primarily because of the wing
okay no fuselage is there okay. But these assumptions here you can take it that fuselage, CL
alpha is very negligible. So we are neglecting it okay, as a first approximation. So I know now
this term CL alpha tail , you see here . CL Alpha tail is given 0.073 per degree but note this is
based on tail hailed right.
That is why you see here, in the formulation in the VH, it is ST LT by S wing C bar wing this
ST is here. So CL Alpha tail is 0.073 per degree and let us now see what will be the VH. So
VH will be if I solve this equation from here, VH will be equal to CM Alpha tail required. How
much CM-alpha tail will be required? We have seen already, this is how much? If we check, it
will be around -0.0215. Let me write this there so that I can explain it divided by 1 then 0.073
into 1 minus 0.35.
𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡
𝑉𝐻 =
𝑆𝑤 𝑐̅𝑤
Wherefrom this has come? Let me again check, 0.0215 by 1, 0.073, 1 minus 0.35. You could
easily see from here from this expression I could write VH equal to CM alpha tail divided by
this is minus sign divided by eta is 1 CL Alpha tail to 1 minus D-epsilon by D-alpha okay?
Now you will ask me a question, where this minus sign has gone? So we have to be very, very
clear that when we are computing this, there is a minus sign here so I put a minus sign here
okay. Now it is clear? Again, let me repeat.
−𝐶𝑚𝛼,𝑡
𝑉𝐻 =
𝜕𝜖
𝜂𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑡 (1 − )
𝜕𝛼
−0.0215
𝑉𝐻 = − ( )
(1.0)(0.073)(1 − 0.35)
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CM Alpha tail is eta VH CM-alpha tail one minus D-epsilon by D-alpha. You know how to
calculate D-epsilon by D-alpha because this is contribution from wing,.right? And this is 2CL-
alpha wing by π aspect ratio wing. And you know the value of 2 into 0.07 we are multiplying
by 57.3 because 0.07 which is CL-alpha of the wing is per degree and so we have to convert to
per radian. So we have multiplied by 57.3 and then divided by π aspect ratio wing and we have
got D-epsilon by D-alpha as 0.35 which we have plugged here correct?
Now from this expression I can write VH equal to minus so let me make it neater, this is minus
is here -CM-alpha tail by eta CL-alpha tail 1 minus D-epsilon by D-alpha. Here I have put
those number and I have got the VH value as something like, how much 0.453. I have been
telling in many lectures, when you are designing an airplane, VH should be around 0.5 to 0.8.
That is a good initial guess number, right? So this is a typical value of VH and what is VH?
Let us also understand before we use this number.
So let me erase this part. What was VH? What is VH? As a designer we would like to
understand it.
Remember if this is the central line of the airplane, and if this is the CG of the aircraft and if
this is the tail, and this is the AC of the tail, right and this is the S tail area, then this distance is
called tail moment arm for horizontal tail LT and if you see LT here is 14.75 feet okay. And
then what is VH? How VH is define? VH is defined as ST into LT by wing area into mean
aerodynamic chord of the wing. So this ratio ST LT by c, SW for this problem is 0.453.
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So what is the result? Result is, if I want to change CM-alpha to -0.025, then I need to ensure
that the tail volume ratio is 0.453. Is it clear? I repeat again. What is the interpretation of this
result? Is that if I want to change CM-alpha of the aircraft that means wing fuselage and tail to
-0.025, right, from -0.0035 then I need to have VH equal to 0.453 correct okay?
What next for a designer? Let us try to understand little more as VH equal to 0.453 and we
have already LT equal to 14.75, also we have SW is equal to wing area is 178 ft square. Sorry
for using feet unit. And CW is equal to 5. So what I can do? I can use this relationship VH
equal to ST LT by SW CW and get the value of ST and if you do that you will get the value of
ST as 27.3 ft sq. clear?
𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡
𝑉𝐻 = = 0.453
𝑆𝑤 𝑐̅𝑤
𝑉𝐻 𝑆𝑤 𝑐̅𝑤 0.453 × 178 × 5
𝑆𝑡 = = = 27.3 𝑓𝑡 2
𝑙𝑡 14.75
Please you should do yourself this calculation if I commit some mistake or if there is some
printing error, I will not be held responsible. So it is very simple. We have to find ST VH you
know 0.453 so ST will be 0.453 into SW into CW divided by LT so you will get S tail area this
much. So what is the final conclusion? If I want to increase CM-alpha of this configuration,
from -0.0035 to -0.025, then I need to put a tail area of 27.3 such that the AC of the tail is 14.75
feet aft of CG of the airplane.
Is this clear? Or pictorially what I should say? I say this should be 14.75 feet and this is the AC
of the tail and the S tail will be 27.36 square. If it is are done and the aircraft still remain at the
same CG location then the CM-alpha of the aircraft will become -0.025 not -0.0035, right? And
who has done this? It is the tail area has done this. For a designer what he will tell? It is the
appropriate tail volume ratio of 0.453 has done this change okay?
Now this is as far as slope is concerned it is static stability is concerned. Now I’ll be talking
about the trim. The CM0. Remember the problem was wing fuselage, CM0 was negative, so
we want it has to be positive here, and we realize that Delta CM0 which is required is around
0.15. So how do I get this Delta CM0 0.15 using the tail? Primarily through tail setting angle,
and that is the problem we will be doing now.
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Let us again use those formula whatever we have developed. CM0 tail equal to VH eta IW plus
epsilon0 minus IT right? So IT equal to –CM0 tail by VH eta CL Alpha tail. Here also CL
Alpha tail will be there no. That is why, CL Alpha tail, yes. This is this minus IW plus IT. IT
we are finding out so, minus Epsilon 0 okay? Please be careful here. Initially I missed this CL
Alpha term here. CM0 tail as we have derived is VH eta into this term into CL-alpha tail.
𝐶𝑚0,𝑡 = 𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (𝑖𝑤 + 𝜖0 − 𝑖𝑡 )
𝐶𝑚0,𝑡
𝑖𝑡 = − { − 𝑖𝑤 − 𝜖 0 }
𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡
So if I try to find out what is the tail setting angle IT required, I can ultimately show that IT
will be equal to minus CM0 tail by VH Neeta CL-alpha tail minus IW wing setting angle minus
epsilon 0. I hope you remember what is wing setting angle? What is the value of CM0 tail?
How much CM0 tail required is 0.15, VH we know, eta we are taking 1. CL alpha tail is also
given here right? IW wing setting angle IW, 2 degree is given here.
Epsilon 0, right? How do I find epsilon 0? You know for finding epsilon 0, you know epsilon
0 is 2CL0 by PI aspect ratio and CL0 is given how much? Let us see CL at alpha equal to zero,
0.26. So I put this value here. So epsilon not is 2 into 0.26 by PI and what is aspect ratio is
around7, 7.3. So this gives you a value equal to 1.3 degree correct. This is the why this epsilon
0 is present? Because the wing is cambered. So, even at alpha equal to 0, there will be a lift and
lift mean there is a pressure difference between lower and the top surface.
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Lift means there is difference between pressure between bottom and top surface. So there will
be vortices and that will induce downwash. That is why epsilon at alpha equal to 0. So this is
definitely cambered aerofoil. We should appreciate that. So now if I put every value here I can
easily see IT as minus 2.7 degree. It is straight forward you can plug in all those values here so
you are getting IT equal -2.7 degree and VH required is 0.453. So this is the solution.
2𝐶𝐿0 2 × 0.26
𝜖0 = = = 0.0227 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑟 1.3 𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝜋𝐴𝑅𝑤 𝜋 × 7.3
0.20
𝑖𝑡 = − { − 2.0 − 1.3} = −2.7 𝑑𝑒𝑔
0.453 × 1.0 × 0.073
So now to conclude through this problem what we learnt, we learnt there is a wing fuselage
combination which had CM alpha negative. That means It is very statically stable and most
probably AC of the wing is why most probably, if CM alpha is negative for a wing fuselage
combination, it is sure wing AC is behind CG of the airplane right? However we wanted to
increase static stability as well as to ensure that it can be trimmed at positive angle of attack.
So we found out what is that tail size required, what is the tail setting angle required to ensure
that now the CM versus alpha for a wing fuselage and tail is what exactly we are looking for.
Is it clear? This problem is only to give you a better feel for all those expressions we have
developed.
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Prof. A.K.Ghosh
Indian Institution of Technology-Kanpur
Problems – Stability Tail Contribution Completed
We were trying to understand whatever in our theory class. We have explained regarding
stability of airplane, that is static stability in particular and more specifically stick fixed static
stability. And what was the problem? We solve a problem.
Where it said there is a configuration, wing and fuselage with CM versus alpha graph, alpha
plot was based on this linear equation and we know that this is nothing but CM0, we realize this
value is CM Alpha. So it is basically CM wing fuselage it is represented in this fashion. And
when you check this number we found that CM-alpha, CM-alpha is negative, so it is statically
stable configuration. However, we found that CM0 is also negative. So it is not possible to trim
it at a positive angle of attack right.
𝐶𝑚𝑤,𝑓 = −0.05
⏟ − 0.0035
⏟ 𝛼
𝐶𝑚0 𝐶𝑚𝛼
𝐶𝑚𝑤,𝑓 = 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝛼
𝐶𝑚𝛼 < 0 𝑠𝑜 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

𝐶𝑚0 < 0
Barring that simple understanding we always remember that for a cambered aerofoil there could
be a negative angle at which we can trim. However, in general we try to trim an airplane at
positive angle of attack. And if CM0 is negative, then we know that it is not possible to trim.
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This is CM and this is alpha CL, so if CM0 is negative, this is CM0, then the trim is at a negative
angle of attack, which we do not want. We want something like this.
It should trim at positive angle of attack. This is what we are looking for, so this we understood
that this cannot be trimmed at positive angle of attack with this sort of a number.
So the problem was given, why don’t you change this whole CM wing fuselage and now we
have to put a tail and so that it is represented by this expression
𝐶𝑚𝑤,𝑓,𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 = 0.15 − 0.025𝛼
0.025 alpha where you could see that first we are now talking about tail that means we have to
add a tail. The tail will do two things. One is, it is not making CM Alpha more negative from -
0.0035 per degree to -0.025 per degree. So it is becoming more statically stable and also now
the tail should be such that CM0 also becomes greater than 0, so that I can trim it at positive
angle of attack, right.
And we solved this problem and we found that what is the tail volume ratio required (𝑉𝐻 ) or
tail area required (𝑆𝑡 ) we found out and also we found out what is the tail setting angle (𝑖𝑡 ) . So
this things were done. This is one of typical real life design problem. Generally, you design a
wing thinking in terms of how much lift it should be able to generate because the area of the
wing is very important, as the lift is the primary component, which produces lift to balance
weight, or to produce enough lift more than weight whenever manoeuvre is required.
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So, we are now very clear that wing is primarily to generate lift and tail for stability, stability
plus trim. This is the primary role of a tail okay. It does not mean in longitudinal case you’ll see
that wing also contributes to trim, provided you very smartly you locate aerodynamic centre
and the CG of the whole airplane in a particular fashion. However, that is not the primary aim
of the wing okay. So that part of the problem was more focused towards stability and trim.
When I say stability, means I say static stability okay.
Now the second problem we will be doing which is more a general case. This problem will help
you to understand, to refine your understanding in terms number one CL Alpha 3D from CL
Alpha 2D of an aerofoil number two it will also, contribution of wing and tail towards CM0
towards CM Alpha and third stick fixed neutral point. Remember, I have constantly telling you
I will be solving some practical problems so that you don’t get lost into all those expressions.
At one the expressions you know for the first time you know how it is to be derived. Then more
important it is how do I use it, where finally I’m going to design an aircraft okay. So with this
in mind now I will be solving a problem and let me define the problem.
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Let us concentrate on the problem. See I have given some number for a general aviation aircraft.
Typically, these aircraft are below 1500 Kg class. It could be Cessna 182, it could be Piper
Saratoga, around that family of aircraft. What is the information we have, let us first understand
this information about wing? What we said, CMAC wing is equal to -0.116. What is the
meaning of that? What inference we get about from this information is that it is a cambered
aerofoil correct.
Because there is a CMAC wing present had it been a symmetric aerofoil CMAC wing would
have been 0. So one thing we understood, it is a cambered aerofoil. For a lift co-efficient this is
2D, 2D value which is 0.097 per degree. Be very careful generally, we operate in terms of per
radian. right. So many book also will be using both per degree and per radian at their
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convenience. But we should be very clear that this is per degree so if I want to convert it into
per radian so I have to just multiply it by 57.3 okay? That is 180 by π.
Then again alpha 0 means alpha at lift is equal to 0 or CL =0. Since it is a cambered aerofoil
from here, we have inferred, this is -50. That is if I try to draw it, CL versus alpha, this is CL,
this is alpha, this is that -50 okay. This is typically of cambered aerofoil. IW is the wing setting
angle (𝑖𝑤 ) . What is this wing setting angle?
If you again recall one of my lecture I have explained this. If this is the fuselage reference line,
the wing is set at some angle with fuselage reference line. This is called IW or wing setting
angle okay and that wing setting angle is 10.
Now come back to the tail. This is the tail portion. Let me write tail here. CL Alpha, now you
see, it is a capital L Alpha of tail. That means, it is 3D value. Already 2D effect has been 2D
aerofoil value has been converted into 3D value. So this is directly given 3.91 now it is given
in per radian okay. SO CMAC tail is given as 0. That means the tail aerofoil is symmetric
aerofoil. Then IT is -10 and what is IT (𝑖𝑡 )? again you can check my lecture.
If this is the tail, I’ll be putting the tail like this and this is IT equal to -1.0 0. So the tail is not
like this, tail is set at the minus setting. Why this tail is put as minus, you know by now that at
alpha = 0, suppose this is not here. Suppose this is wing is like this and at alpha =0, tail will
experience force in this direction and about CG, it will give a value as positive CM so we say,
we’ll get some amount of CM0 positive by giving a tail setting angle, negative correct.
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Why this CM0 positive I’m talking about now? Because we know that if I want to trim an
aircraft, at a positive angle of attack, I have to ensure that CM0 is greater than 0 okay? So this
is the description of the airplane. What is the task?
Task is to calculate contribution of wing and tail for CM Alpha or DCM by DCL, whatever you
want to compute and second for CM0 and third, just need to find neutral point, neutral point,
stick fixed. We are talking about stick fixed, question is clear. With this configuration of an
airplane, we want to calculate, the contribution of wing and tail. We are not including fuselage.
We’ll have one session on fuselage. So we are now focusing on contribution of wing and tail
towards CM Alpha or towards static stability, CM0 was trimmed and finally neutral point for
stick fixed case okay. So let us solve this problem.
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Let us again come back to this configuration. One of my advice to all of you would be just don’t
start solving a problem seeing some numbers, using some equation. Try to look through those
numbers and visualize an aircraft okay. That will tell you many more things than what I have
been telling you or what the numbers will tell. If this is the wing, tail is somewhere here. Tail
is symmetric, but tail is not only symmetric, tail is set at -10. We should correctly draw it like
this. This is -10 and this wing is cambered so I should at least pictorially draw as a cambered
aerofoil okay.
We are neglecting fuselage. What is more information we have? We have let’s say it is the
fuselage, I’m just drawing dotted line. We have location of CG somewhere here which is 0.295
cbar and AC at 0.25 cbar okay this is clear. And further you could see LT is given here. LT is
what? LT is the distance between CG of the airplane, this is CG of the airplane and the AC of
the horizontal tail.
So this is LT and this is given as 16.0 clear? So now we have got a picture, what information
you get from here. From this drawing we understand that wing is a cambered wing tail has a
setting angle. What more? Very important thing is here since we want to calculate CM Alpha
of the whole aircraft as equivalent to CM Alpha because of wing plus CM Alpha because of tail
of course, CM Alpha because of fuselage we are putting it to 0 and neglecting it.
𝐶𝑚𝛼 ≅ (𝐶𝑚𝛼 )𝑤 + (𝐶𝑚𝛼 )𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 + (𝐶𝑚𝛼 )𝑓 ; (𝐶𝑚𝛼 )𝑓 = 0
𝑎⁄𝑐
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So, as far as CM Alpha of the wing, one thing you should immediately get and you should be
very clear and that will show how much you are understanding it. If this is the CG and this is
the AC of the wing, one thing I know that the AC of the wing is ahead of CG of the wing.
So the contribution of wing towards stability or towards CM Alpha will be stabilizing or

destabilizing we know that for it to give stabilizing effect, the AC should be behind CG right.
If I again try to help you think, remember if AC is behind CG, if there is a disturbance, the force
will come here which will give a nose down moment. So, for a positive alpha there will be a
negative pitching moment. So, CM Alpha will be negative so that leads to static stability. Or in
other term I say because AC is behind CG, so the moment there is a disturbance, it has it will
generate this force CL which will give you a pitching, pitch down moment or it has a initial
tendency to come back to equilibrium again. That is alpha equal to 0 or alpha equal to alpha
desired or alpha star. CM Alpha sign for wing we will find it should come positive. Because
this is destabilizing. Second thing what you understand, for tail, for tail you could see AC of the
wing is behind CG. So it will have stabilizing components, so CM Alpha will be negative.
𝐶𝑚𝛼 (𝐶𝑚𝛼 )𝑤 + (𝐶
≅⏟ ⏟ 𝑚𝛼 )𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 + (𝐶 )
𝑎⁄𝑐 ⏟ 𝑚𝛼 𝑓
>0 <0 =0
You could see from here also, if there is an alpha, there will be force upward which will give
nose down moment about CG, so this aft tail which we are talking about now and I’ll be
addressing it as tail, is always stabilizing. The moment you put a canard or something here,
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which is called forward tail, then it becomes destabilizing because the AC is now ahead of CG.
okay. We are now, do a calculation how CL Alpha2D can be converted to 3D right.
The formula which you already know CL Alpha 3D is equal to CL Alpha 2D by 1 plus CL-
Alpha 2D by π aspect ratio. I’m taking ‘e’ as 1. right.
𝐶⏟
𝑙𝛼 → 𝐶
⏟𝐿𝛼
2𝑑 3𝑑
𝐶𝑙𝛼
𝐶𝐿𝛼 =
𝐶𝑙
1 + 𝜋𝐴𝑅𝛼 𝑒
𝑤
𝐶𝑙𝛼
𝐶𝐿𝛼 = ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒 = 1
𝐶𝑙
1 + 𝜋𝐴𝑅𝛼
𝑤
Now let us do it. What is the aspect ratio for the wing? We have to calculate the aspect ratio for
the wing and we know aspect ratio is b2 by S. What is B for the wing? Somewhere it is 33.4
feet. 33.4 square by S is also given 184. So you will get the value which is equal to roughly 6.06
right. So, this is aspect ratio of the wing.
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛2 𝑏 2 (33.4)2
𝐴𝑅𝑤 = = = = 6.06
𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑆 184
Now it’s very straight-forward. CL Alpha wing 3D will be what about CL Alpha 2D value, let
me put that 0.097 this is per degree, so I’ll multiply it by 57.3 to make it per radian, 1 plus again
0.097 into 57.3 divided by π into aspect ratio which is 6.06 and if we do the calculation, if I am
not wrong, this is 4.3 per radian. This problem is also from Nelson which I showed you
yesterday. So those who are interested they can see this problem there. But let us understand,
this problem I’m using to synergize whatever I have talked about stability. Similarly see for
control as well. Okay this is fine. Now, what is our aim?
(𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟕) × 𝟓𝟕. 𝟑
𝑪𝑳𝜶𝒘 = = 𝟒. 𝟑 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟕 × 𝟓𝟕. 𝟑
𝟏 + 𝝅 × 𝟔. 𝟎𝟔
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We know CM equal to CM0, CMCG (𝐶𝑚𝐶𝐺 ) of the aircraft, CM0 of the aircraft, plus CM Alpha
of the aircraft into alpha right? We are not talking about CM0 wing because CM0 aircraft has
CM0 wing plus CM0 tail plus CM0 fuselage. So we are try to calculate CM0 wing and this we
know if we check is CMAC wing plus CL0 wing into XCG by C minus XAC wing by C. I hope
you understand.
𝐶𝑚𝐶𝐺 = 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝛼
𝑎⁄𝑐 𝑎⁄𝑐
𝐶𝑚0𝑤 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐,𝑤 + 𝐶𝐿0𝑤 ( − )
𝑐 𝑐
This expression, remember just to make things clear to you if this is a cambered aerofoil at AC,
the CL, CD and there will be a CMAC wing which has come because of transferring the forces
and typically for cambered aerofoil this value is negative. And now suppose your CG is
somewhere here, so at alpha equal to 0, there is a CL. So what will happen. This is CL0, CL0
into this distance will give you pitch up moment. So here is typical case. So what is CMAC
wing?
I put the number which we already know. -0.116 plus 0.375 into 0.295 minus 0.250 which is
nothing but this is XCG and this is XAC wing. If I do this, I can get CM0 wing. What question
is coming to your mind? If you say this is given 0.116 minus CMAC wing, this is XCG of the
airplane. It is given. This is aircraft right. It is given. XAC wing is 25%, 0.25 is also given.
𝐶𝑚0𝑤 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐,𝑤 + 𝐶𝐿0𝑤 ( − )
𝑐 𝑐
𝐶𝑚0𝑤 = −0.116 + (0.375){0.295 − 0.250}
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But wherefrom I got this number (0.375)? Suddenly I have written it., where from I got this
number? So, let us see what is this number.
This number is nothing but CL0 wing. How do I find out CL0 wing. Let us see what is CL0.
We draw here. This is cambered aerofoil. This is CL, this is alpha. So at alpha equal to 0, this
value is CL0. So how do I find CL0. Simply this will be since linear, this will be CL0 into
absolute value of this alpha right? So CL0 will be CL Alpha which is 4.3 into absolute alpha 0.
That is equal to 4.3 into 5 degree divided by 57.3. Why I’m dividing by 57.3? Because this 4.3
CL Alpha is per radian. And 5 is in degree, alpha 0 (𝛼0 ). So, I have to convert degree into radian
so divided by this and thus we get 0.375 correct? This part is clear.
5
𝐶𝐿0𝑤 = 4.3 × |𝛼0 | = 4.3 × = 0.375
57.3
So, let me erase this. I now erase this, I erase this also because, now we are clear, where from
it has come. So this value will come out to be, I advice you to do yourself this so that even if
some mistakes are committed, you should not get a wrong number. okay. So this gets to -0.099
CM0 wing right. So are you happy if CM0 wing is -0.099, then you know one thing for sure
that finally I want CM0 to be positive. And with major contribution towards CM0 should come
from where horizontal tail by giving a tail setting angle and that is perhaps 10 tail setting angle
was given. Let us check that.
𝐶𝑚0𝑤 = −0.099
We have seen we have got CM0 contribution from wing as -0.099. Now we want to find out
what is CM0 tail for this configuration. But we know one thing that, if you want to trim the
airplane at positive angle of attack, total CM0 should be positive. That means that whatever
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CM0 I get from tail, that should cancel this, nullify this plus add some positive value okay? So
let us see how much CM0 tail we get from this configuration.
Going back to our expression, CM0 tail was given eta, VH CL-alpha tail Epilon0 IW minus IT.
What was IW? Wing setting angle. IT, tail setting angle, now what was Epsilon 0. Epsilon 0
was downwash at alpha equal to 0. And when Epsilon0 will be there when there is a cambered
aerofoil. Because at alpha equal to 0 there will be still lift for a cambered aerofoil wing. Lift
means there is a pressure difference between bottom and the top surface and there will be
vortices which will give downwash value.
And the expression to calculate epsilon 0 is 2CL by π aspect ratio and for alpha-not it is CL0.
So I’m putting 2 into 0.375 divided by π into aspect ratio of the wing. This is very important.
We need to calculate epsilon 0 using this. The values are known. CL 0 is 0.375. Already you
have computed that, aspect ratio you have computed to be 6.06. So if I use this expression, I get
epsilon 0 as 2.30 okay? So if I put all those thing here, I could check, eta again I have assumed
1, VH 0.66, CL Alpha tail 3.9, epsilon 0 2.3, calculated from here.
10 is the wing setting angle given IT is -10, so - IT means minus -10. But remember, this whatever
degree is there, that has to be converted into radian by divided by 57.3 because this whole term
is getting multiplied by 3.9 which is per radian. right? So if I do that I get CM0 tail as 0.194.
This is a wonderful number. You could see, if CM0 is 0.194, so CM0 wing plus CM0 tail
becomes -0.099+0.194. so you could see this is greater than 0 right. So how by giving a tail
setting angle of 10.
𝐶𝑚0,𝑡 = 𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (𝜖0 + 𝑖𝑤 − 𝑖𝑡 )
2𝐶𝐿0 2 × 0.375
𝜖0 = = = 0.0394 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑟 2.3°
𝜋𝐴𝑅𝑤 𝜋 × 6.06
{2.3° + 1.0° − (−1.0°)}
𝐶𝑚0,𝑡 = 1 × 0.66 × 3.91 [ ] = 0.194
57.3
𝐶𝑚0𝑤 + 𝐶𝑚0𝑡 = −0.099 + 0.194 = 0.095 > 0
We have not only neutralized this CM0 contribution because of wing which is negative, we
have also added some CM0 value so that I can trim the airplane at positive angle of attack That
is in pictorially if I see, if this was the CM0 wing once I put the tail, what we have done, the tail
setting angle, this CM0 has now become positive okay. And something, alpha can be trimmed
at positive angle of attack okay. This is clear.
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So, this is because of wing and then somewhere because of tail is here, when I add this one and
two, somewhere I get here, which is this value. So indeed, it’s a design where appropriate tail
setting has been given which is 10 and also wing setting angle given so that you will find finally
your CM0 is positive okay. This is very important. So we have seen the contribution of wing,
contribution of tail on CM0. We now know how to use this expressions. Right.
We now see how to compute the contribution towards stability. Now we are talking about
contribution of wing towards CM Alpha or static stability. One thing prior you know that AC
of the wing for this configuration is ahead of the CG of the airplane. So CM Alpha sign will be
positive. Let us see what happens. If I write CM Alpha wing which I have derived is equal to
CL Alpha wing into XCG by C minus XAC wing by C.
If I now put the numbers then it comes to be 4.3 into 0.295 - 0.25 and this is 0.1935 per radian.
So indeed, this is positive. It should be positive because AC of the wing is ahead of CG okay.
𝑋𝐶𝐺 𝑋𝑎𝑐
𝐶𝑚𝛼,𝑤 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 ( − )
𝑐 𝑐
𝐶𝑚𝛼,𝑤 = 4.3(0.295 − 0.25) = 0.1935 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑
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Now see for tail let’s see what is the effect of tail so we write again expression for CM-alpha
tail and that is given by minus eta VH CL Alpha tail into 1 minus D epsilon by D alpha. eta I
take 1, VH I know CL Alpha tail I know. I don’t know what is D epsilon by D alpha. So I
calculate D epsilon by D alpha as 2. If I calculate D epsilon by D alpha, using this expression,
π aspect ratio wing.
If I put this number I will get this as 2 into 4.3 by π 6.06. This is 0.45. Let me tell you 0.45 D
epsilon by D alpha is pretty high. You could see that what is this expression. This CM-alpha
tail? What is its role? It is a minus here. So this is basically stabilizing effect. If this number is
more. If this number becomes equal to 1 then this will become 0.
𝜕𝜖
𝐶𝑚𝛼,𝑡 = −𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − )
𝜕𝛼
𝜕𝜖 2𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑤 2 × 4.3
= = = 0.45
𝜕𝛼 𝜋𝐴𝑅𝑤 𝜋 × 6.06
So we will try to design an airplane such that this value is as low as possible from stability point
of view right. So when I once I put that I get CM Alpha tail as -1.42 per radian. Now I could
see CM Alpha wing was +0.1935 per radian, CM Alpha tail is 1.42, minus 1.42 per radian. So,
this positive which was destabilizing, this is negative stabilizing.
So, when you they have a combined effect the aircraft because of wing and tail has CM Alpha
negative. That means it is statically stable right. That is in a way we have now seen what is the
role of horizontal tail. We could see a destabilizing configuration has been converted into
stabilizing airplane by using appropriate tail. And also tail has a contribution towards trim by
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giving setting angle in the tail, the CM0 has been made suitably positive okay. This is the beauty
of this term, and as a designer. You need to use it more frequently okay.
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Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Lecture- 08
Neutral Point and Fuselage Contribution
If we are continuing our last problem where we are trying to calculate CM0 of the whole aircraft,
which consist of CM0 of wing CM0 of tail and we have learned how to compute them, and then
we have also seen how the CM Alpha or the stabilizing contribution of wing and tail can be
computed and in that we have seen for this particular example, the wing was destabilizing so, CM
Alpha of the wing was positive.
And CM Alpha tail was negative as tail is a stabilizing component, and then when we add up CM
Alpha wing and CM Alpha tail, total gives CM Alpha negative that means once you put the tail
with that dimension, the appropriate VH tail volume ratio you get particular level of static stability,
also we learn that if I give a tail setting angle in this example it was -1 degree and for that it
generates sufficient CM0 value, and that value.
We have seen what exactly it is, we have also seen CM0 because of wing, CM0 because of tail
and total CM0 also we have computed, so we have learned this art the skill how to calculate CM0
of the whole airplane, how to calculate CM Alpha of the whole airplane, of course we have not
talked anything about fuselage contribution which we will do in some session right? But to end
this another important thing comes into our mind, okay.
I know CM Alpha of the wing CM Alpha of the tail, let see the CM Alpha of the airplane I need
to know the neutral point where is the neutral point? Why is it important? Let’s understand that,
what is a neutral point?
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Neutral point is that CG location at which the aircraft becomes neutrally stable, neutral point how
do I define again? Neutral point is that CG location at which the aircraft becomes neutrally stable
so I will use NS, when I write NS it is to be understood it is neutrally stable. And if I try to translate
this into mathematical definition we say neutral point is that CG location, for which DCM by D
Alpha = 0, that is neutrally stable or equivalently I can say, DCM by DCL = 0.
𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝑁𝑢𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 (𝑁. 𝑃); 𝐶𝐺 ∀ = 0, =0
𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝐶𝐿
Please note that in neutral point I have also used the word stick fixed that means I am not allowing
any floating of the elevator okay?
So initially we will be talking more and more about stick fixed, and then at some point again we
will come back to stick free little bit so that your concepts are clear. So let’s focus on the stick
fixed, the understanding is this if I leave the elevator free it has natural tendency to float up most
cases however, we are saying no we will not allow that floating if I want to go for a five degree
then I will take it to five and lock it okay? So, let’s come back to the neutral point and let’s try to
understand this from a simple example.
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Suppose I have got a wing, flying wing and it has a reflex aerofoil, you could see reflex aerofoil
configuration and let’s say its aerodynamic center AC, where will be the AC for low speed? You
all know you are expert by now it will be at quarter chord point or twenty five percent of the chord,
Right? Now let us see if I put CG somewhere here, will it be statically stable or not? That is the
question. Although we know by now that whenever AC is behind CG it gives stabilizing moment
you can always cross check, it is better to cross check.
Suppose if I give a disturbance some Delta Alpha here I see there will be a Delta CL acting here,
which will give a nose down moment about CG that means it will try to discourage the Delta Alpha
or it will try to come back to. It will have initial tendency to come back its original equilibrium, so
we say this is a statically stable case okay. And from the definition point of view if there is a
positive Alpha, there is a Delta CL which gives you nose down moment so I say Delta CM so you
could see that because Delta CM is negative nose down is negative.
So again here DCM by DCL is less than 0 or DCM by DAlpha is less than 0. So both are
mathematical conditions for attributing towards statics stability, right?
< 0; < 0 (𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒)
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝜕𝛼
So what is learned that as long as aerodynamic center is behind CG for a flying wing this will have
stabilizing effect and the flying wing will be statically stable right. And this is the CG and this is
the AC. Now think of a situation suppose I start moving this towards AC of the wing that is and I
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am shifting the CG from this location towards AC that can easily be done you can redistribute the
masses here inside the flying wing CG can move AFT what is the meaning of that.
What will happen if CG from station one it comes to station two that means this moment arm has
reduced okay, so the restoring moment magnitude will reduce although sign still remains negative
so you say it is still statically stable although the degree of stability static stability or the amount
of static stability has reduced because this moment arm has reduced. Now imagine if I take CG
further close to AC what will happen?
As long as that CG is a head of AC of the wing for a flying wing configuration please understand
I am talking about the flying wing there is no tail at all, as long as the AC of the wing is just behind
CG of the aircraft it will have a stabilizing effect natural question comes. What happens if CG and
AC of the wing coincides same point and what will happen? There is moment arm is 0 so there
will not be an any moment even if there is any force so it will not generate any moment for any
angle of attack. So that is the point where we say it does not have an any restoring moment.
And it is a state where you say the aircraft and flying wing is neutrally stable now if I try to draw
understand this through CM versus let’s say Alpha graph let us I want to draw CM versus Alpha
graph for this configuration. So this Alpha is = 0 so what is your guess?
At Alpha = 0, will there be any CM? Look here, if it is symmetric if it was just like this at Alpha
equals to 0, definitely they is no CM because the forces here, forces here are equal in magnitude,
they canceled each other. To be more precise the pressure difference neutralizes and there are no
net force, so naturally net moment will be zero, but the moment I have put a reflex aerofoil, this is
reflex, you could see.
What will happen, because of this portion right there will be a force generated even at Alpha equals
to zero, which will intern give a moment like this about CG and which is positive moment. So this
tells me that at Alpha equals to zero, there will be a positive pitching moment, so I can tell at Alpha
equals to 0 there is a positive pitching moment coefficient as long as it is reflex aerofoil clear?
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So, if I draw it, so at Alpha equals to 0 there is some CM0 okay? Now, what about the slope? CM
versus Alpha that I know if I again draw it, little bit cleaner for you to understand.
Let us say first case, this AC is at C by 4, let’s say CG is here I call it one, so this is CG location
okay? Please you understand this is the AC which is C by 4, and this is the one of the location of
CG. So now you know because of this, AC being behind CG or CG being ahead of AC.
There will be a nose down moment, so let me erase this to be more precise, so that you do not get
mixed up. So let me draw it this is C by 4 so since CG is ahead AC for any disturbance there will
be a nose down moment about CG, so CM will be negative so I know that now the slope between
CM versus Alpha will be negative in this case right? So let’s say this is the CM versus Alpha slope
for CG 1 okay?
Now what I do? I put the CG little close towards the AC, so let’s say I put it here number two,
what will happen? Will the slope become positive? No because, still there is a moment arm which
will give force, which will give moment because of the force here, so again then the nose down
moment will come so slope will still remain negative, but magnitude will reduce because moment
arm has reduced.
Now I take it to point number three further close to AC now you know the moment arm has further
reduced, although moment arm has reduced but still the AC is behind CG, so there will be a
negative moment. So it may look like this, so three this tells you or tells us that if this CG coincides
with AC of the wing then there won’t be any slope or there won’t be any change because of Alpha
so what will happen that this line will become something like this, this is XCG.
At which DCM by D Alpha = 0, and this XCG location is nothing but our X neutral point correct.
So, what is the neutral point for a flying wing? For a flying wing the aerodynamic center itself
becomes the neutral point of the flying wing is it clear? Okay? Why it is a neutral point because if
I bring CG just coinciding with AC then it will have CM Alpha = 0 or DCM by DCL = 0. What
happens if CG goes further aft, if CG comes here CG (4) location?
Now what will happen, now the AC of the wing is ahead of CG, suppose some disturbances there
then this Delta CL will give a nose up moment, right? Nose up moment so, it will not have any
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initial tendency to come back to equilibrium so we will say this is statically unstable case and in
that case the slope is positive.
Because now CM is positive for Alpha so the line will look like this, this is XCG four location this
is statically unstable and these all are statically stable and this is neutrally stable. Why it is
important if you are designing a fly wing you must ensure that the AC of the wing is always behind
CG of the airplane, right to have some static stability. But, at this point I must also tell you that
unstable does not mean uncontrollable you can still fly an unstable airplane.
By using all controllers and flight control system in a simplistic way if I take a stick on my finger
it is statically unstable but still I can control so, what we say unstable does not mean uncontrollable.
In fact we will find most of the fighter airplanes, to increase their maneuverability we make them
statically stable but marginally okay. So this is the understanding of a neutral point in a simplistic
manner. How do I extend this understanding to aircraft?
Lets see this is the aircraft. Let’s say this is the AC of the wing for time being assume fuselage
effect is 0 okay you are neglecting the fuselage effect for time being. Now if the configuration is
like this and if CG of the airplane is somewhere here what is your answer whether this
configuration is statically stable or not? It does not have any tail please understand it does not have
any horizontal tail as per diagram goes but answer is very simple.
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You know that the AC of the wing is behind CG. So the wing will be giving stabilizing component
and so the DCM by D Alpha will be less than 0, since we neglecting fuselage effect so we are
saying this is statically stable case, okay. Now, suppose I change the CG, let’s say CG is here or
let me further make it simpler to you that you can understand clearly, let say CG of the airplane is
coinciding with aerodynamic center of the wing.
I repeat we are not considering fuselage effect at all. So in this case, what will happen the aircraft
will be neutrally stable right okay. And if I further bring this CG aft of AC of the wing it will
become statically unstable, this much you have understood. But now let us see what happens if I
put a horizontal tail here, now the moment I put the horizontal tail there and even if CG is
conceding with AC, do you think it will be statically unstable or statically neutrally stable.
You say okay CG of the airplane and AC of the wing are same point, what is your answer? Please
see here, let us see this case, if CG of the aircraft and AC of the wing are at same point, when tail
was not there we realize it is a neutral stable case, right. So it will not that any CM for Alpha, So
DCM by D Alpha will be 0.
But the moment I put a tail here, even its AC of the wing is at CG of the aircraft, if I produce some
disturbance Delta Alpha (Δ𝛼) and roughly Delta Alpha also will be here if I neglect downwash
and all, even If this not giving any moment about CG but remember here there will be a Delta CL
tail (Δ𝐶𝐿 )𝑡 which will be a nose down moment, nose down pitching moment so that we are writing
CM, so this make the whole configuration again have being DCM by D Alpha less than 0. Is it
clear?
So that is the beauty of keeping a tail. So, what is actually happening? Earlier when tail was not
there you have a limit that you cannot put the CG beyond AC of the wing otherwise it will become
statically unstable. But the moment you have put tail you can easily to some extend some degree
you can put CG behind AC of the wing also because this man the tail will care of the restoring
moment what will happen suppose this is the CG of the aircraft this is the AC of the wing and here
AC of the tail.
So even if there is disturbance Delta Alpha there will be Delta CL because of wing, remember CL
is supposed to be perpendicular to the velocity vector but for small angle. I am just drawing it like
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this, ideally it should be perpendicular to velocity vector right. The similar Delta Alpha here also
will give a Delta CL tail, right this man this wing contribution will generate what type of moment
stabilizing or destabilizing? Check here AC of the wing is the ahead of CG, so this will give a
destabilizing.
What about tail? Tail will give Stabilizing, so now even if the AC of the wing is the ahead of CG,
if you put in an appropriate tail, you can make this whole configuration having a DCM by D Alpha
or DCM by DCL appropriately negative and that is what the problem what we solve was telling
us right. And most of the cambered aerofoil aircraft we will find AC of the wing is the ahead of
CG because we have seen by putting AC of the wing ahead of CG.
I can reduce the CM0 negative effect of the wing because of CMAC okay. So this is the
understanding, so we will now try to calculate neutral point for the given problem and it is straight
forward when you understand this if I write the formula for neutral point.
That was XAC of the wing by C, let me write this, plus eta VH CL Alpha tail by CL Alpha wing
one - D epsilon by D Alpha we have neglected fuselage of effect altogether here. If I put this
number, I should get this value around 0.5. So simple, so once you get XNP by C which is XNP
by Bar which Is = XNP by C = 0.5 so what is the meaning how to interpret this as a designer. Let’s
that be very, very clear.
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(𝑋𝑎𝑐 )𝑤 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝜕𝜖
𝑋̅𝑁𝑃 = + 𝜂𝑉𝐻 (1 − ) = 0.5𝑐̅
𝑐̅ 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝜕𝛼
Let me draw the airplane, here the airplane, here is the tail, here is the wing, of course this tail is
having some negative setting angle, one degree so I will draw it something like this tail and if this
is the line, if CG is here and the neutral point is coming it around 0.5 C or C bar and the meaning
is if I fly this airplane I will be able to generate CM0 positive and the slope at trim DCM by D
Alpha will be negative.
That tells me clearly I can trim this statically stable airplane at a positive angle of attack Alpha
okay because I could make CM0 positive, okay, This was the problem I wanted to clarify you few
things for whatever we have derived by expression and sometime we get lost into all the expression
DCM by D Alpha, DCM by DCL what not but if you understand the physics understand the skill
part of it you can easily translate.
This expression to your advantage and you can design a good aircraft. Before I take this lecture, I
would like to tell you one thing that when we do some sort of recording and when I again see it
myself there maybe some section which I would like to repeat and my friend who are doing the
recording they say, sir please come with same shirt, same jacket because otherwise it will look
different and I contest them that is not possible okay.
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And our continuity is not through our looks or with jacket I am putting on our continuity through
the subjects, the concepts which we’re trying to reinforce by repeating many times many things
we have seen. So please bear with me sometime we will find there will be a discontinuity if we try
to focus through my uniform I wearing because for simple reason that I may recording it is in some
other time okay. I am sure the young man and young girls will appreciate it. Let us come back to
academics.
We have being talking about DCM by DCL and you know by now you must be expert by now this
is CM, this is CL and DCM by DCL is the slope, that is slope at the trim and if it is negative then
we say it as statically stable we always talk about the slope at the trim because we are trying to
check static stability by disturbing the airplane at trim at equilibrium right.
So we talk about the slope here that is more important and we have seen this whole aircraft DCM
by DCL we have broken into DCM by DCL of wing and then we say DCM by DCL contribution
because of tail and then + DCM by DCL contribution because of Fuselage. Similarly, if there is a
engine we have seen that, that also affect the stability, so in some of form DCM by DCL from the
engine contribution also will be there.
But we have not talked about how to calculate DCM by DCL fuselage and today in ten minutes
will be covering that but before I cover I will give you a rough idea how to calculate but this things
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are generally computed through using a CFD computational fluid dynamics more importantly
through wind tunnel testing because fuselage shapes are vary of variety or having a varied contour
and there are so many attachment so very difficult.
To compute it through analytical methods, however, you as an designer need to know need to have
an art to get the quick estimate of this and you can do that quick estimation provided you
understand the physics behind it? What is the physics behind it; let’s say this is a Fuselage.
Typically, fuselage shape will be like this right. Here our friend honorable pilot will be here.
Now if I try to visualize it through most of the configuration which we have been exposed to in
aerodynamics this sort of a shape, it could be ogival shape, it could be conical shape and the central
portion I can think of a cylinder and the later part which I can think of as if a boat tail you know
why this diameter is kept smaller than main diameter or maximum diameter.
That is we call this ratio to this ratio had diameter at the base and diameter at where the boat tail
is starting, the ratio if I take the ratio is less than one that is to say this is less than this and we try
to see that this angle is around less than seven to nine degrees in normal case otherwise flow will
separate here so this here typically a boat tail. What happens what we are trying to find out, we are
trying to find out if there is an angle Alpha right, how much?
This is going to generate the force and how much this will contribute towards moment about CG?
One thing is very clear if I break this fuselage into these three shapes one thing I am pretty sure
this is the most lifting surface or lifting part of the fuselage right. This is cylinder so at small angle
of attack I can say this will not really contribute towards the lift and there this is a portion the boat
tail which is opposite of the nose so this will.
For a nose if for positive Alpha I’m getting a force like this for a boat tail since reverse we will
find this will act downward right. Now can you tell me if I now write down the force here
downward and CG somewhere here you could see this for a positive Alpha this will give a nose of
moment so nose is destabilizing this is destabilizing because for stabilizing effect I want for a
positive Alpha there should be a nose down movement but here for positive Alpha it is giving me
nose up movement.
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Now for boat tail even for positive Alpha you could see the since it is a boat tailing like this the
force will act downward this also will give destabilizing effect okay .So what we are getting both
nose and boat tail will give CM positive for positive Alpha. So this is destabilizing and the moment
it is destabilizing we know that for destabilizing immediately I know CM Alpha will be greater
than 0 because for stability CM Alpha is less than 0 right.
So CM Alpha because of fuselage will be greater than zero or it will be destabilizing there are
methods empirical methods to calculate the value of CM Alpha or DCM by DCL through quick
formula and that I will be giving you and it should be using it as and when required.
First of all this if is the nose of the fuselage this is let’s say total fuselage length then this is the
length of the fuselage. I will consider it from here length of the fuselage LF (𝑙𝑓 ) I am not taking
any boat tail effect and I’m assuming the cylinder straight then you see then CL Alpha of the nose
this portion is nose for small Alpha it can be approximated as two into some would call Munk
factor K2-K1 and typically K2-K1(𝐾2 − 𝐾1 ) is a Munk factor these are for your information.
I will not able to add a lot of physics at this part of the lecture and this typical value it is between
0.85 to 0.98 for L/D greater than 4 if the length to diameter this is the diameter, if the length, the
total length fuselage and this nose included if L/D is more than 4 than it is fair enough to take K2,
K1 as 0.9. So, CL Alpha of the fuselage you will get around 1.8 per radian.
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𝐶𝐿𝛼 = 2 × (𝐾2 − 𝐾1 )
For subsonic case you will find that many of the book or many of the designers take it as 2 per
radian but one catch is there, CL Alpha fuselage is 1.8 per radian and as I told you approximately
people take it as 2 per radian, initial estimates. But then the catch point is it is based on the reference
area is Pie d max square by 4 this should be very clear so when you are try to combine this with
other components because of a wing and tail you have to convert this into reference area which is
wing reference area.
𝐶𝐿𝛼 = 1.8 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ≈ 2 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑓
2
𝜋𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 =
4
So CL Alpha fuselage will be two into pie D max square by 4 and divided by reference area, wing
area this value, we’ll be actually using for your all equations right so two into whatever the ratio
come that is the CL. Alpha per radian based on wing reference area this is very important per
radian right okay we may like to solve a problem but this is not important if you know this that’s
all right.
2
𝜋𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥
2×
𝐶𝐿𝛼 = 4
𝑓 𝑆𝑤
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And then there is another which expression which is DCM by DCL for fuselage this impractical
formula is given which is K WF square LF by SW c CL Alpha wing I will explain you what is LF,
LF is overall fuselage length right, WF is the maximum width of fuselage and SW you know the
K part is arbitrary constant which is also called empirical factor.
𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝐾𝑊𝑓2 𝐿𝑓
( ) =
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑢𝑠 𝑆𝑤 𝑐 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤
That you can find out referring a standard design chart just I will give you a typical values chart
this may be around point 0.5 this one and 0 2 these are given as ten, twenty, thirty, forty location
of C by 4 of wing in percentage of fuselage length or body length that is exactly located it is
location the C/4 of the wing if this is the wing let’s say this is the C/4 of the wing how that is
located in terms of percentage of body length this location is what percentage of the body length.
We have this number we will get the value of K typically K value it you can for all practical
purpose we can take 0.3 that will work you will get some realistic number that may not be very
accurate okay. Please understand the fuselage is not a clean fuselage the way I have drawn it okay
there will be nacelle, there will be engine intake there will be landing gears downstairs so many
things, there will be pods so it is better that one goes for a scaled down wind tunnel testing.
And get these values. Similar will be for the CM0 fuselage also, right? So for this I thought I will
give some background so that you can understand what sort of value of CM Alpha for fuselage
would be or DCM by DCL for fuselage would be if not that you should be very, very sure that
fuselage will be always contributing towards destabilization that is CM Alpha or DCM by DCL
will be greater than zero you could see here DCM by DCL is given like this and this greater than
0, that as a fundamental understanding it should be clear to your mind. Thank You.
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Aircraft stability and Control
Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 09
Longitudinal Control
Today in this session, we will be discussing about longitudinal control. What is the meaning of
longitudinal control?
Let us again try to understand, from our very popular diagram, this is CM versus CL and you know
at this is the equilibrium point or trim point okay. This is the trim point, this is the equilibrium
point that is net force and moment are zero, and you could see from here CM is 0, this is zero, here
as far as.
CM is concerned and what is typically is that one of the examples will be let’s say the airplane is
cruising okay. So what is happening lift = weight, thrust = drag, and net moment is 0, so cruise is
also a trim point. And we see that at trim, at equilibrium, the slope DCM by DCL is negative, so
it is statically stable. This much you understand right. Also If I little bit of stretch further, I see that
if by some disturbance.
If CL from here it gets increased, to another point let’s say CL at 2, the CL has increased, then
the airplane being statically stable will automatically generate a negative pitching moment, right.
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And it will try to reduce the CL so it will have initial tendency to come back to the CL trim, so this
is another way of explanation that the airplane is having static stability, okay.
Now our problem of control is how to actually fly at a different CL, we want to fly at different
CL the physical situation is suppose, I fly it at a speed V1 at a CL CL1, let say V1 at a CL CL1
and I am maintaining the lift = weight correct. Let say that is here CL1 has flying at V1 and lift
= weight. Now I want to fly it at another trim in another cruise condition where V1 is V2 and CL
is CL2 and CL2 is greater than CL1.
𝑉1 , 𝐶𝐿1 , 𝐿 = 𝑊
𝑉2 , 𝐶𝐿2 , 𝐶𝐿2 > 𝐶𝐿1 ; 𝑉2 < 𝑉1
So that naturally V2 will be less than V1 because weight is same, because lift = weight I am
maintaining at the same altitude, the point is all these things I am doing where altitude is same
right. This you could easily understand this aircraft is flying at altitude, say density is rho (𝜌) the
V1 and CL is CL1. Now, at the same altitude the airplane wants to fly at a lower speed V2, so he
has to fly with a different CL I call it CL2, since lift as to same because weight is same.
So CL 2 has to be more than CL1 So, pictorially I want to fly at a trim at two this point, but we
know by now the moment I try to take it here immediately some negative pitching moment will
come, because it is statically stable so, if I want to really fly at this point two. So I have to ensure
that this negative moment is nullified by a positive moment, and how can I get that positive
moment, positive moment will come, when I put we call this, this is the tail, this is the elevator
and CG is somewhere here.
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So if I want to generate the positive moment I have to put the elevator up, if elevator is up force
will come downward which will give me a positive moment. That means I have to deflect the
elevator such a manner at CL 2, such that whatever negative moment is generated here that gets
nullified by this positive moment, correct. So what we have seen? By doing that if I draw this
straight line as I just extend it, I see there is an increase in Delta CM (Δ𝐶𝑚 ) because, by giving
The elevator deflection that static stability is not going to change right okay. Elevator will not
change anything on stability because its a control thing okay, Elevator doesn't decide the stability
it is the total tail which includes the elevator area which decides the static stability, since that is
same so this line will be parallel the slope will be same.
Only thing if I want to fly from 1(point 1) I want to step up to two I’ve to generate this much
of CM Delta CM, and who generates this who helps us to generate this elevator deflection. So one
question will be how much elevator I have to deflect to get equilibrium at CL2, that is one of the
questions we will have okay. So that is the basically what you are looking for is, longitudinal
control what is the Delta E Trim required for different CL trim.
(𝛿𝑒 )𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 (𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑) ⇒ 𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
That is if I now want to fly here then how much Delta is required. If you want to fly here how
much Delta is required and final questions comes can I really fly here. Because suppose if I am
flying here and If I draw a line like this much of negative moment is to be nullified, by a positive
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moment generated by elevated deflection, it may happen we will see that you do not have that
much of elevator deflection, because elevator you can deflect it to certain extend.
Beyond that say 15, 20 degrees normal case the elevator may stall. So we have to be also careful
that I need to have an appropriate elevator deflection to trim, whatever CL I want to fly at. There
is a limit of CL because, If I go on increasing the angle of a attack it may stall, also even if we
generate that much of CL by some method you need to check whether you have got
realistic elevator deflection possible or not.
Because elevator also beyond 15, 20 degrees will may stall in normal cases, right. So these are
the issue we will be talking about, and we will try to develop a mathematical formulation,
before we exclusively answer these questions, and we will be solving a problem to get better
insight into what is happening here okay.
Let us start doing the mathematical formulation, for this is the elevator as per the convention. This
is Delta E positive Delta E or elevator down is positive, and elevator up is negative this is a matter
of convention okay. Now, if see CL is not only function of angle of attack (𝛼), it also function of
Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ), because as I am changing the elevator deflection the CL on the tail is changing, so
overall CL of the airplane also will change right.
𝐶𝐿 = 𝑓(𝛼, 𝛿𝑒 )
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So far we were talking about CL as a function of Alpha now see elevator is being deflected it also
become function of Delta E again we have assume linearity and we expand CL as CL = CL0 + CL
Alpha into Alpha + CL Delta E into Delta E, we know what is CL0 or what is CL Alpha so we
know it is a partial derivative, that is DCL by D Alpha okay, where Delta E is fixed that is a partial
derivative and changing one variable at a time so that is CL Alpha.
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝛼 + 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
𝜕𝐶𝐿
| 𝛿 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑
𝜕𝛼 𝑒
𝜕𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 = | 𝑘𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜕𝛿𝑒
Similarly CL Delta E is DCL by D Alpha, I am sorry, similarly CL Delta E, CL Delta E (𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 ) is
DCL by D Delta E, keeping Alpha constant. Because these are partial derivative okay. If I want to
generate CL Alpha in a tunnel, how do I do? I go inside a tunnel, I put mount the model inside the
tunnel, and this is the velocity vector, so I can always put this at different orientation, and find out
what is the lift and I know what is the angle of attack.
So I can find out CL Alpha similarly if I want to find CL Delta E then I will not change Alpha at
all. What I will do? I will take this model I will keep this axis, and then I will give deflection some
Delta E different deflection, and I will measure what is the lift force is coming and that additional
lift.
Force at Alpha = 0 is attributed to Delta E, so from there I find out what is CL Delta E right. So
also note one thing here when I am writing like this, we are assuming that the airplane is at there
no pitching motion the airplane is at equilibrium. All are called all these modeling is done, where
no such pitching motion or oscillatory motions are there, It is at an Alpha particular Delta E
elevator deflection. What is the CL it will see okay. For example when I actually deflect
an elevator.
The airplane will take some time some oscillation and then go to this steady state condition type,
fixed Alpha and fixed Delta E. So we are only analyzing that final point we are not talking about
the transient, A transient we talk in terms of dynamic stability okay, So these are typically like
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static performance type okay. So now let us have a closer look what is this CL Delta E, we are
very smart now we know what is CL Alpha.
We know what is CL0 so let us try to understand what is CL Delta E, How can I calculate CL
Delta E? I repeat here that all these formulation what we are doing, you try to understand it but
however the clarity you will become master, when you solve some numerical, you will find oh my
god you are so straight forward thing right. So have patience and try to follow whatever I am
telling.
We are trying to see what is CL Delta E, see because of Delta E deflection, what is the Delta lift
on tail that is = half row V square at tail S tail into CL tail because of Delta E.
𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 ; 𝛿𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
1
Δ𝐿𝑡 = ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝑡
2 𝑡
We are talking about Delta E deflection right. So, what is Delta L? That will be Delta L lift by half
row V square S free stream right because this lift is proportional to the ST, horizontal tail area. But
when I non-dimensionalize, I do it not on limit free stream but also reference area, which is general
wing area correct. So if I do that again I get half row V square at tail, that is dynamic pressure at
tail half row V square free stream into St by S, S is from airplane.
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1
Δ𝐿𝑡 (2 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑡 𝑆𝑡
𝑡
Δ𝐿 = = ( ) 𝐶𝐿𝑡 = 𝜂 𝐶𝐿𝑡
1 2 1 𝑆 𝑆
(2 𝜌𝑉 2 )
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 𝑓𝑠
It is the wing area so this I can write as eta ST by S, CL tail, What is this CLtail? CL tail is change
in the lift CL, lift coefficient CL tail because of elevator deflection, How can CL change? CL
change if by giving elevator deflection, you are changing the angle of attack at the tail. See one
way to visualize this if it is symmetric like this the zero-lift line is here.
That is at Alpha = 0 lift is 0 the moment, I deflect it by Delta E I am actually introducing a

cambered, so I can say my 0 lift line has some angle right. So, actually I can say the Alpha at the
tail is somehow changed because of elevator deflection right or aero-dynamist will say the
circulation around that horizontal tail has changed so; there will be change in the lift okay. So this
I can again write Delta L = Eta St by S and DCL T by D Delta E into Delta E.
𝑆𝑡 𝜕𝐶𝐿𝑡
Δ𝐿 = 𝜂 𝛿
𝑆 𝜕𝛿𝑒 𝑒
What is the meaning of this? As I was explaining this CLT is because of change in Delta E. So I
want to know how much CL tail changes with Delta E, if I know this gradient I multiply with
Delta E to get CLT, so I have written Delta L like that.
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Now, let us carefully see D CLT by D Delta E could be written as DCLT by D Alpha T into D
Alpha T by D Delta E. Do you see now what is happening, what is DCLT by D Alpha T what is
this? DCL by D Alpha of tail this is CL Alpha tail and this D Alpha T by D Delta E, physically
what does it imply it implies power unit change in elevator deflection, how much Alpha tail
effectively is being changed, because that causes the additional lift.
𝜕𝐶𝐿𝑡 𝜕𝐶𝐿𝑡 𝜕𝛼𝑡
= ( ) ; 𝜏 (𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑝 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)
𝜕𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝛼𝑡 ⏟𝜕𝛿𝑒
⏟
𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝜏
𝑡
And this is a parameter tau so, I can write this as DCLT by D Delta E, and CL Alpha T into tau.
And this tau I can in text book you see this tau (𝜏) is called flap, effectiveness, parameter, and
typically this you can get through some empirical graph, if you see most of text book will give you
this variation is something goes like this.
And this is typically 0.8, and somewhere around here it is 0.5 and what is this? SE by ST. I will
explain you what is SE by ST. And this is tau. Is this diagram clear to you? Typical variation so
you can see Nelson book you will find out this graph this could be point four, so typically you are
finding that tau value also will be for this sort of point four of SE by ST the value might be around
point five point six at typical numbers right.
And these are easily you can find it out by using this graph, we want to know about SE by ST,
where SE will be the elevated area, typically it is from the hinge line or even for all approximation
is the elevator area you take okay. This is an horizontal tail area ST the complete of this. Typically
SE is taken from the hinge line but for all these studies we take SE is the elevated area only, let’s
forget about hinge line I don't to confuse you because there are no floating tendencies.
We have not discussed any floating tendencies. So let’s convert SE is the elevated area and ST is
the tail area correct, if we know this ratio by using this graph we can find tau typical value of tau
will be around 0.4 to 0.5, so tau will be around 0.5 to 0.5 okay. So what is interestingly we have
understood that DCLT by D Delta E can be computed through the geometry of the tail.
𝑆𝑒 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
=
𝑆𝑡 𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
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Geometry will tell you what is CL Alpha tail depending upon the air foil, tau will tell you what is
the ratio of SE by ST that is what you should appreciate okay.
So again going back to Delta CL, Delta CL was given as ST by S eta into CLT, which is typically
is Delta CLT, If I am more appropriate and more correct. In the last equation, I might have written
CLT but you understand that, this is a change in additional CL you are getting because of Delta E
okay. So, this I can write now as ST by S eta for this which is here, it will come as CL Alpha T
into tau into Delta E. Let me repeat this, this Delta CLT is what? This Delta CLT which
is incremental lift because of Delta E will be DCLT by D Delta E into Delta E.
𝑆𝑡
Δ𝐶𝐿 = 𝜂(Δ𝐶𝐿𝑡 )
𝑆
𝑆𝑡
Δ𝐶𝐿 = 𝜂𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝜏𝛿𝑒
𝑆
What is DCLT by D Delta E? It is nothing but CL Alpha tail into tau, so I have put them here to
get Delta CL equals to this clear okay. So now from this I can write CL Delta E is equal to ST by
S Eta CL Alpha tail into tau. this divided by Delta E, so you will get this expression, So now you
know how to calculate CL Delta E. Once the geometry of the tail is given, your tail area you know,
wing reference area you know eta you know CL Alpha tail you know and tau also you know.
𝑆𝑡
𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 = 𝜂𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝜏
𝑆
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eta will be typically 1.0 around 1.0 for this case, we can take it as one also. Eta you know as usual,
it is more than one if some jet is exhausted blown into the tail or sometime it will be less than one
but typically it is values around 1.9 to 1.05 something like that okay. This is clear you know what
is CL Delta E okay. So what is the meaning of CL Delta E? What is the change in the CL because
of elevator deflection Delta E.
𝜂≈1
What is the sign of this? you see CL Delta E, if I want to know the sign, I know if I I’m putting
the Delta if positive is like this, Delta is positive, so what type of lift it is giving, it is giving lift
upwards CL positive, so CL Delta is actually greater than zero sign of CL Delta is positive okay
clear.
Let's do now what is CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ), Again you see If this the CG of the airplane and here
this is the tail and elevator is deflected like this, this is giving CL, additional CL which will give a
pitching moment nose down so this positive Delta CL because of positive Delta E will give what
type of moment positive or negative. How do I check it, what is the sign of the pitching moment?
Nose down is negative nose up is positive.
So this is giving what type of moment about CG nose down so whatever moment is coming Delta
CM because of Delta CL right, it is giving negative pitching moment okay. This clear as far as
sign conversion is concerned, so let us find out what is Delta CM by Delta delta E (Δ𝛿𝑒 ) that is
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per unit change in elevator deflection, how much pitching moment is being generated. Remember
why that is important?
Because we have seen, if I go back to CM versus. CL, if I was flying here if you want to fly here,
then it equivalent saying that I need to generate this much of Delta CM. Who generates this Delta
CM? It is through the elevator, what is the mechanism? Elevator if you deflected down it give
Delta CL, then it gives pitching moment, In this case its negative if you want to increase to positive,
then you have to do other way like here.
I want to increasing CM right, so I have to ensure that elevator is up so that this force is down and
that gives you nose up pitching moment okay. But in the nutshell this Delta CM is caused because
of Delta E which gives Delta CL from CL, I get Delta CM, So let us see the expression for a CM
Delta E, which is Delta CM by Delta E, So we are looking at for an expression for CM Delta E,
CM Delta E we have already finished the expression for CL Delta E is done.
We now understand you also understand your sign is positive. We are now looking for CM Delta
E. Who will cause CM? It comes through elevator deflection, elevator deflection give CL and CL
is the force and moment about CG will give CM that will be cool in saying CM per unit Delta E.
So, I want to now formulate for Delta CM. I know CL Delta is Eta ST by S CL Alpha tail into tau.
𝑆𝑡
𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 = 𝜂𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝜏
𝑆
So Delta CM because of this CL Delta E which is coming because elevator deflection that will be
ST by S Eta will be here, so CL Alpha T with tau into Delta E because this CL Delta E So what is
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the CL because of Delta E, CL Delta E into Delta E, so this portion is CL Delta E into Delta E, so
this is the CL okay. Now it will give a moment, so let me write this Delta CL because of elevator
deflection.
So moment means it has needs to multiplied with moment arm LT, What is the LT? We know if
this if this the CG and if this is a tail, horizontal tail. If this the AC so this distance is LT it is called
tail moment arm okay for horizontal tail. So if I write like this do you think I am correct or
something I am missing? When I am writing Delta CM please understand I need to write a non-
dimensional, so this is non-dimensional with C bar okay.
𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡
Δ𝐶𝑚 = − 𝜂 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝜏𝛿𝑒
⏟𝑆 𝑐̅
Δ𝐶𝐿
This should be very very careful about it, because I am talking about non-dimensional Delta CM
is LT by C bar, but still this is not correct there is something wrong in this. What is wrong in this
could you see remember, even though when in writing moment and all, we are also bothered about
the sign.
Please see here if Delta E is positive is like this, what sort of force it will generate, This is the
elevator, Delta E is positive by convention, so that will give force in this direction Delta CL as a
non- dimensional quantity that will give what time of moment it will give nose down pitching
moment, So I have to put minus sign here clear, just to take care of the sign convention, So now
if you see Delta CM is equal to - Eta into ST by S into LT by C into CL Alpha T into Tau into
Delta E.
So CM Delta E which is Delta CM per unit Delta E, if things are linear so I can easily use this is
equal to - Eta ST by S LT by C CL Alpha T into TAU, which I can write as - Eta VH into CL
Alpha tail into tau. This is CM Delta E. What is VH? By we know VH is tail volume ratio right,
VH is tail volume ratio ST LT by S C bar. Do you see what’s interesting here? The interesting here
is if I want to increase the control power this is also called for information elevator control power
okay.
Δ𝐶𝑚 𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡
𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 = ⇒ −𝜂 𝐶 𝜏
𝛿𝑒 𝑆 𝑐̅ 𝐿𝛼𝑡
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𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡
𝐶⏟
𝑚𝛿𝑒 = −𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝜏 ; 𝑉𝐻 =
𝑆𝑐̅
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
You can, very obvious because if CM Delta e is strong it will give a large moment for a smaller
elevator deflection and you can easily pull up or pitch up or pitch down the airplane. But if you
see here I can increase CM Delta E by increasing the VH value that is tail volume ratio meaning
there by if I want to increase CM Delta E then I have option like I increase tail area I increase tail
moment arm on I increase both of them or in a combination.
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So this tail volume ratio is extremely important parameter which is evolving through our
discussion and that’s why I told you If VH, I can take initial value, you will decide from 0.5 to 1.0
given but you are clear if you have taken one point zero the CM can take value to very high. So
we have now understood what is CL Delta E what is CM Delta e and it goes without saying from
the expression and from the understanding you are very well clear the sign of CM Delta E is
negative right.
𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 < 0
𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 > 0
Physically also you know, If I deflect the elevator down which is positive and CG is here it produce
a lift like this which give me the a nose down nose down moment which is negative so sign of CM
Delta E is less than 0 and sign of CL Delta E we have already check it is greater than 0 okay.
Typical value of CM Delta E for light weight aircraft will be from – 0.8 to -1.5, CL Delta E could
be 0.5 to 0.7 around all this type of range you will get it right.
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 10
Longitudinal Control Continued
To revise before I start what we are telling.

Suppose this is my CM versus CL I am flying here this 1 and to fly at 2 I want to know, how much
elevator I should deflect so that, I can again trim at CL 2. So relationship between Delta E required
sometime we say Delta E trim and CL trim is what is a control problem for this flight mechanics
what we are discussing, how do I formulate it?
Let us see, you know CL should be equal to CL Alpha into Alpha plus CL Delta E into Delta E.
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For simplicity I have put CL0 is equal to 0 you can introduce CL0 here and do the derivation, and
most likely I will be giving you that in assignment. Then CM will be CM0 plus CM Alpha into
Alpha plus CM Delta E into Delta E we are clear? Because here we have seen CL is function of
Alpha and Delta E, we are not talking about any dynamic condition so, since CM has come because
of CL CM also will be function of Alpha and Delta E, so CL have expanded in the linear way.
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝛼 + 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝛼 + 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
𝐶𝑚 = 𝑓(𝛼, 𝛿𝑒 )
CL Alpha into Alpha plus CL Delta E into Delta E, similarly I can that CM Alpha into Alpha CM
Delta into Delta E, but CM0 we cannot neglect because CM 0 is very stringent condition to ensure
that airplane has positive angle of attack trim, that is CM0 should be greater than zero. Now think
once it has come to an equilibrium, what will be the value of CM at trim what happens at trim CM
will be equal to 0 right? And the CL will be equal to CL trim, whatever I am looking for maybe I
am looking for this.
So, that time CL equal to CL trim at 2 and CM has to be 0 otherwise it will not be trim, if I now
do this introduce these things here what happens? let us see that if I introduce this then I get.
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CL trim equal to CL Alpha into now Alpha becomes Alpha trim, CL Delta E into Delta E let’s say
trim what I am using which I physically mean that it is a Delta E required what will happens to
this equation, since it is at trim so CM has to be 0. So 0 equals to CM 0 plus CM Alpha into Alpha
trim plus CM Delta E into Delta E trim, what is our aim let’s not get lost in all those equations.
What is our aim? We want to find out what is the relationship between Delta E trim and CL trim
so, that I can often know if I want to trim at this particular CL trim what is the Delta E trim, or
Delta E required right? so to do this Algebraic adjustments.
What we will do is I will write the step I can write Alpha trim is = CL trim - CL Delta E into Delta
E trim, divided by CL Alpha isn’t it from this equation I can write this Alpha trim = CL trim - CL
Delta into Delta E trim divided by CL Alpha, so this Alpha trim expression I will be plug in into
this equation, that is CM0 + CM Alpha into Alpha trim instead of Alpha trim I will put this
expression, CM Delta E into Delta E trim.
𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 + 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 (𝛿𝑒 )𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
0 = 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 + 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 (𝛿𝑒 )𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
[𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 − 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ]

𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 =
𝐶𝐿𝛼
Now, you could see that Alpha trim is vanished Delta E trim and CL trim will remain in this so if
you do this, manipulation I leave it to you to derive this small relationship, I repeat again I will be
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putting Alpha trim here in this expression, and then try to find out relationship between Delta E
trim and CL trim, so that eliminating Alpha trim from using these two equations, and then you get
some term like which I am sure you will be able to do it, write the final expression.
And that will be Delta E = - CM0 by CM Delta E - CM Alpha by CM Delta E into CL Alpha - CM
Alpha into CL Delta E into CL trim let me check, - CM0 by CM Delta E - CM Alpha by CM so I
can write this Delta E = Delta E0 + D Delta E by DCL trim into CL trim where, D Delta E by DCL
trim is nothing, but - CM Alpha by CM Delta E CL Alpha - CM Alpha CL Delta E right. What I
have done, this whole what is Delta E0 from this expression very simple CM0 by CM Delta E.
So I have put a neat diagram neat I have developed or I am presenting a neat expression, where
Delta = Delta E0 +D delta E by DCL trim into CL trim what is the meaning of this? This I called
again trim, because this is required if I know Delta E0 value how do I know. I need to know CM0
which I know and I know CM Delta E I know so I know Delta E 0 I need to know D Delta E by
DCL trim so CM Alpha I know airplane CM Delta E I know CL Alpha I know, CL Delta E I
know, so this term also I know okay.
−𝐶𝑚0 𝐶𝑚𝛼
𝛿𝑒 = −( )𝐶
𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝐿𝛼 − 𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
𝑑𝛿𝑒
𝛿𝑒 |𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 = 𝛿𝑒0 + 𝐶
𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
135
−𝐶𝑚0 𝑑𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝑚𝛼
𝛿𝑒0 = ; = −( )
𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝐿𝛼 − 𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒
So whatever CL trim I want I put it here this numbers are fixed for low speed. So I can get what is
the Delta E trim required is this clear? that was our purpose, I want to know what for a given CL
trim how much Delta E I should deflect, or it is again if I take you back to that discussion I flying
here if you want to fly here this will give a negative pitching moment, so I need to generate a
positive pitching moment by putting the elevator up, how much elevator up?
That will be decided by what is the CL trim here, and what are these values so I know how much
elevator up I have to do as simple as that okay. So that is why we say this is controlled solution
for elevator and we call elevator control okay. Now we will go little more insight into it, so that
we get little better insight of what are we doing, we will do some approximation.
We will now go little bit of discussion for this term what is this? D Delta E by DCL trim, this is
given by - CM Alpha by CM Delta E CL Alpha - CM Alpha into CL Delta E. Typically you know
CL Alpha value will be around 5 between 5 and 6, CM Delta E will be around 1 CM Alpha would
be around -1, this is also - 1 CL Delta E is little less point 5 point 7, so I can do a simple
approximation for this specific purpose I say this gentleman right. This term is less compared to
the first term, so I can write D Delta E by DCL trim approximately equal to - CM Alpha by CM
Delta E into CL Alpha.
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𝑑𝛿𝑒 −𝐶𝑚𝛼
= ; 𝐶 𝐶 < 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝐿𝛼 , 𝑠𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒
𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝐿𝛼 − 𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 𝑚𝛼 𝐿𝛿𝑒
≅
𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝐿𝛼
So what does it tell you so, what we are getting an expression is, D Delta E by DCL trim is equal
to - CM Alpha by CL Alpha into CM Delta E, now could you see CM Alpha by CL Alpha is what?
CM Alpha by CL Alpha is DCM by D Alpha divided by DCL by D Alpha, if everything is linear
it is DCM by DCL.
So, I can write here this is equal to - DCM by DCL by CM Delta E, this is D Delta E by DCL trim
how do I add value, to this from designers perspective, see here 1 thing I know that is CM Delta
is very high very large, this value will go down in absolute sense what DCM by DCL, remember
which I have derived DCM by DCL as minus static margin right.
≅
𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝐿𝛼
𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝑑𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑆𝑀
=− =−
𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
Which is nothing but - XNP fixed neutral point neutral point fixed - XCG bar so divided by CM
Delta E okay. So now you could see that, if static margin is high then D Delta E by DCL trim will
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be what? If XNP and XCG are coincident then, D Delta by DCL trim will become 0, it is neutral
stability point, but if this stability margin is large and large D Delta E by DCL trim.
𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝑑𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑆𝑀 (𝑋̅𝑁𝑃 − 𝑋̅𝐶𝐺 )
=− =− =−
𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
Also will increase that when you need larger Delta E to change the same CL trim from one point
to another point. The gradient will be too high, the pilot will have a lot of difficulty to trim from 1
aircraft trim to another aircraft trim so, and this gives you the connection the handling qualities for
the pilot through static margin okay.
This is one understanding. Second one once, I write Delta E is equal to Delta E 0 + D Delta E by
DCL trim into CL trim. I am knowing that for CL trim for this CL trim, this Delta E required for
this CL trim this Delta E required like this you know, so pilot will develop a feel from the Delta
E, how much Delta he required to give for the CL trim or he thinks in terms of he gets the feel in
terms of speed, so your giving Delta E and speed that's sort of mapping you’re doing for a pilot
okay.
This is the one way of developing a feel for the pilot but that’s not a very good way of developing
a feel, that is why the reversible control the aircraft, we tried to give the feel through the stick
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force, that is where some little it will talk about stick free stability just I stop here, but please
remember you can give a pilot feel through Delta E CL trim or V trim combination, that if you are
add this speed put that much of Delta E, so it develops a feel okay.
However, another way of giving a field for reversible control is that give through the stick force
gradient or through the stick force right, which we will be talking sometime later. So after doing
all this thing what is our learning so many expressions we have written so, what is the learning?
Let us just summarize in few minutes as I have been telling you once for all you should do this
derivation, the very straight forward derivation however.
You should understand what is their real importance and in terms of designer how you are going
to use it. Let us say this a cruise flight okay what CL will be flying at a cruise? say if you say I
want to cruise for thrust required minimum that means you know that I have to fly such that CL
equal to CD0 by K right. This already knows in performance so, there is a particular CL okay.
𝐶𝐷0
𝑇𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 ; 𝐶𝐿 = √
𝐾
Suppose you were flying the machine at some CL which was not for thrust required minimum,
now you will find for thrust required minimum I have to fly at a CL here let's say. Something at
higher speed but CL is given by CD0 by K okay, so immediately you see that this relationship
between Delta E is equal to Delta E 0 + D Delta E by DCL trim and into CL trim will tell you if I
now want to fly at this CL trim how much Delta E required?
𝑑𝛿𝑒
𝛿𝑒 = 𝛿𝑒0 + 𝐶
That comes from here okay; similarly if you want to go for a climb you need a particular CL so
how much Delta E to have that CL, again this expression will tell you clear. So that is the
importance of this term okay, I will be solving problem based on this which will make things much
clear to you; but as I have told you that I will have a mann ki baat session where we will be taking
up some problems also.
So that your understanding is not only cleared, it is crystal clear okay. We have been talking about
stability and control of an airplane and by now you must be tired we have written so many
139
expressions in my opinion at this juncture, we should try to solve some problem, which are directly
relevant to a designing of an airplane. Once we solve those problems you will get better feel for
this whatever expression we have written whatever equations.
We have derived so what will be my approach is we will start from the beginning what we have
been talking about, and at an appropriate time we will try to solve a numerical right, like this we
will create a work space for you where you can yourself work for a problem and you know how to
apply whatever we have been talking so far in a real design scenario okay so. We’ll go little slow.
Because I could understand that writing so many expression black board, and some time you will
forget that we are talking about an airplane many times I used to get a feel that I am doing a some
sort of a mathematical or numerical course, where I need to know how to differentiate how to find
maxima how to find minima, So it’s right time we should come back and try to see what we have
done, and how can you use this for a real air craft. Let us go back what is our primary aim our aim
is to design an airplane.
We should have takeoff climb, so it take off then climb, cruise may be loiter, landing and there
could be maneuver right as well right. Let us see here when I try to climb what is happening? If I
again go back little bit if this is the airplane okay, and it is going like this is you know by now this
is flight path angle.
140
And if I am talking about the steady climb then I know that, if this is a CL this is CD this is the
weight and somewhere there will be thrust, what I know for a steady climb, steady climb and
unaccelerated climb that is it will follow rectilinear motion the center of gravity will follow this
flight velocity, assuming that angle of an attack is very small. Most important thing center of
gravity will follow the rectilinear path and that is possible only when you could see that if this is
CL.
I mean it has a lift I can multiply by similarly for drag, we can write drag which is half row v
square into CD so for a completion I write drag is equal to half row V square is CD and lift is equal
to half row V square SCL. Coming back to the steady climb when this airplane is going to be like
this, what is expected what I should maintain I should maintain that, if I write it here L for your
otherwise you will get confused ,see L should be able to balance W COS gamma right.
1 2 1
𝐷=𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶𝐷 ; 𝐿 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿
2 2
So L should be equal to W COS gamma, what does it tell you? If I now switch over from climb to
cruise in cruise I know L should be equal to half row V square SCL and that should be equal to W,
what is the difference in climb and in cruise, from trimming the airplane point of view what is the
difference you know that from here if I say CL, CL will be W COS gamma by half row V square
S and here CL will be equal to W by half row V square S. So, which CL is more definitely COS
gamma is a positive number.
𝐿 = 𝑊 cos 𝛾 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏)
1 2
𝐿= 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 𝑊 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒)
2
𝑊 cos 𝛾 𝑊
𝐶𝐿 = (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏) ; 𝐶𝐿 = (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒)
1 2 1 2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆
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If it is climbing so this CL climb is less than CL cruise what is the implication of this? In a
performance we have seen it means the induce drag CDI which is KCL square that means induce
drag CDI for a climb is less than CDI for a cruise, that is a drag coefficient okay. CDI for a climb
is less than CDI for a cruise this is from my performance prospective no issue right.
𝐶𝐿𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 < 𝐶𝐿𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝐶𝐷𝑖 = 𝐾𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷𝑖 |𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 < 𝐶𝐷𝑖 |𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 (𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)
But from stability and control point of view what does it mean? From stability point of view you
could see that the CL required to trim a climb is less than the CL required to climb at cruise, what
is the implication in terms of control let us understand this.
142
Then we take you back to this graph CM versus CL or Alpha whatever you are comfortable, and
this is the CL and this is the trim point right or the equilibrium point trim so for a climb it is CL I
say C (𝐶𝐿𝑐 ) this is for climb and for cruise I right CLCR (𝐶𝐿𝐶𝑅 ).
So, if I am trimming the airplane for a cruise and if this is the point CL cruise then for climb I have
to have a CL which should be less than CL cruise is it clear? Because CL climb if I write CL C is
nothing but W by half of V square S into COS gamma, and we have seen CL C is less than CL
cruise. So if I am trying to climb at CLC you could see that if I want to trim the airplane, this is the
CM vs CL graph.
If I try to trim the airplane at CL cruise graph it will automatically generate a positive pitching
movement because this is statistically stable, but we want to trim the airplane here that is I want
this graph to look like this what I have to do I have to nullify this positive moment so, how can I
nullify this positive moment? We know it can be done through elevator this is the elevator, now
how the much elevator to be deflected that will depend upon.
How much positive moment has to be nullified by generating a negative moment. So how do you
put this negative moment using elevator if this is the tail plane what you have to do negative
moment means you have to put the elevator down, as you put the elevator down, there is additional
Delta CL and which will about a CG will give you negative movement, so this Delta E whatever
143
you have deflected should be sufficient enough to generate a negative moment who’s is magnitude
will be equal to this much of positive movement.
So that is the controlled problem okay. This is clear now the question is how do I know what is
that elevator required? And we know that for that we have a devised a relationship which is Delta
E 0 plus D Delta E by DCL into CL trim.
𝑑𝛿𝑒
So if I want to know what is the Delta E required for climb I should replace so I write Delta E
during climb will be equal to Delta E0 plus D plus Delta E by DCL into CL climb CLC.
𝑑𝛿𝑒
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝐿𝐶
If I want to know how much Delta E is required for a cruise so, I will right Delta E is required for
cruise Delta will be equal to Delta E 0 + D Delta E by DCL into CL cruise that will tell you know
how much Delta E is required. This part is cleared okay. Now next question may come on what is
Delta E 0 and what is Delta D by Delta CL and we have also elaborately explain that and just for
revision because, we will be solving problems soon we need to recapitulate whatever we have done
before we ensure that we are lost into equations.
144
So you know Delta E is equal to Delta E0 plus D Delta E by DCL into CL trim and Delta E0 was
approximately shown to the - CM 0 by CM Delta E and D Delta E by DCL was - DCM by DCL
by CM Delta E. I am putting an approximation because we have neglected few terms okay. So
what is the message for an airplane Delta E 0 is known because airplane will have a fixed CM0
and CM Delta E, if it is low speed airplane.
𝑑𝛿𝑒
−𝐶𝑚0
𝛿𝑒0 ≅
𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝑑𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿
=−
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
If it is a high speed airplane this value may change with incorporating MACH number effect.
Similarly, D Delta by DCL how do I know this is DCM by DCL okay. DCM by DCL is what? It
has a direct relationship with static margin what is static margin? It is the distance between neutral
point and CG you remember DCM by DCL approximately I can write as XCG - XN stick fixed,
and this is stick fixed. Why are we talking about stick fixed because it tells you absolute value of
Delta E required right okay.
𝜕𝐶𝑚
| ≅ 𝑋̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑋̅𝑁 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑
145
So DCM by DCL is known for a given configuration XCG will be known, and neutral point also
will be known so this is known CM Delta E and CM0 also known, so I actually know these
numbers this number, this number, these are known to us and we have to just plug in the CL cruise
or CL whatever trim you are using right.
So once this part is clear I as a student would like to know CM0 as revision and what is CM Delta
E, before I really become champion of using this expression so, what I will do? We will now go
back what is CM0, what do you understand by CM0 and what is the meaning of CM Delta E in a
little exhaustive manner, because that will help us in solving problems. Please remember whatever
so far I am discussing here I am not talking about a maneuvering flight okay, correct.
For a maneuvering flight, we have seen that you have to put additional elevator deflection which
will be again revisiting when we solving the problem, but at this point for this whatever I am
discussing we are not talking about any maneuvering flight okay?
146
Now, Let us see what this CM0 and what is CM Delta E, and allow me to put something like CL
Delta E what are these parameters or what are these aerodynamic derivatives. For example what
is the meaning of CM Delta E.
Let us understand this is DCM by D Delta E partial derivative what does it mean? How do I
physically generate feel for this you know at equilibrium I am talking about steady state, let’s say
the airplane at equilibrium, cruise right. And you know that lift force will be function of Alpha and
the Delta E because, otherwise lift also function of how did you pitch rate right. how the rate of
change angle of attack is changing.
But we are considering a case where its in equilibrium it is just like, having some Alpha E and
some Delta E some Alpha and Delta E Alpha is angle of attack so that is how we write CL also
the function of Alpha and Delta E, so CL we wrote as CL0 + CL Alpha into Alpha + CL Delta E
into Delta E, we are exploiting the fact that CL is linear function of Alpha and Delta E so that, we
can write it like this. So here also if I ask you, another question what is CL Alpha.
𝐿 = 𝑓(𝛼, 𝛿𝑒 )
CL Alpha is DCL by D Alpha is the partial derivative, what does it mean it means what is the
change in CL for unit change in Alpha keeping other things constant right. That is important okay.
147
Delta E also constant other thing is speed etcetera is constant so that is the meaning of CL Alpha
or the partial derivative now similarly what the meaning of CM Delta E?
Let us understand that again this is partial derivatives DCM by D Delta E okay. What is the physics
behind this let’s say this is the wing this is the tail okay and here is the CG of the airplane now if
I give a Delta E deflection as you recall as for the convention Delta E is positive down sorry as per
convention, Delta E is positive down and Delta E negative up that is, if I am putting the elevator
up like this is negative Delta E and if I putting it down like this.
And this is positive Delta E this is a matter of convention, okay. So know in order to understand
what is CM Delta E which is a partial derivative and by definition you understand, the change in
the CM that is the pitching moment coefficient per unit elevator deflection, so we give first a
positive elevator deflection let’s say this is Delta E, so what will happen? It will generate additional
lift Delta CL.
So that will give a moment about CG and that can be non-dimensionalize and we can get the value
of CM Delta E, but one thing is clear at this point for a positive Delta E the moment will be
negative. So sign of CM Delta E is negative okay. And this is also called if you recall called
elevator control power. Naturally if CM Delta is strong so it will have a very command over
pitching the airplane giving nose down or nose up moment.
148
So it is a control power and it is called elevator control power because this moment is generated
by elevator okay. So that is the physical meaning of CM Delta E. So CL Delta E also very clear
from here that, how much change in CL because of elevator deflection right. So these are the two
terms we should know before we try to solve a problem.
So next will try to know what is CM0 what is CM0? this is CM0 when I write it means CM0 of
the aircraft, total aircraft what is happening you see what is in our mind when you talk about CM
0 we have seen if this is CM versus CL, and this is CL or Alpha whatever suits you so this part is
CM0 right. Let’s for simplicity I assume everything symmetric so let’s simply put it versus Alpha
right so what is CM0 then? CM0 is CM at Alpha equal to 0.
𝐶𝑚0 = 𝐶𝑚 |𝑎𝑡 𝛼=0
So this CM0 contribution should come from , it could come from wing it could come from fuselage
it could come from tail there could be other auxiliary surfaces also, but we will be mostly talking
about wing contribution and tail contribution, and assume that fuselage contribution to CM0 is
negligible.
Or, there are empirical way to find out which we’ll be doing showing you when you solve some
numerical problem what is the message here why do I want CM0 positive? we want CM0 positive
because, I want to trim the airplane at positive angle of attack. If CM0 was negative I still can have
a trim here, as well as statically stable but, this is at trim at negative angle of attack. So I do not
149
want to do that I want to have at positive angle of attack so that is why we need CM0 but then
CM0.
I should generate automatically from the aircraft by adding up the contribution of wing fuselage
and tail right? So what is the contribution of wing? We have already done we just write an
expression, to give you better inside into it.
CM0 of aircraft is nothing but CM0 due to wing + CM0 due to fuselage + CM0 due to tail right.
We have already done this and we derived expression CM0 due to wing. I can write it as CMAC
wing + X bar into CL 0, similarly CM0 tail I can write as CL Alpha tail into VH eta t into IW - IT
+ Epsilon 0. We have already seen those derivation and we are saying CM0 fuselage we are
neglecting now or we can put some value called CM0 FS right which we do not know at this stage
how to compute but we will solve, solve some numericals to tell you how we can compute that,
let us come back to very important here.
𝐶𝑚0,𝑤 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐,𝑤 + 𝑥̅ 𝐶𝐿0
𝐶𝑚0,𝑡 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝑡 {𝑖𝑤 − 𝑖𝑡 + 𝜖0 }
𝐶𝑚0,𝑓𝑠 = 0
150
What is CMAC wing? so we have seen CM0 wing is CMAC wing + X bar into CL0, let us
understand each term here, please do not forget what is our aim?
Our aim is to ensure that CM versus Alpha or CL graph, if its Alpha this is CM0 I need to have
this CM0 desired, for example if I need CM0 equal to 0.02 then, CM 0 because of wing because
of fuselage because of tail so totally give me the value 0.02 okay that is important. So know what
we are seeing what is CMAC wing? Because we are trying to find out what is the contribution of
wing towards CM0 of the whole aircraft right
151
So now you know that we are very clear now that, for a cambered aerofoil CMAC wing less than
zero which is negative typically – 0.01 to – 0.1. We will find numbers like this, let us see what are
these CMAC wing and X bar CL0 let us draw a wing, and let’s say this is XAC wing bar and let’s
say CG is here, CG of the whole aircraft, please understand so I give this a nomenclature XCG
aircraft. This is for the aircraft do not forget this people it creates confusion within themselves.
So now we know that this cambered aerofoil will have CMAC wing which is negative though by
sign conventional this is the conventional sign for positive sign. So what is happening CM0 wing
this is about CG actually right? That will be what you have to transfer CMAC wing here so it is
here and then at Alpha = 0 you could see that there will be a lift here, which is CL0 is a coefficient
part remember CL versus Alpha this is CL this is Alpha for a cambered aero foil at Alpha = 0 there
is a CL which is called CL0, this is CL0, so this CL0 also will give you a nose down moment about
CG, do you see this.
So, if I write X bar as XCG aircraft bar - XAC wing you could see that CM0 wing about CG is
CMAC wing + X bar CL0, and if AC of the wing is aft of CG of the airplane, so this contribution
also will give a negative pitching moment. So, total CM0 wing because of cambered aerofoil
because of AC of the wing is behind CG of the airplane this will contribute to negative value.
Thank you very much.
152
Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 11
Control: Elevator
Yeah, we have come out of the classroom so, if you recall last class we are discussing about
elevator control power okay? See this the horizontal tail all this surface and this is the elevator
which can go down and go up and we were talking about what is the elevator control power in that
we have started deriving the expression for CL Delta e and CM Delta E let us understand what is
CL Delta E what does it mean remember if elevator positive angle.
Is deflecting downward like this as if go downward you could see this, this takes a shape like this
and this almost is like as if it has changed the cambered of this symmetric aerofoil and because of
that there is additional lift and that lift will give a moment about CG that is the CM contribution,
because of this change in the cambered or because of change in the elevator deflection from here
to some positive value.
There is an additional lift and that additional lift per unit elevator deflection is called CL Delta E
and because of CL Delta E because of this force there will be momentum about CG in non-
dimensional form we call it CM Delta E so this is very important elevator control derivative both
CL Delta E , CM delta E and more specifically CM Delta E we call it a strong derivative depending
upon the value of CM Delta E, your Delta E required to trim the airplane will vary drastically for
a given static margin okay.
So this is what you should know appropriately you should create a image in your mind .how and
how to interpret CL Delta E and CM Delta E okay fine. I am repeating the same explanation using
sinus 912 motor glider concentrate here this is the typically T tail configuration and you could see
this is the horizontal tail from here to that side and this part is the elevator if I put it down what
happens is initially it was symmetric completely like this.
As I put it down it is like a it has zero cambered or we say the zero lift line has changed that means
if its symmetric zero lift line along the chord so if there Alpha = 0 there will not be any lift but
153
when I put elevator down I know even for Alpha = 0 there will be vertical force in non-dimensional
form we call it Delta CLT and why that is happening will happening because there is an elevator
deflection and in one way to explain it that zero lift line now has changed okay. But two ask, when
we talk about CL Delta E.
What we are looking for is how much Delta CL is increased because of elevator deflection and
that CL Delta E how much that will contribute towards moment of center of gravity is what is CM
Delta E okay. So, these two control derivatives are extremely important for longitudinal control
and we will again go back to the class room and revisit this derivation and try to know how to
calculate thing from the ab initio okay? Thank you.
In the last class we have been writing so many equations so many expressions and the black board
was full of expressions, which I personally never like the blackboard should be so dirty. So let’s
come back we will take out a neat part of it and try to understand it in a better way the most
important thing what we talked in when we are discussing control elevator control.
We write elevator control we talk about two derivatives CL Delta E and CM Delta E let us again
revisit and try to physically understand what are the CL Delta E and CM Delta E as per the
definition this means change in CL with whole airplane because of elevator deflection keeping
other thing constant and what is CM Delta E this is changing the pitching moment of the whole
airplane, per unique deflection of elevator keeping everything constant right.
154
Now let us see what is the mechanism, if this the horizontal tail which is symmetric and this is the
elevator and one way to understand is in flight mechanism we find, we define something called
zero lift line that is what is that line along which if the flow comes there will not be any lift obvious
since this is symmetric, if at Alpha = 0 flow comes so there will not be any lift produced right but
now see what happens if I give a deflection, it’s a positive elevator deflection.
Which we have agreed positive is down so Delta E positive, then one way of interpreting is as if
the zero lift line has changed okay because now at Alpha = 0 there will be a lift that will happens
because of elevator deflection and that additional lift will be only because of the elevator deflection
this one way to explain. We say zero lift line , this is 0 lift line is now at an angle another way of
explaining it has changed the cambered the deflection of elevator.
Has change the cambered of the aerofoil so you know for cambered aerofoil wing at Alpha = 0
there will be lift there so there will be a CL so, we now understand 1 thing the moment I give a
elevator deflection it will generate additional lift and now what is DCL by D Delta E it means what
is the net change in the CL of the airplane, because of Delta Delta E (𝜕𝛿𝑒 ) because of deflection
of the elevator Delta CL is CL of the whole airplane okay.
So, one thing we understand when I deflect the elevator then the CL of the whole airplane gets
modified because there is a additional CL coming from the tail, because wing CL remains same
so that additional CL coming because of Delta E deflection let us find it out okay. Let us now see
because of elevator deflection how much additional lift will come on the tail.
155
How much because of this deflection how much additional change will come on the tail in terms
of lift I denote it as Delta LT. We know by now we are expert we will write half V square dynamic
pressure at tail into S tail into CL tail okay.
This is the additional change in the lift because of elevator deflection okay. Now you want to find
out Delta L of the whole airplane so, I have to convert this with the same reference as the reference
area and dynamic pressure free stream we are using for defining for the whole airplane. So I will
Delta L to Delta CL when I want to do I have to divide this term by so this implies Delta CL = half
row V square tail S tail CL tail divided by half row V square free stream into S reference okay.
1
(2 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝑡 𝑆𝑡
𝑡
Δ𝐶𝐿 = =𝜂 𝐶
1
(2 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆 𝑆 𝐿𝑡
So, now this I can easily write as eta ST by S reference into CLT so what I am getting I got a
expression Delta CL is equal to eta ST by S into CLT let us again revisit here what is a Delta CL
it is change in the CL of the whole airplane because of what because there is some change in the
elevator deflection right. What is this S? S is the wing area which is the reference area for the
airplane right. Once I know this, look this Delta CL is eta St/S into CLt but do not forget this CLt
is additional because of Delta E deflection, right?
156
So, appropriately if I write I should write Delta CL change in the CL of the whole airplane is Neeta
into ST by S and the CLT I should know that this is to be very precise, I will also use Delta CLT
is here so these are both the things are same only I can put it Delta also here to stress a point that
this is the change in the CL tail because of change in the elevator deflection okay? Additional thing
let us talk, so now what happens this I write eta ST by S and Delta CLT.
𝑆𝑡
Δ𝐶𝐿 = 𝜂 Δ𝐶
𝑆 𝐿𝑡
I write as DCLT by D Delta E into Delta E that is a Delta CL and to be more precise because it is
additional so I again put Delta here is it clear? What I have done eta St by S for Delta CLt because
of change in elevator deflection which I am saying Delta Delta E then I am writing DCLT by D
Delta E into Delta Delta E this gives what?
𝑆𝑡 𝜕𝐶𝐿𝑡
Δ𝐶𝐿 = 𝜂 Δ𝛿
𝑆 𝜕𝛿𝑒 𝑒
This tells me eta into St by S this I write differently I write DCLT by D Alpha T into D Alpha tail
by D Delta E into Delta Delta E what I have done I have just broken DCLt by D Delta E using
DCLT by D Alpha T D Alpha T by D Delta E, what is the physical meaning of this DCLt by D
Alpha T what is DCLt by D Alpha? Very simple this is CL Alpha tail right.
𝑆𝑡 𝜕𝐶𝐿𝑡 𝜕𝛼𝑡
Δ𝐶𝐿 = 𝜂 Δ𝛿
𝑆 𝜕𝛼𝑡 𝜕𝛿𝑒 𝑒
157
And now second term is D alpha T by D Delta E this is what? This is physically telling you when
I am deflecting the elevator deflection how much effectively the tail angle of attack is changing
isn’t it? And you know that if I try to understand from zero lift line concept as I deflect it Delta E
lift line also changes so, it all in the camber changes I can see the effective angle of attack has seen
whatever way you do right.
𝜕𝐶𝐿𝑡 𝜕𝛼𝑡
→ 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 , =𝜏
𝜕𝛼𝑡 𝜕𝛿𝑒
So, this is easily I can get this term let me give it the notation as tau which is called flap
effectiveness parameter which I have already explained and this can be easily computed by
empirical chart where tau is there which I have explained you which is Sc by St where Sc is the
elevator area elevator area S tail is total area this is ST okay. This you can easily find out and this
typical value is 0.4 - 0.5 I have told so now what happens?
From here I can write Delta CL aircraft is eta St by S then CL Alpha tail into tau, Delta Delta E so
Delta CL by Delta Delta E , DCL by D Delta E which is equal to eta St by S, Tau into CL Alpha
tail and that is nothing but CL Delta E so neat and clean now okay so what is this CL? This CL is
of the whole airplane okay.
𝑆𝑡
Δ𝐶𝐿 = 𝜂 𝐶 𝜏Δ𝛿𝑒
𝑆 𝐿𝛼𝑡
Δ𝐶𝐿 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑆𝑡
→ = 𝜂 𝜏𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 = 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒
Δ𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝛿𝑒 𝑆
158
This is very, very important and you should understand this and we know that we can easily
calculate this and by sign convention also you know if I put Delta E down if I put Delta E down
which is positive there is additional Delta CL here so CL Delta E is sign wise is greater than 0
clear. Okay, once CL Delta is clear we will now go to CM Delta E. Now we will talk about CM
Delta E.
Let us see this is a line and this is your tail and this is the elevator symmetric tail, lets say CG
somewhere here as I deflect it there is a Delta CL and that and this distance is LT tail moment arm
LT is tail moment arm so, as there is a Delta E deflection which is positive it will give a Delta CL
upward and about CG.
This will give the pitching moment downward nose down or its CM negative right? So that is why
this CM is because of this Delta E so this D Delta CM by Delta Delta E sign is less than 0 or we
write CM Delta E is less than 0 is one understanding. Now, what is the expression for CM Delta
E, it is very simple CM Delta E will be nothing but CL Delta E into the moment arm.
𝜕𝐶𝑚
< 0, 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 < 0
𝜕𝛿𝑒
Moment arm is LT but it has to be non-dimensionalized with chord LT by C and there is a - sign
why - sign because we know this is sign convention given by us for positive Delta there will be a
negative pitching moment, which I’ve already explain and this if I put the expression of CL Delta
159
E I find this is ST by S then LT by C ,tau into CL Alpha T and we have defined ST by S into LT
by C or C bar this is called tail volume ratio so this is - eta into VH into tau into CLAlpha T what
is important here to see, that if I want to increase, CM Delta E I have option like for a given lets
say aerofoil tail.
𝑙𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡
𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 = −𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 = −𝜂 𝜏𝐶 = −𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝜏𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡
𝑐̅ 𝑆 𝑐̅ 𝐿𝛼𝑡
I can increase the value of VH because it is St into Lt by S Cbar what I can do either I increase St
tail area or I increase Lt or I can increase them in combination so, that is why tail volume ratio
plays a important role not only in stability as you have seen but also for control.
Elevator control okay. So this is I thought I must revise this you should get lost into that expression,
equation etcetera you must finally understand what you are going to do we have also done another
thing in terms of control where we have derive the expression Delta E trim or required whatever
you write is Delta E 0 + D Delta E by DCL trim into CL trim.
𝑑𝛿𝑒
(𝛿𝑒 )𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 = 𝛿𝑒0 + 𝐶
And we have also seen that in D Delta E by DCL Trim = - DCM by DCL stick fixed by CM Delta
E in an approximate manner we have neglected few terms and this is nothing but - XCG - XN or
XN0 or XNP whatever notation you are using this the neutral point divided by CM Delta E right.
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𝜕𝐶𝑚
|
𝑑𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 (𝑋̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑋̅𝑁𝑃 )
=− =−
𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
You can write it as, XNP please check what notation I am using this is basically neutral point by
know you know neutral point is that XG location at which DCM by DCL will be 0 right. Now see
here if I suppose this is the airplane okay? Suppose CG was here I let say neutral point is here and
if I now start moving the CG backward let say, I ask the passenger go back side okay, If I do that
or may be heavier cargo I have shifting backward what will happen?
This XCG - N0 whatever term is there this gap will reduce right. And that will give a particular
value to D Delta E by DCL Trim and you could easily, see that if I go on reducing this separation
right then the D Delta E by DCL trim also will go down that is if they coincide this value become
0.
And you can see other way also if you see this DXCG minus this is the negative number right,
because statically stable to negative positive here this is also negative this whole value is negative.
Repeat this is negative this is negative and there is negative sign for this value is negative and what
I am saying If I now plot if I plot Delta E versus CL Trim what will be the slope of this line slope
is given by this and this we have seen that this sign will be negative because this is the neutral
point is aft of CG because statically stable.
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So this number is negative this number is negative and here it is negative sign sitting so slope will
be negative we will see that and what about Delta E 0.
Let us see so I understood that D Delta E by DCL Trim sign wise this is negative what about CM0,
CM 0 is positive and Delta E 0 is minus CM0 by CM Delta E so what happens this is positive this
negative sign is here CM Delta is negative so Delta E0 is greater than 0 correct.
So, we have seen Delta E 0 greater than 0 Delta E 0 greater than 0 and D Delta E by DCL trim is
less than 0. So, the graph will be something like this so, the slope is negative so Delta E 0 is positive
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Delta E 0 is somewhere here when it touches it here right. So let’s say this is for a particular XCG
location right? Now you are moving the CG backward so what will happen as CG goes backward
as you have seen if CG is coincides with neutral point this value become 0 this slope will become
0 as I am going towards neutral point.
This slope will go on reducing and at some CG locations this line will be XCG equal to XNP this
is neutral point where this line will be parallel to the X axis here and that is the point which is the
neutral point so one message you are getting as I am moving this CG backward and backward.
This slope is going to be flattened right. Now if that is the truth what is additional information we
can get from it let us discuss on that let us again revisit.
We have become next part now in Delta E and CL Trim right. Let’s say this is the one graph for
particular CG location, you by know that this slope D Delta E by DCL will depend upon static
margin and therefore it will depend upon XCG location for a given configuration because N 0 will
not yet neutral point will not change because of CG right.
Let us see here suppose I ask a question can I trim the airplane at this CL 1 or not? Let’s say this
value is 0.8 immediately what we check for trimming the airplane at point 8 how much elevator is
required this given by this value correct? If somebody ask can I trim it here and draw here then
this is the Delta E value required how long and how far you can go along this axis who decides
that. Suppose, you can really generate CL very high.
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But please see that there is a limit of Delta E deflection which is governed by Delta E Max that is
Delta E anytime should be less than Delta E max why? Because if you deflect the elevator too
much beyond certain angle, the flow will separate here it will not effective at all and typically for
normal case this you will find between 20 + - 20 to 25 degrees.
So beyond, that we will not able to operate the elevator for conventional airplane in fact it is 15
sometimes you’ll find that is primarily because beyond that elevator we will lose its effectiveness.
so what is the Delta E max for a elevator will also decide, how much CL practically you can trim
that means I have to go to reverse direction suppose limit is - 15 degree then I go like this I come
up I say only this is the CL max I can trim if Delta E Max is 10 degree let say 10 degree. This is
then I say this is a CL Max I can trim because now my elevator is not effective beyond 10 degrees
okay.
If somebody says your elevator will be effective after 25 degrees less then - 25 degrees then I go
this graph cut here so I can trim it much higher CL so this is the relationship between your Delta
E required and CL for a given static margin we will also try to have another understanding from
Delta E versus CL Trim graph Delta E versus CL Trim remember.
This CL Trim and you the know the slope is negative let’s say this is for XCG1 configuration and
let me also. Write that this is XCG1 and aft another is XCG2 and let’s say neutral point stick fixed
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it here and this is the reference line now for same airplane if I move the CG to XCG2 and let’s see
that the graph looks like this one thing you understand because XCG2 is closer to neutral point the
static margin is less it is less statically stable, the slope will flat now right?
Now I want to check if I want to trim the airplane at CL star I will see relatively. What will happen
if I try to trim the aircraft at CL star (𝐶𝐿∗ ) using XCG1 configuration or XCG2 configuration, where
do I need more elevator so if I missing XCG2 you see, I need this much of elevator I said Delta E
2 if I am trying to trim for CL star (𝐶𝐿∗ ) for XCG1 configuration then I have Delta E 1 which one
is more.
Definitely Delta E 1 is greater than Delta E 2 as far as absolute deflection is concerned, and also
you know that static margin in case of one is greater than static margin, for case 2 because the
slope here is more, so more statically stable then XCG2 configuration which is obvious, because
XCG2 is closer to neutral point then XCG1 and this distance we define as static margin this also
talks about degree of static stability right.
𝛿𝑒1 > 𝛿𝑒2
𝑆𝑀1 > 𝑆𝑀2
So what is the message you’re getting here, its telling if stability, static stability is more which is
like SM 1 greater than SM 2 then control deflection to trim at a given CL trim is also more. So we
say pilot find it difficult to trim if that stability margin because excessively high he may not be
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able to trim it or find it the difficulty in trimming it unless you carefully design it okay. So, this
also establishes relationship between control and stability.
We know that if the airplane is when airplane is highly statically stable then it is difficult to control
that means to change from one trim to another trim, we have to give very large deflection elevator
deflection in that sense we say, more stability means more control effort okay. And to really
increase the maneuverability that's why we reduce this gap to bare minimum.
So that efforts are less in fact, most of the fighter airplane will find this static margin is negative
in the sense it is marginally unstable statically unstable so this is the correction between stability
and control which you must keep back of your mind. I hope I have now made it clear? And you as
a flight stability and control person should revisit this again and again and get that feel into your
mind okay. Thank you.
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Aircraft stability and Control
Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 12
CLtrim vs. DeltaEtrim
Yes welcome, back to this session where we will be again solving one numerical to clear or
crystallize our concept of elevator, angle required to trim an aircraft for a particular CL we call it
CL trim and for various CG locations right. Why this is important?
(Refer Slide Time. 00:35)
You know that, if I draw CM versus CL and this is the variation of CM versus CL at equilibrium
or at trim it has the negative slope that is DCM by DCL is less than 0 or DCM by D Alpha is less
than 0. You know that both are equivalent because for DCM by D Alpha I can write it as DCM by
DCL into DCL by D Alpha and this is CL Alpha this is always positive so If DCM by DCL is less
than 0 and DCM by D Alpha is also less than zero and vice versa so
We will be writing whenever we are writing CM versus CL variation, we talk about DCM by DCL
is less than 0 for a static stability and when you are writing CM and Alpha here, then we write
DCM by D Alpha less than 0. So, both are equivalent statement right. So now if I see this variations
CM versus CL what is this point? This point we call CL trim, why it is CL trim because this is at
this CL the aircraft is in equilibrium right maybe one of the cruise conditions it could be
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And also you know this slope of this line which is DCM by DCL is loosely given as XCG – N 0
bar, we have already derived at which is nothing but minus static or stability margin, we have
derived this .So you could see that this slope will depend upon XCG location right because N 0
doesn't depend upon the CG, N 0 depends upon the configuration right. It is the neutral point, a
stick fixed neutral point and how did you find the neutral point.
𝜕𝐶𝑚
= (𝑋̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑁
̅0 ) = −𝑆𝑀
𝜕𝐶𝐿
Neutral point is thus CG location at which the DCM by DCL = 0, or the neutral point is thus CG
location at aircraft becomes neutrally stable or further, if even if I say if I put the CG beyond
neutral point the aircraft will become statically unstable right.
This is the concept behind what the problem will be doing, also another concept will check we
know Delta E trim or Delta E required is given by Delta E 0 + D Delta E by DCL trim into CL
trim and for approximate values we have seen that, D Delta E by DCL trim I can write it to be
more precise, for yourself minus DCM by DCL divided by CM Delta E what is CM Delta E? CM
Delta E was elevator control power what was the physics behind CM Delta E.
𝑑𝛿𝑒
𝛿𝑒0 = 𝛿𝑒0 + 𝐶
𝜕𝐶
𝑑𝛿𝑒 ( 𝑚)
𝜕𝐶𝐿
=−
𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
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Let us also revise here. This is the tail, this the elevator, elevator positive is down, if I deflect the
elevator down there will be additional CL, Delta CL and aircraft CG is here, this will give me a
nose down movement, nose down pitching movement which is negative. That is why DCM by
Delta E that is pitching movement generated because of positive Delta E is having negative sign
that is positive Delta E will generate a negative pitching movement.
So the sign of CM Delta is negative and this is also called a control power, more precisely elevator
control power okay. Now with this understanding we will try to solve this problem let us read this
problem carefully.
It says for an aircraft neutral point stick fixed is point five, neutral point bar that means what? N 0
bar means this neutral point location non-dimensionalised with mean dynamic chord it is 0.5.
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That means from the reference point where from you are measuring, the N 0 is located as 50% of
the chord. Mean aerodynamic chord right. Then SM is 0.3 or 30 percent, static margin is 30% it
means it is equal to 0.3 of mean aerodynamic chord, the absolute value okay The absolute value
the separation between neutral point and the CG, this distance is 0.3 C in absolute sense right So
that is the static margin. Then CL trim is 0.6 so if I draw it like this, try to draw this problem this
is CM and this is CL.
What does it say it says that CL trim is given as point 0.6 so I mark here this is 0.6 and what further
it says, it says when I have made the CL trim. When I have trim the airplane plane at that CL, I did
not require any elevator deflection that means whole of this CM 0 was generated, otherwise from
tail setting or from aerodynamics center ahead of wing, so aerodynamics center of wing, ahead of
CG of the airplane.
So point this elevator deflection was not given, it was not required but the aircraft could easily trim
at point 6, so this is Delta E, elevator deflection is 0, then what further it says, here when he was
trying to trim at CL equal to 0.4, then you require a elevator deflection of 4 degree this is degree,
4 degree downward and you know as per the convention elevator deflection down is positive okay.
So, this is Delta E.
Delta E is for CL 0.4, when it’s trimming it required a Delta E equal 4 degree or 4 degree down
okay this question clear. First is when the aircraft was trimmed at CL equal to 0.6, we didn’t require
any Delta E 0 but for the same configuration nothing has changed, no CG has changed nothing as
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changed. Same aircraft when you are trying to trim at 0.4, then Delta E required was 4 degree
down okay.
So that is the understanding okay. Then what is the question? Question is calculate elevator control
power that is calculate elevator control power by now you’re smart there is nothing but CM Delta
E okay. And second is, if new CG is 0.4 C bar then what is the CL trim the aircraft can be trimmed
with Delta E equal to 0. Second question is if the CG of the airplane changes now, I change it to
0.4 C, then what is the CL trim that I can trim the airplane but I will still not give any Delta E 0,
second question will come in elaborate way, first let me complete elevator control power okay.
So you know CL trim equal to 0.4 that time Delta E equal to 4 degree, then CL trim equal to 0.6
that time Delta E is equal to 0 degree, and what is the relation I know the Delta E trim equal to
Delta E 0 plus D Delta E by DCL trim into CL trim okay.
What is our aim? Our aim is to find CM Delta E don’t forget this, where is CM Delta E lying in
this expression. Let us look into this is there any CM Delta E in Delta E 0. Let us check yes, Delta
E 0 is nothing but minus CM 0 by CM Delta E. Do you think CM Delta is here. Let us check D
Delta E by DCL trim is also - DCM by DCL by CM Delta E so indeed it is also here, so what are
the information I’ve got?
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You could see that CL trim 0.4 CL trim 0.6 and corresponding Delta E are given, that means I
have been supplied with D Delta E by DCL trim as how much D Delta E by DCL trim is 4 minus
0 by 0.4 minus 0.6. D Delta by DCL trim is nothing but what is the D Delta E? Delta E is changed
from 4 degree to 0 of 4 minus 0 here, what is the change in CL trim? It is when it was 4 it was 0.4
was CL trim, when it was 0 degree 0.6 was CL trim. So if I find it out I find this is equal to 4 by -
0.2 and this value is nothing.
But minus 20 degree let me right like this, 20 degree right. 4 by 0.2 is 40 by 2 is – 20. So this is
the information I got D Delta E by DCL trim is equal to - 20 degree, why 20 degree you could see
this is 4 degree, 0 degree that is why and this is non dimensional CL has no dimension so this is
actually 20 degree unit is degree - 20 degree very, very important you must not lose sight of this
what you call their units.
𝑑𝛿𝑒 4−0
= 0.2−0.4 = −20 𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
Okay once you know this what is our aim, our aim is to find CM Delta E, that is the aim okay, so
let us go for the next step I know D Delta E by DCL trim is equal to - DCM by DCL by CM Delta
E this I know now which is - 20, because D Delta E by DCL trim already we have calculated to be
– 20. So now check here what is our aim? Our aim is to find CM Delta E,now the question is do I
know the value of DCM by DCL see the data here, what does it say N0, SM static margin. What
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is static margin? You know DCM by DCL we have derived that equal to minus static margin which
is basically - N 0 minus XCG okay.
𝜕𝐶𝑚
= −𝑆𝑀 = −(𝑁0 − 𝑋𝐶𝐺 )
𝜕𝐶𝐿
I put a bar I know that now from the data, DCM by DCL is equal to -0.3 as simple as that, so the
problem is solved what is the solution now, it is straight forward let me erase this. So I have got -
20 and here DCM by DCL is - 0.3, so I put this no here minus (- 0.3) by CM Delta E is equal to -
20, so CM Delta E is equal to -0.3 by 20 so this is - 0.015 you should do it per degree, I am deriving
this unit is per degree because, this 20 was in degrees okay and this is 0.3 clear.
So you could see that if I have got this minimal information, I can easily find out what is the
elevator control power okay. Now the second part we will attack, the second question let us check
here if new CG is 0.4 C that is new CG location is 40 percent of the mean aerodynamic chord,
what will be the CL trim for Delta E equal to 0 right. That is the question we are going to ask that
is now new CG location means that DCM by DCL.
Whatever was early given is no more valid because now CG has changed, okay a new CG so CG
as changed means static margin will change. So now the question is it is given now XCG is equal
to 0.4 C bar. This point I want to find out what is that CL trim given is Delta E is equal to 0 again
so now the question is what is this is CL trim value right okay. So this is CL trim this Delta E if I
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increase this is Delta E 0. We will make one assumption here ideally if you see what Delta E 0 is
Delta E 0 is - CM 0 by CM Delta E.
−𝐶𝑚0
𝛿𝑒 =
𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
So if the CG is changed then see from here, this is the wing this is the tail this is the CG of the
airplane, from here to the AC of the tail is the Lt, and all those moment CM Delta E will depends
upon Lt now you have changed the CG so CM Delta will ideally will change but we are assuming
that this change in CG is not affecting the value of CM Delta E or CM 0. Please understand this
assumption practically it is true also right.
The variation will not be large but the problem we are constraining that although that the CG has
changed, that will change Lt we are assuming that CM Delta E, CM 0 are same, what are the
assumption we understand that CG has changed so Lt will change and that will affect the value
CM Delta E and CM 0 to some extent because CM Delta E.
We know is proportional to the tail moment arm , but in this problem we are assuming, not affected
these two derivatives are not affected this is the assumption which is not very unrealistic okay. So
if I do that then now I come back here I try to find out what is that CL trim I can trim the airplane
for a new CG location which for 0.4 C but I want to keep that Delta E 0. So what is our aim now,
our aim is to find that CL trim for a new CG location.
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But we want to keep Delta E equal to 0 so let us solve this problem, if I write it down XCG is 0.4
okay. CL trim I want to find out what but I know Delta E I have to keep it 0. That is Delta E trim
I have to keep 0, okay so now what is Delta E? Delta E is equal to Delta E 0 plus D Delta E by
DCL trim into CL trim okay.
So what is Delta E 0 value? so this is since we have assumed that with change in Lt this CM Delta
E, CM0 is not affected, so I can easily find Delta E 0 from the first graph where this was 0.6 Delta
E was equal to 0 so this is basically Delta E 0 and this Delta E 0 by geometric you could find that,
and since this slope is D Delta E by DCL trim is – 0.3 that was given from first case so, I can easily
find out that this Delta E 0 value is 0.18 that is 0.6 into 0.3.
That is it will be the this Delta E 0, from triangle you can find out. This I am able to get from the
first condition first problem here, because I am assuming that CM Delta E and CM are not changing
okay.
So I know Delta E 0 so I put here Delta E 0 value which is known, what about D Delta E by DCL
trim, because we have to find out this, now D Delta E by DCL trim let us see what is happening to
that D Delta E by DCL trim is equal to - DCM by DCL by CM Delta E, but we know that in the
second case the CG has changed so, DCM by DCL is no more I can use, the earlier DCM by DCL
clear.
175
Because we have only assumed that because of change in CG, CM Delta E and CM 0 are not
changed, with the change in CG, DCM by DCL will definitely change the drastic manner, because
we know DCM by DCL is nothing but minus of X 0 that is neutral point minus XCG okay. That
is we say if XCG is coincides with neutral point.
Then you say this is neutrally stable, that is DCM by DCL will become zero right. So we have to
take this into account that as CG has changed DCM by DCL will also change, but the question is
do you know the value of neutral point stick fixed X0 do you have any idea? What is the value of
that what is the neutral point let’s ask ourselves.
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Now we are trying to find out what is DCM by DCL for new CG location, that is what that is XCG
is equal to 0.4 as in the second case there that CG 0.4 C bar, we need to find what is DCM by DCL
for new CG configuration and you know DCM by DCL is basically XCG minus X neutral point
and you could see here neutral point is given as 0.5 and you know that neutral point is not going
to change because it is depends upon the configuration wing configuration.
Tail configuration, engine configuration the speed everything depending the same neutral point
will not also change whether you’ve changed CG here and there so I will keep this as - 0.5 as first
case, and this case it is 0.4 and put it bar because they are non-dimensional, so now I could see
DCM by DCL is coming to be - 0.1, or 10% of mean aerodynamic chord, that is separation the
slope is - 0.1 right.
𝜕𝐶𝑚
= 𝑋̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑋̅𝑁0 = 0.4 − 0.5 = −0.1
𝜕𝐶𝐿
So DCM by DCL is negative so it is statically stable that means whatever new CG is there, you
should be ahead of neutral point and you could see that neutral point is at 0.5, and new CG is at
0.4 so, yes it is ahead of neutral point so DCM by DCL is negative and indeed it is coming like
that okay. So now I know DCM by DCL and what is the value of DCM by DCL okay so DCM by
DCL is – 0.1 and we know that, we are working with the relationship.
Delta E is equal to Delta E 0 plus (- DCM by DCL) by CM Delta E into CL trim we want to find
out what is the CL trim so that Delta E is 0 and we also know Delta E 0 equal to what? we know
Delta E 0 equal to - CM 0 by CM Delta E and if we recall from the first case, this is CM versus
CL where this is 0.6 given, and the slope is – 0.3 as it is given in the first case so this CM 0 value
from this geometry, it is 0.3 into 0.6 which is equal to 0.18 right.
𝜕𝐶𝑚
(− ) 𝐶𝑚0
𝜕𝐶𝐿
𝛿𝑒 = 𝛿𝑒0 + 𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ; 𝛿𝑒0 = −
𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
𝐶𝑚0 = 0.3 × 0.6 = 0.18
From the first case I could get the value of CM 0 and since I have been telling repeatedly because,
of change in CG there is no change in CM 0 and CM Delta E as I have assumed, so I will use this
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CM 0 value okay. So we will use this, what is our aim, our aim is to find out Delta E 0. If I know
the value of Delta E 0 then I can easily use this relationship because this I know I have to find this,
if I know this then I can easily find this so Delta E 0 will be what.
Delta E 0 is - CM 0 by CM Delta E and you know the value will be – 0.18 by - 0.015. So this will
give me around 12 degree so, Delta E 0 please note down this is again 12 degree because CM Delta
E is per degree, okay. We have already find it out from the first problem, right from here they have
already found it out what is the elevator control power and that happened to be – 0.015 per degree.
So Delta E 0 is 12 degree now what is the problem everything we know now, so what I have to
do.
−0.18
𝛿𝑒0 = = 12 𝑑𝑒𝑔
−0.015
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I have to simply use this relationship and find out what is the CL trim required, so Delta E is equal
to Delta E 0 plus minus DCM by DCL by CM Delta E, into CL trim, Delta E 0 is 12 this is 0 now
everything we know we have just use this relationship and in this you Delta E 0 is 12, what is
DCM by DCL, DCM by DCL is nothing but XCG minus N 0 or XN 0 and this is 0.4 minus 0.5
so, this is - 0.1 this value I can put it here CM Delta E I know - 0.015 this is 12 degree.
𝜕𝐶𝑚
(− )
𝜕𝐶𝐿
𝛿𝑒 = 𝛿𝑒0 + 𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
(−(−0.1))
𝛿𝑒 = 12 + 𝐶
−0.015 𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
12
− = 𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ; 𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 = 1.80
−6.66
So I can easily calculate CL trim by inverting it so, CL trim I will get around 1.8, so see through
this relationship how we have calculated different requirement of Delta E for different CG location
right. So I hope if you solve this problem yourself you will get the hang of it and how to use this
relationship for your practical problem that’s exactly why am repeatedly supplying you so many
problems so that you can crystallize all the concepts okay. Thank you very much.
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 13
A Closer Look
Little notes on Neutral Point okay what is neutral point? We have seen that neutral point is that
XCG location, at which the aircraft become neutrally stable or DCM by DCL equal to 0 or DCM
by D Alpha equal to 0, right. And so far we have been talking about neutral point where only wing,
tail and some fuselage contribution, although we have not computed anything. But we have never
mentioned about the effect of engine, the effect of type of engine.
The aircraft is flying with. So we will take the effect of engine, we will take only 1 case propeller
driven engine right, what will be the effect of the having engine in the nose and more precisely
the question is, if this is the N0 fixed that is stick fixed case with power off with power off then
do you think N0 will change with power on. So do you think the N0 will change, with power on
that means, when you switch on the engine for a typical airplane of this configuration.
Suppose nose mounted engine like this, for this case I repeat the problem.
We are trying to understand the effect of Thrust or engine, on the neutral point this is the case
power off, that is no power is there. No Engine is being rolled, and I am more focused to this sort
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of nose mounted engine, without this being on, if this is N0. Now the moment the power on case
come. Power on so what will happen? Will the neutral point still remain at some point let us say
here or it will try to go backward or forward that is the question, or in indirectly.
What is the question? With the engine on, whether the aircraft will become more stable or
less stable, because we understand if N0, let us say N01 and this N02, there is another aircraft N02,
then I know that this aircraft is more stable than this aircraft because it has got a large static margin
for a given CG location isn't it, for the given CG location this aircraft has this much of
static margin, and this aircraft has larger static margin okay.
So, I would like to know now what happens if thrust is on, will there be any modification on the
N0 stick fixed okay. Let see one thing we understand, if running of this propeller, adds more
stabilizing effect to the airplane then our N0 fixed should go backward so it will become
more stable. If adding this nose mounted engine, if it contributes towards more destabilizing then
this N0 point should shift this way clear, because it will become less stable.
So now what happen see, if this is the propeller moving and some Delta alpha (Δ𝛼) if it is seeing
then you know that by momentum exchange, there will be a thrust generator small though in this
direction, because some momentum exchange will be there one this direction another this
direction.
So this force which is proportional to Alpha is now acting ahead of CG okay. So this will give any
component or any force, which are ahead of CG that will give destabilizing effect right. So, this
configuration will give a destabilizing effect. So the neutral point fixed will now with power on
N0 power on will come forward here instead of power off is here. Is it clear again I repeat,
because of this engine thrust or engine power this is propeller driven airplane.
If there is angle of attack, there will be momentum exchange in this direction also, that will give a
force roughly I can write this, function of Alpha and since this force is ahead of CG, CG is
somewhere here, for any positive Alpha it will give nose up moment and nose up moment means?
It is destabilizing for a positive disturbance of Alpha.
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So, this will contribute towards destabilizing effect, and hence the aircraft will become lesser
stable compared to power off. So the neutral point will shift here. So this is the point where I write
N0 or N0 bar or XN0 or XN0 bar, this is power on and power off is here clear. So when you are
flying you have to ensure that, your CG should not go beyond power on, then it will become
unstable during power on right, is this clear?
That is the definition of neutral point, if this is neutral point whether it is power on and power off,
point is if the CG goes beyond the neutral point, the aircraft will become statically unstable. So,
now you know when the engine power is on for this sort of a configuration then actually the neutral
point is not what is I am writing here with power off case, it will give power on, little ahead of it
so, I must ensure that the CG of the aircraft should never go, beyond.N0 the power on so, this will
limit the case how much backward I can take the CG okay.
So, the CG backward and the CG forward so, how much backward I can take that is dictated by
primarily by N0 power on clear okay. Now next question comes, how further forward I can take
the CG because, I know if N0 is here, I put CG here I put CG here, I put CG here, I put CG here
in all the cases it will be statically stable, only thing if it is 1, 2 and 3, third case will be the most
stable case, this is little less than the third case, it is less than the second case, but third case will
be most stable case.
Now who decides, that can I put the CG anywhere in the front because I give a logic, if it is CG is
forward of neutral point, it will be statically stable. So how does it matter to me? It will be stable
let it be more stable. Do you know fundamentally, if an aircraft becomes highly stable, then I need
to put large control deflection to trim it for different, different CL, how do I know that?
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One is by simple common sense, if something is highly stable, it will always resist any change,
which try to change its equilibrium to another equilibrium so, we need more effort right,
but mathematically or expression wise whatever we have developed we could see here again,
this expression comes to our rescue, you know that Delta E trim or Delta required is Delta E0, plus
D Delta E by DCL into CL trim this is also CL Trim okay.
𝑑𝛿𝑒
𝛿𝑒 = 𝛿𝑒 + 0 + 𝐶
And what is this this is Delta E0 plus - XCG - XN0 bar divided by CM Delta E into CL trim, this is
equal to Delta E required. So, as I am taking CG forward suppose this is the airplane, and CG I am
taking forward in this direction, so this gap XCG - XN0 is going on increasing okay. Negative,
negative, positive and negative, so what is happening as it goes on increasing the Delta E required
also will go on increasing right and there will be limit beyond which you may not have realistic
Delta E available because Delta E also have a maximum value of deflection, may be ±25 degrees.
Beyond that the flow will stall over the deflection this is the elevator, let us say, so beyond fifteen
degree of beyond 25 degree, depending upon what sort of elevator you are using, the flow may
separate that is why every airplane is characterize with Delta E max is ±, let us say 25 degree,
some high fidelity aircraft may have 30 degree, 45 degrees but almost of our normal airplane, it is
15 to 25 degree depending upon, what sort of technology you have used.
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So the point is there is the Delta E max, you cannot exceed that, ok but if you go on making it this
separation larger and larger, or the making the aircraft more or more stable.
This value may exceed the limit given by there. So, you have a restriction on how far you can put
the CG forward because beyond point, this value is become so large that Delta E will may become
more than the Delta E max required, typically the Delta E up required okay.
If I am moving the CG towards nose of the airplane that is, we are making it more and more stable
as I moving CG forward pictorially if I draw Delta E vs.CL trim right this is one case highly stable
another case, this is another case right here okay. What is the understanding here, in which case
CG is most forward this is the CG, XCG is most forward because the slope is the highest here most
negative, then this is XCG2 I call it XCG3.
Now, see suppose you want to trim at this CL trim value so for CG location let me draw it for your,
this is XCG 3 this is 2 this is 1 right so this is the most forward right this is 1 here right.
Most forward one that means neutral point may be somewhere here so, this is highly stable,
most stable in this configuration.
So, now if you want to trim a aircraft for the particular CL trim, you see if am using this 3 location,
where the static margin is least I need only this much of Delta E negative that is Delta E is up,
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okay but if change the CG to CG from CG 3 to CG 2, and the stability has changed, we say now I
require from here to here this much of Delta E required, which is again negative right this much it
is much more compared to this value.
What will happen for this case, if I draw it like this value, will be exceptionally high. So what is
the meaning, you may somehow generated CL trim, okay but how much CL trim you can trim
actually by elevator deflection is decided by what is the Delta E max available and hence, directly
it also tells you what is the maximum forward CG you can put for so that your aircraft is trimmable,
okay.
So, the aircraft is trimmable so, that I can trim the airplane for that CL okay. That is
very, very important so the most forward CG is primarily dictated by most forward CG plus Delta
E max available, they decide what should be the most forward CG and most aft CG is divided by
N0 which is power on case, if power off somewhere here power off we have already seen, N0
power off.
So, now two distinct things are here one is aft CG is more governed N0 power on stick fixed neutral
point power on and forward CG is dictated by what is the Delta E max available for all practical
purpose right. You may also wonder, what happen during landing when I am actually flying at a
higher CL but the propeller is also rotating you may wonder, what is happening if I am trying for
the landing where CL is also maximum.
But power is not on in a true sense is not a full power in theoretical sense I can say propeller wind
milling right. Then what happens how do I take care of that so, as per as this course is concerned
let me tell you should I proceed with how will you proceed so, far what you have seen this is the
N0 stick fixed, we are all talking about, stick fixed right and power off.
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If the engine is nose mounted engine it will give destabilizing effect so N0 power on will come
here, power on will be ahead of N0 power off. So, I should plan that CG of the airplane should
never cross then it will become statically unstable during power on more. The next question came,
how much forward CG I can allow the layout designer to put, there I realize that forward CG is
dictated by the Delta E available.
So Delta E max that will decide how much really I can how much forward CG I can trim because
after it will give more CM so I have to have any elevator power to control it, to will nullify it. This
part we have a same, now second question which I was of course whispering is propeller wind
milling, wind milling that is specially during landing it’s not a full power it is propeller just wind
milling.
So, that case if you see propeller wind milling it is neither power on but not power off right. So it
is between these two so N0 power wind milling should come somewhere here, propeller wind
milling, should come somewhere here, so especially during landing I should be careful about
it, because that time N0 is somewhere here, N0 is not power on it will behind, but ahead of N0
stick fixed do you understand this or not?
N0 power on that time, it is contribute the full destabilizing effect for a propeller engine in the
nose of the air plane. But wind milling it is in between power on and power off so somewhere here
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it will be there right. So for all practical purpose during landing this will be the limit of CG, beyond
this CG it will become unstable.
But for forward, most forward CG this is the most forward CG when the airplane is at approaching
like that it is at high CL max value and we need to know that I have enough Delta E max, which
should be able to trim that CL okay. Because what will happen? As I move the CG forward and
forward Delta E max requirement will go on an increasing we have seen that, and since there is a
limit on Delta E max say ±25 degree.
So it will be with CG forward CG will be more governed by this, so this is a limit I am putting,
here and if you know these three things, three, four things you will be able to handle this sort of
situation, as we progress , right when you go for a little bit on around stick free we will again come
back to this neutral point and again address this things at this from designers prospective we will
solve the problem and will try to get feel for this.
As I have been promising that once some theory, base background, is ready then we will be solving
some numerical problem to get better insight of those expressions, one of the derivations we made
was DCM by DCL equal to - static margin, right static margin, many books may also refer this as
stability margin and we know meaning of stability margin is if this is the neutral point.
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If this is the CG, I am measuring from some reference here, and this is static margin, of course this
is expressed as a percentage of mean aerodynamic chord okay. We are not trying to say this how
to utilize this DCM by DCL is equal to - static margin and get some insight about design.
Once I am writing like this I understand the CM is expressed the CM at CL equal to 0 plus DCM
by DCL into CL, okay? This is the expansion.
𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚 |𝐶𝐿 =0 + 𝐶
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝐿
𝜕𝐶𝑚
= −𝑆𝑀
𝜕𝐶𝐿
For a symmetric aerofoil how do you write? We prefer if I want write in terms of Alpha I write
CM at Alpha equal to 0 plus DCM by D Alpha into Alpha. This is workable for symmetric aerofoil,
but when you are having a cambered aerofoil then I prefer to press CM as CM at CL is equal to 0
plus DCM by DCL into CL, okay.
𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚 |𝛼=0 + 𝐶
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝐿
Now once we understand let us do a problem, problem is this let me write slope of CM versus CL
is 0.08.
Then CM at CL equal to 0 is let me correct slope of CM versus CL is – 0.15, because

initially I wrote 0.8 if it is positive which is statically unstable right? So, minus sign okay yes its
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statically stable and what is telling is CM at CL equal to 0 is 0.08 so you could see that CM0 is
greater than zero and DCM by DCL is less than zero so statically stable and since this CM0 is
positive it can be trimmed at a positive angle of attack okay.
The question is determine, the trim lift coefficient that is CL if CG is XCG by C bar is 0.3 let me
again repeat the problem for you to understand the slope of the CM versus CL is -0.15 that is DCM
by DCL is -0.15, so I write DCM by DCL is – 0.15 so this is statically stable case and CM0 that is
CM as CL is equal to 0 is 0.08 so it is possible to trim at positive Alpha.
Question is determine the trim lift coefficient what is the CL for which it can be trimmed easily
without doing anything else. so what I am trying to draw is CM, CL this slope DCM by DCL is
minus 0.15 and CM this value CM0 or CM at CL equal to 0 this value is 0.08 what is this values
CL trim the question, very simple problem. You know the slope of this line you know this so the
CL trim I can easily find out like 0.08 by.
let us say this is X by this X is 0.15 the slope is negative I have taken out the negative sign so
X, I will get as 0.08 by 0.15 and which is approximately equal to you can check around 0.52 or
0.53. So this is the value of CL trim I will need not solve once I draw it like this know from triangle
right angle triangle you can easily find out if this is 0.08 the slope is minus 0.15 slope is nothing
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but perpendicular by base and negative sign you have to take care and that gives you value of CL
trim so straight forward okay.
And see how efficient is this expression DCM by DCL equal to - static margin with this problem
we will now go little further and try to extend its value when you are designing an aircraft typically
if you designing a civil airplane you design for a particular static margin may be 10% static margin
that is 10% of the linear dynamic chord okay. 10 percent of that so now if want to select what is
the wing area required or.
What is the CL I should design for you have a criteria like for CL typically I can write L equal to
half row V square S CL okay? and this equal to weight because lift equal to weight you know what
altitude I want to fly and you know what speed, I want to fly you have your wing area. So we
typically get is some sort of the CL value let us say CL 0.6 let us say CL 0.6 you have got so what
is the meaning of this 10% static margin right.
And CL 0.6, so I write as 0.6 and draw a line minus 0.1 or 10 percent so DCM by DCL is minus
0.1 because it is 10% and then to find out what is the intercept so this will be 0.06 Now
what I do I do I know CM0 equal to CM0 of wing plus CM0 of tail plus CM0 of fuselage,
so I ensure the wing tail locations the area are such that the sum of this three quantity adds up to
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to give 0.06 and the neutral point and CG they are located such a way that their static margin that
is neutral point and CG this gap is 10% of mean aerodynamic chord so how simplified.
𝐶𝑚0 = 𝐶𝑚0𝑤 + 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝑚0
𝑡 𝑓
your approach becomes once you use that relationship you will know this when we do the design
course may be we will be doing in one of the books but it’s better that you should not only know
how to find Delta E for a CL trim you should also know why we are doing this. So these examples
are given to excite your mind that you start thinking in terms of utilizing this relationship for
designing an aircraft, okay. Thank you very much.
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 14
Contribution of Engine Towards Stability
Good Morning Everybody. We have talking so much of Neutral point Delta E required, writing so
many equations so many expressions, there is every possibility that we get lost into all those
expressions, and we may start losing the interest in this subject. So best way to revitalize our self
is let us revisit and make a summary to all understanding what so far you have understood. If you
recall how we started we understood that if an aircraft is statically stable, and it can be trimmed
At a positive CL or positive Alpha, then I need to ensure DCM by DCL less thaN0, and just to
make things more elaborate. If I am plotting CL VS Alpha then this condition is DCM by D Alpha
is less thaN0 and to ensure that I can have a positive, I trim at a positive CL or Alpha accordingly,
we need to have CM at CL equal to 0, which is CM0 is greater thaN0 and here CM at Alpha equal
to 0 which is CM0 should be greater thaN0 right this is the understanding.
You also understood one thing, that if I have an aircraft then this airplane will contribute towards
CM0 which is this CM at CL equal to 0 in this case, or CM at Alpha equal to 0 in this case This
contributions CM0 of the whole airplane will come from CM0 wing plus CM0 fuselage plus CM0
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because of tail. Although, we haven't explicitly derive any expression for CM0 fuselage or DCM
by DCL or DCM by D Alpha for fuselage which will doing in our assignment.
𝐶𝑚0 = 𝐶𝑚0𝑤 + 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝑚0
𝑎⁄ 𝑐 𝑓 𝑡
Also you know that CM Alpha of the aircraft will have also component from wing from fuselage
and from tail okay. And So far whatever we discussed was when we derived this expression we
have not put any engine here, okay remember this right, from this plot or this expression we try to
find out what is neutral point? Neutral point we call it stick fixed neutral point how did you do
that?
We derived an expression DCM by D Alpha of the whole air plane and then we equated that to 0,
and then from there we got expression for XNO by C or NO by C that neutral point stick fixed, at
the in terms of CL Alpha of the wing and CL Alpha of the tail, VH etcetera, you can check your
formulation.
What is important here is that we have not incorporated any effect of engine right. So, now what
we find is if I draw a line like this and if this is my reference we say N0 some time I write XN0 or
N0 they are same when I put N0 bar means N0 non-dimensionalised with chord with mean
aerodynamic chord right. Once we have calculated N0 which some time I write it as XN0 or N0
bar, bar means by now you that it is non-dimensionalized with mean aerodynamic chord.
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So, with this configuration if this is N0 bar which is typically, I said power off why power off
because all this computation, whatever you have done so far remember initially wing contribution,
tail contribution, fuselage contribution this expression there we have not consider the thrust
initially. Now then second case, what we did was we try to understand, if this is the airplane, I put
a nose mounted engine.
And CG is somewhere here let say, then we have realize qualitatively, that this thrust whatever
been developed will give a destabilizing effect why we also argued, if there is a disturbance Alpha
then some momentum exchange will be here normal force, which will be function of Alpha in
general, and this about CG will give a nose up moment, and you know for a positive Alpha any
component.
which gives nose up moment that adds to make the aircraft unstable or it has an destabilizing effect
so, what is the message if the engine was off that is power off, if the neutral point is here stick
fixed neutral point is here, the moment I switch on the engine, what will happen this aircraft engine
being at the nose, ahead of CG and it has a destabilizing effect we have agreed so, the overall
stability of the airplane will reduce right, so the N0 with power on will come forward. So this will
be N0 power on because now the aircraft will be less stable.
So when the power was off N0 was here that means, I can bring the CG after this point, here only
it will become neutrally stable, and if CG is here it will become statically unstable but when, the
power On then the limit is reduced because, with this sort of engine configuration at the nose, this
will add to destability or it will destabilize the airplane, so the neutral point will come forward that
means.
Now, you cannot take XCG up to this point the XCG as soon as is crossed this limit, it will become
statically unstable because, now the aircraft is less stable compared to power off as simple as that
okay. So these are the two things we need to very understand clearly and then another point comes
to our mind, which I would like to discuss let us see how realistic are these, suppose I am cruising,
then which N0 should I consider.
(Refer Slide Time:07:18)
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N0 power on or N0 power off that means, what limit I should be very careful that CG should not
cross N0 power on or N0 power off to ensure that it is stable. For cruise is cruising means which
condition cruising you know its thrust equal to drag lift equal to weight, and it is a thrust is there
so what is the understanding, if the airplane having a nose mounted engine and it is cruising that
means power on case then for me I should consider this N0 for wherever it is required for
estimating different parameters because, I know now it is power on case.
Suppose I am gliding, gliding means no thrust, then which N0 I should use for further estimation
of some other relevant parameters which you will understand soon, if it is gliding there no thrust
that means for me now this is power off case, this is for gliding, so these are the two extreme case
one is cruising the thrust on, and one is gliding when the thrust is not there right typically glider
flight.
However, you will realize there is another condition of flight when I am coming for landing, when
I am coming for landing the thrust is not fully on right, Ideally thrust should be as low as possible
or we say the propeller is doing wind milling right, its deriving energy from the atmosphere and
rotating and developing the some sort of a thrust very low. So that is a call propeller wind milling
so, you could understand propeller wind milling will be more stable or less stable.
Compared to power off. Power off is the most stable case the moment it is wind milling for nose
mounted engine, it will be less than power off so it will be somewhere here I said N0 propeller
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wind milling, however it will not be less than N0 power on because, it’s the full thrust is there or
appreciable thrust is there, here it is only wind milling right okay. So this is the limit for N0
propeller wind milling, and when that has to be used.
So, now you know if it is landing then wherever I want use stick fixed neutral point I will be using
N0 propeller wind milling. Going back here this is for Gliding and for that means, this is your N0
power off and then for cruise which we have already realized should be a N0 is better to put in N0
bar it is power on. This point is clear okay. Now we will see how this things to be used okay.
That is more important second thing we need to ask, Delta E equal to Delta E0 plus D Delta E by
DCL trim into CL trim, this was what we recall that, if this is CM and this is CL and the airplane
is trimmed here, now I want to fly the airplane at difference CL here that’s CL2 because statically
stable it will generate negative pitching moment so I need to nullify that, so that this line will
becomes like this to neutralize the negative pitching moment I have to generate positive pitching
moment, and for that I have to put elevator up right.
So how much elevator up is required for this CL trim, we calculate from here using this. So this I
always say is Delta E required or you can write Delta E trim what does it mean? if I know the
Delta E 0 value if I know this gradient for a given CL trim, I know how much the elevator have to
deflect clear, that we have done it. If I see this clearly I see this is CM0 by CM Delta E this is -
DCM by DCL divided by CM Delta E into CL trim I recall again that when we derive this
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expression we have met some approximation on relative magnitude of few derivative but this is a
good enough approximation. This further I can write as - CM0 by CM Delta E plus this is DCM
by DCL is nothing but XCG bar - XN0 bar right.
𝜕𝐶
𝐶𝑚0 ( 𝑚)
𝜕𝐶𝐿
(𝛿𝑒 )𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 =− +− 𝐶
𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
You could see here instead of N0 bar I am writing XN0 bar, so they are the same so this will
become X or let me write N0 bar you will get confuse unnecessarily - XCG bar divided by CM
Delta E into CL trim and this is Delta E trim or Delta E required concentrate here okay.
𝐶𝑚0 (𝑁 ̅0 − 𝑋̅𝐶𝐺 )
(𝛿𝑒 )𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 = − + 𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
Now see here suppose I am doing a cruise at say CL equal to 0.2, and let say neutral point okay.
CL equal, suppose just repeat again, here suppose you want to cruise at CL equal to 0.2 for a given
XCG location right? XCG is fixed some location right? Now when I want to know how much
Delta trim I should have, for CL equal to 0.2 while cruising while cruising this important, how do
I use this formula this is known.
This is known for the aero plane question will be what N0 should I take? Should I take N0 power
on N0 power off or N0 propeller wind milling, you know very well now because it is cruising so
I should take N0 power on this value we will take right because cruising thrust is on correct.
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Now similar so for Delta E trim for cruise, I will use N0 power on right.
Now let us say suppose it is coming for landing that is what is the case of landing? Propeller wind
milling right N0 should I use I should use N0 propeller wind milling so it will be N0 should be
corresponding to propeller wind milling okay. Suppose we are coming for gliding, right we want
to glide switch off the engine, and we are not allowing propeller wind milling or you might have
simplified case suppose I am doing a gliding flight with the glider.
Which does not have an engine let’s say then if I want to trim the glider for different CL which N0
should I take? I know for gliding I should take N0 bar with no engine so power off, this is the
understanding
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I hope now you get the clarity, what is the importance of neutral point for power on, power off
propeller wind milling and how they are going to affect Delta E trim. Please understand the
different value N0 means you are having a different static margin, different degree of stability for
a given CG location, as N0 changes for different cases so, static margin or stability margin will
change.
So accordingly Delta E also will change nothing new we are doing, so this should be kept in your
mind while solving a problem and we should not lose the insight of what we are doing okay. one
thing we should also understand and keep on telling ourselves when we are talking about N0 what
is the definition of neutral point? It is a point when the aircraft if I put the CG at that point aircraft
will become neutrally stable, or if I put the CG beyond that.
The aircraft will become statically unstable right? That is the definition of N0 okay But now see
one more thing in a way N0 is telling us what is the most aft CG permitted am I correct isn’t it?
Because you know, if the CG goes beyond N0 it will become statically unstable, so it is telling oh
man the CG cannot go beyond this point, beyond this neutral point. Now think of you have N0
power on, N0 gliding or power off and this is wind milling, from designer point of view
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What should you put restriction as a most aft restriction for the central gravity of the airplane up
to this, if CG can be taken up to this definitely not because if we still like that then during power
on case it will become statically unstable right. So your most aft CG permitted will be governed
by N0 power on so this should be very clear that N0 power on okay will decide most aft CG
location for nose mounted propeller engine aircraft this should be very, very clear.
I repeat here again you know that N0 means the CG is beyond N0, the aircraft becomes statically
unstable, So now you have got N0 power on, N0 power off, N0 propeller wind milling so as for
design is concerned you should ensure that because power on means you’re cruising and that is
the lowest, that means my CG should lie somewhere in this domain, it should not lie here, here,
here or here.
This is one learning right? And of course we are talking about an aircraft which has a nose mounted
engine, you could understand that if the engine is put behind the CG, this discussion will become
different, but mostly engines has a nose mount are ahead of CG so we are focusing on this right.
This is one so most aft CG we know how to draw this specification it should not cross beyond that,
because N0 power on we will compute based.
On the wing characteristics, tail characteristics, fuselage characteristics and the engine thrust
characteristics that is how the engine thrust is changing with Alpha etcetera, etcetera. it has nothing
to do with CG right. So this is done most aft.
The question comes, how do I decide most forward. And who will decide, what is the philosophy
of most forward? if the CG is ahead of the neutral point, it is going to be stable, from stability point
of view there is absolute no issues, as the CG goes, take the CG forward, forward forward and
forward it will become more and more stable, statically stable but is there any restriction.
Please understand before you do some formulation we can conceptualize that if an airplane become
highly stable, then it is very difficult to change or trim the airplane at a particular CL, because I
may not have that much of elevator control power, we have seen that. So now based on that
philosophy we will see what is the, how best we should understand how do I locate, how do I
specify, the most forward CG location right.
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Before discussing on most forward, let me take a simple example right let’s say Delta E equal to
Delta E0 plus D Delta E by DCL is nothing but - so it will be N0 - XCG by CM Delta E into CL
trim right? Let us take some values let’s say I take CM 0 this numbers have taken just to give some
illustration of a concept okay. So allow me to these values CM Delta E is – 1.0 per radian, please
note down that this is per radian okay.
And let’s assume N0 bar is 0.5, with these three numbers I can easily find out what is Delta E0,
what is Delta E0? It is - CM0 by CM Delta E so this is – 0.04 by – 1.0, so this is 0.04 so that is the
value of Delta E0 correct.
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And, if I now simplify what do I get? So I get Delta E equal to 0.04 then, plus N0 is 0.5 minus
XCG bar divided by - 1, so CM Delta is -1, so I put it here a minus sign into CL trim right. Now
see this case think of landing, so when I put N0 equal to 0.5 because, I am studying a case landing
that means I am clear that this is propeller wind milling case okay. Let’s see this is 0.5, now let us
do a tabulation, I want to see what is the effect of moving CG forward for Delta E required.
For a particular CL trim, let me assume CL trim is equal to let say 0.6 okay. So then, what is this
expression will become? You can yourself do this 0.04 minus 0.5 minus XCG into 0.6 okay. The
CL trim value is 0.6. Let us take a case, Delta E for different XCG okay. So let’s take XCG as 0.4
if XCG bar is 0.4, what is the Delta E is required? So now you know that Delta E require is 0.04
minus 0.5 minus XCG into 0.6 right.
𝛿𝑒 = 0.04 − (0.5 − 𝑋𝐶𝐺 ) × 0.6
So if XCG is 0.4. So this value becomes 0.1, so 0.1 into 0.6 becomes 0.06, so 0.04 minus 0.06 will
be equal to - 0.02. Let us check again XCG is 0.4, so 0.5 minus 0.4 is 0.1, 0.1 into 0.6 is 0.06 this
is – 0.06 this is plus 0.04, so Delta E required is – 0.02, what is the unit here? This will be per
radian, why radian? Because CM Delta E we have taken per radian and you could see that this CM
Delta E if it is in per degree, then it would have been in degree.
Because CM Delta is per radian this Delta E also will become per radian please be very, very clear
about this okay. So to get a feel, roughly I can write this equal to 0.02, into 57.3 degree so how
much it is? So we are seeing that for CL trim point equal to 0.6 for XCG location of 0.4 so let’s
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say, let me draw this is a reference let say this is XCG 0.4, and this is N0 you know this is power
propeller wind milling, because this propeller wind milling case because we are thinking in terms
of landing am I correct yes right okay.
Why we are talking about landing, because we are trying to find out most forward CG, how far
this CG can go forward, we have seen for one tentative case, if I take XCG equal to 0.4, then Delta
E required is – 0.02, which is roughly - 1 point, my calculator shows 1.146 degree okay right am
I correct.
𝛿𝑒 = 0.04 − (0.5 − 0.4) × 0.6 = 0.04 − 0.06 = −0.02 = −1.146°
Now think of a second case, see if I take the CG at 0.2, if it is 0.2 then what will happen here is
Delta E at XCG point 2 will be 0.04 minus 0.5 minus 0.2, this is 0.2 is 0.3 into 0.6 is 0.18, is this
correct? Now XCG is 0.2 so this value is 0.3, 0.3 into 0.6 is 0.18. So I will get the value as 0.18
minus 0.04 is how much? 0.18 minus so, this will be – 0.14 radian, correct. So what is 0.14 radian.
0.14 radian.
Let me check, 0.14 into 57.3 and that will be 8.022 degrees. So this is 0.14 radian, and that is if I
put this CG is here, 0.2 and that is equal to 8 .022 degree. So we have seen that as I am taking CG
forward the elevator angle, required to trim is increasing, now if I take XCG at point 1 let say 0.1,
what will happen?
𝛿𝑒 = 0.04 − (0.5 − 0.2) × 0.6 = 0.04 − 0.18 = −0.14 = −8.022°
Again if I calculate by this expression then XCG is point 1, so this difference is 0.4, 0.4 into 0.6 is
0.24, -0.24 plus 0.04, so Delta required will be 0.04 minus 0.24, so this equal to - 0.20, so what is
0.20 radian. That means that we can calculate that is 0.2 into 57.3 equal to 11.46. So this is 0.20
radian and equal to 11.46 degree. So do you see this how this is happening?
𝛿𝑒 = 0.04 − (0.5 − 0.1) × 0.6 = 0.04 − 0.24 = −0.2 = −11.46°
That means if I take it further this Delta E will further increase one way, but you have a Delta E
limit so Delta E max we’ll have, right? Suppose Delta E max was 10 degree, suppose Delta E was
10 degree plus minus ((𝛿𝑒 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ±10°) generally it is ± 15 or ± 25, suppose Delta E max is 10
degree, then this result shows that, I will not be able to trim the aircraft at CL point 6 for a
configuration.
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Which is having CG 0.1, this is not, I am not able to trim this airplane for this CG location, because
to trim this airplane at 0.1 location, I need 11.46, but Delta E max is let’s say 10 degrees, if this
Delta E max is 15 degrees I should be able to do it, okay. Remember, this is for CL equals to 0.6
but when you are landing, the CL is around
1 or 1.2 so now let’s see what happens if it is 1 or 1.2, we could easily see that if this is 1.2, then
the Delta E requirement will further will become very very stringent and you will have to be very
very careful that how far I keep my CG of the airplane will be decided by the Delta E max limit,
okay. Let’s do one example suppose we are doing it for CL is equal to 1.0 during landing, and I
am now trying to calculate Delta E, let me write this here CL equal to 1.0, so let me erase few
things so that you do not get lost.
Let’s say now I am doing for CL equal to 1.0, typically this CL are for landing, landing and takeoff
right and I am talking about landing and this is XCG. Now see for CL 1.0, if I have landing like
this, if I now want to see what is happening for 0.4, when I go back here, XCG is 0.4, so 0.5 minus
0.4 is 0.1, and this is no more 0.6, this is 1.0, right? CL trim I write CL trim, so how much it is?
For XCG equals to 0.4 this is 0.5 minus 0.4 is 0.1, 0.1 into 1 is 0.1, – 0.1, so Delta E becomes -
0.06 radian am I correct?
𝛿𝑒 = 0.04 − (0.5 − 0.4) × 1.0 = 0.04 − 0.1 = −0.06 = −3.5°
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This difference is 0.1, 0.1 into 1 is 0.1 so – 0.1, and plus 0.04 is – 0.06, so this is – 0.06 radian,
what is this in degree? Let me check, this will be 0.06 into 57.3 equal to 3.5 degree approximately,
notice here from 1.1 it has become 3.5 degree, and when I say negative, negative means what
elevator up, negative means elevator up correct. Now if I come to 0.2.
How much it becomes, let’s see 0.2 means 0.5 minus 0.2 is 0.3, 0.3 into 1.0, -0.3 so Delta E will
become in this case will be 0.3, -0.3 plus 0.04 so – 0.26 correct. You see here this difference if
XCG is 0.2, this difference is 0.3 so can see 0.3 into 1 is the CL trim here.
So 0.3 minus 0.3 plus 0.04 is -0.26 again this is a radian and 0.26 radian means, there I check 0.26
into 57.3 equal to 14.8 degrees. So this is – 0.26 radian and this is 14.7 degrees. What is the
message instead of 8 degrees, now it is become 14 degrees because you are not try to land XCL,
equal to 1.0 and let us assume that Delta E max is less than equal±15°, let us see for 0.1 then come
back here.
𝛿𝑒 = 0.04 − (0.5 − 0.2) × 1.0 = 0.04 − 0.3 = −0.26 = −14.7°
This will become 0.5 minus 0.1 so 0.4 into 1, this is because 0.4 into 1 is 0.4, -0.4 this Delta
become now – 0.36 radian, so what is – 0.6 is radian let us calculate 0.36 into 57.3 equal to 20.6
degrees so, this gives me – 0.36 radian and that means how much 20.6 degrees around 21 degrees
all are minus right, whenever I am writing this is minus please understand this also minus this is
also minus. All minus sign means I am correcting it here.
𝛿𝑒 = 0.04 − (0.5 − 0.1) × 1.0 = 0.04 − 0.4 = −0.36 = −20.6°
Coming back here is for CL equal to 1 that CL trim equal to 1 typical value, for landing I see that
If my CG is at 0.1 C, then the requirement Delta E is 21 degree, but limit is 15 degree plus minus
elevator (𝛿𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≤ ±15°) so, I’ll restrict my forward CG by the elevator deflection limitation, so
I will not go beyond 0.2, This is, I stop it here so this will be my most forward CG as far as this
examples are concerned is it clear? So you could see that for CL equal to 1 my most forward CG
of the airplane will be restricted.
By this CG most forward CG location 0.2 if it is CG is going ahead of 0.2, its 0.1 most forward
then this limitation that Delta E max is effective only have to ±15 will not be able to trim it so, my
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most forward CG be restricted by the elevator deflection limitation clear. For one so only for 0.6
we have seen this.
Typically for landing this is the number you look towards, next class you will during landing there
is some else happens that also restricts, your elevator availability for trimming and that has a effect
on most forward CG location, so we will do that okay. Thank you.
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 15
Revision
Yeah dear friends today I will be discussing on stability of an aircraft right, and remember we have
already discussed this at length, and today is the session where will revise revisit and try to
understand what is the meaning of a stability of an aircraft, and as you recall when we talk about
stability.
What comes to your mind, yes, can you tell me any student what comes to your mind when you
think of stability go to class 10th, 11th standard “Professor - student conversation starts”
when everything is balanced, standard everything is executed, all the force and movement are
equilibrium. See when all the forces and moments are balanced, we say that is equilibrium that not
really we talk about stability. Lowest energy state. Pardon, Lowest energy state. Yes that is another
yes that again its equilibrium, when you talk about energy state right. and if you. Whether the
object can the rebuke into (()) (01:30).
Yes so as I was telling if you think of your school days example, remember this is sort of diagram.
“Professor - student conversation ends”
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See if I displaced this body from its equilibrium, this is the equilibrium okay. Where you are telling
all the forces and moment are balanced, if I disturb this from this equilibrium and if it has initial
tendency to come back to equilibrium, we say as statically stable correct okay. For example if
again we revise, if there is a mass spring system and if I stretch it, and release it the moment I
stretch it there is a force trying to disturb, it has a initial tendency. The key word is initial tendency
to come back to equilibrium okay.
For aircraft, this is the aircraft we will say this as aircraft is flying at the Alpha equal to 2 degrees
what do you mean by static stability? Suppose it is flying by at an angle two degrees, and because
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of some upward gust angle of attack increased, so if it is statically stable it should generate nose
down moment so that net angle is still remain two degrees. So as static stability we only check
whether it has got a tendency to come back to two degree or not, if it has tendency we say its
statically stable and this nose down moment we all know its sign is negative.
And nose up moment sign is positive, and you are also aware of this term CM which is pitching
moment, half row V square SC bar, so what do you say is if this is CM, and this is Alpha the
variation of CM with Alpha should be like this. Where is the equilibrium point here? Equilibrium
point is here because here CM is 0, and net force is also balanced. It is typically like your airplane
is cruising okay, where thrust equal to drag, lift equal to weight. Now if you want to check whether
this is statically stable or not what you should do?
You should give a disturbance about this trim point, so let’s say the airplane suddenly its angle of
attack is increased so what this diagram is showing you? If the angle of the attack is increased
immediately it will generate a negative pitching moment. So it has initial tendency to come back
to this angle correct. So we say this is statically stable and mathematically we say CM Alpha less
than 0, or if I write more explicitly DCM by D Alpha less than 0 correct.
Now also we checked this issue that not only the slope, there is a important point, suppose I draw
it like this and this is CM and this is Alpha, this is the trim point CM is 0, here also the slope is
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negative so which one you will prefer? This one or this one. “Professor - student
conversation starts” First one. Why first one yes, very good, I would express it like this, finally
when I’m going to fly a machine I want angle of attack should be positive. So that there is a lift as
well as, it should fly like this it should not go on doing this like this. “Professor - student
conversation ends”
So CM should be 0, should fly like this so, I try to see that, this not only should to be a stable,
where not only CM by D Alpha should be less than 0 but also it should this is called trim okay
trim at positive Alpha correct, to ensure that trim is at positive Alpha, the graph should look like
this or what you’re telling CM at Alpha equal to 0, that is I write as CM0 should be greater than 0
correct.
If you satisfy these two things then you can fly a machine which is stable, statically stable right.
We also know this CM, whatever the pitching moment is coming this contribution will come from
wing, it could come from tail it could come from fuselage it could come from landing gear right
because all will generate forces and that will be a moment, and this CM you should remember this
is about center of gravity.
Because, a body in free space will rotate about an axis passing through central gravity right. So all
these CM or the moments are about center of gravity of the airplane. Now see this is very important
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if I see the wing part okay, what is my aim? My aim is DCM by D Alpha should be less than zero
of the whole airplane. I like to check what is DCM by D Alpha contribution because of wing,
correct. Now If I see an wing and there is a aero dynamic center.
You know what is an aerodynamic center? It is the fictitious point about which the pitching
moment is independent of angle of attack, and let’s say CG of the airplane is somewhere here. So
if I draw it explicitly this is the wing, and this is the typically this is at quarter chord, and this is
CG of the whole airplane because we are talking about CM about CG of the whole airplane right.
Now do you think this will give you DCM by D Alpha negative?
Check yourself, if there is a disturbance say Alpha, then I will represent the force acting through
AC. So AC is here and CG is here this force, are Delta lift will give what type of moment, it will
give positive moment about CG that means for positive Alpha, you have got positive moment so
this is telling DCM by D Alpha is greater than zero, so this is a destabilizing contribution clear.
How do you make the same wing having stabilizing contribution, you have to ensure that I lay the
wing in such a way, than if this is the CG of the airplane if I put the wing in such a way that AC is
behind the CG of the airplane, it will give stabilizing contribution. So what is the lesson learned if
I want from wing if I want DCM by D Alpha negative then AC of the wing should be behind CG
of the aircraft correct.
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But we know very well it is not only we are looking for slope here, which is DCM by D Alpha
we also looking for this gentleman, CM0 should be positive, and let us see if I put the wing the
way we realize to get stability for the CM0 contribution is positive or negative.
If this is the wing, let’s say cambered wing, if this is the AC of the wing and this is the CG of the
wing, you know when we have a cambered wing aerofoil we have got CMAC of wing which is
less than 0 right, typically – 0.02, -0.1 it will be there because, we are transferring the forces and
there will be moment here, but know if you want to calculate CM0 because of wing what will
happen at Alpha equal to 0, there will be a force CL0 act or non dimensional CL, CL0 is acting at
AC, this is okay or not?
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Because you know for a cambered aerofoil something like this, the CL0 right at Alpha equal to 0
what this CL0 will do? at Alpha equal to 0 this CL0 will give what type of moment about CG nose
down, negative moment, so what will happen you have already have the CMAC of the wing, now
you will have CL0 into X bar which is also negative, let say this distance is X bar. So overall CM0
because of the wing is becoming what? Negative, this is negative.
This is also negative, but what we are looking for, we are looking for positive. So we are not happy
about it right, So what is the done in most of the aircraft we will see that AC of the wing is actually
kept ahead of CG. So the wing is destabilizing number one however it gives relatively positive
CM0 if you see here Alpha equal to 0 there is a CL0 here, that will give a nose up moment correct
you can check any aircraft, which have a cambered aerofoil then the debate comes what is the use
of that wing which will be destabilizing the airplane.
The answer is stability is that the role of the wing, role of the, primary role of the wing is what lift.
Stability is somebody else will take care. who is that gentleman who takes care of stability? it is
the stabilizer not the control surface it is the horizontal stabilizer, control surface takes care of the
control, that is I’m flying at a particular CL I want to go to another CL so that is through control,
that is not stability.,
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This a distinction should be there very clearly and then we need to know what is the elevator
deflection for a particular CL we again come back here. So this CM versus CL we agreed that here
CM is 0, which is a trim I am flying at this CL and slope is negative so statically stable. But suppose
I want to fly at this CL say CL star (𝐶𝐿∗ ) if I try to fly at this CL what will happen? See that
immediately the airplane will generate negative a pitching moment.
So it will not allow to go to that CL that means if I want to increase CL I have to bring the angle
of attack up using elevator, but because it is statically stable, it will generate the negative moment
so, if you want to fly at this CL, what you have to do, you have to ensure that this negative moment
is nullified, and who does it there is a, that is the control part that is done by the elevator.
This your tail okay this is the elevator, this is CG, now suppose you want to fly to another CL ,
CL star (𝐶𝐿∗ ) of the trim, the airplane generates negative pitching moment so, the airplane tries to
come back like this. But you want to hold it like this, so what do you do, you put the elevator up
okay, as you do elevator up net force here acts downward right and this will give a positive
moment, and it should carefully deflect this elevator up, such that this magnitude of negative
moment is nullified. Then you are flying at different CL
And this is the control part, this comes through the elevator okay, and how to approach this
problem that is given by what is the CM, you know CM is CM0 plus CM because of CM Alpha
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into Alpha because angle of attack, and CM Delta E into Delta E these are all, this is coming from
stability right. this is coming from control, if I got a aircraft but CM Delta E is very strong, then I
should be able to easily control the airplane, okay.
This is one and multiplying this if I try to plot Delta E required for different, different CL
trim,Variation is like this, here again you could see that if I am flying at this CL trim if I want to
fly at this CL trim, this variation will tell you how much Delta E negative we have to put, so this
directly give the feed to the pilot, before he goes for a flying he will check what are the elevator
deflections, and that’s why he trains himself. Now imagine if I go on taking of the CG on the
airplane backward.
What will happen, see from you know If I take this CG backward there will be time when and CG
and AC will coincide, so it will become a neutrally stable. So there is a neutral point concept of
the whole airplane, if there is a location at which if I put the CG, the airplane become neutrally
stable beyond that if we take the CG it becomes statically unstable. Let us come back to stability,
suppose I have an airplane, where the wing is high wing okay.
And tail could be somewhere here. This is typically configuration of which of the airplane is high
wing airplane in flight lab, Cessna 2 0 6 if you have right, my question is we are very much clear
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about, CM versus CL we want this slope should be negative at trim, and we need to know about
CM0 at Alpha equal to 0.
Suppose the wing is high wing another case, the wing is mid wing another case let say wing is a
low wing okay, and CG is somewhere here is or somewhere here is or to make problem simpler I
said CG is somewhere here. Now check from stability point of view high wing versus low wing in
longitudinal case, that is what we are discussing which one is more stable, there is the general
confusion high wing is more stable in lateral directional mode.
But we are talking about longitudinal so you can, do you understand what is the catch see here, if
there is a increase in CL because of the disturbance suppose here, CL has suddenly increased that
means. Suddenly angle of the attack has increased, because of gust or because of anything. Then
what will happen? This CL of this wing will increase CL means you know drag polar CD equal to
plus K CL square,
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿2
so what will happen if CL increases CD increases the CD will act in this direction right so this will
give what type of moment about CG. So this will contribute to, so this is destabilizing. Please
remember for longitudinal case the high wing, is destabilizing for lateral case.
It is stabilizing, similar thing you can check here, if there is a increase in Alpha as here, the drag
will be additional drag will come here, this will give what type of moment about CG nose down,
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so low wing will be providing static stability longitudinal case is this part clear so let us check
another case, if this is the airplane and let us say landing gear is out okay, flying like this, if I draw
CM versus CL where landing, gear was in that is inside the fuselage, now you have ejected the
landing gear out.
How this graph is going to change predominantly. CL is okay, CL remains same, you should think
like this what is happening to this CM0? So what is CM0, CM0 is CM at alpha equal to 0. So if
Alpha equal to 0 and this will experience a drag, what we are trying to compare is suppose the
airplane is flying with landing gear in and then landing gear out, simply landing gear out will be
during landing okay.
And we are saying when the landing was in CM versus CL was like this, when the landing gear is
out, how this CM versus CL as a designer should think we going to change, so best way to think
is first check what will happen to CM0, see at Alpha equal to 0, this landing gear will experience
a drag this drag will produce a nose down moment negative moment so CM0 will decrease, Is this
clear everybody. So now CM0 will come somewhere here, and as far as stability is concern you
know drag means what it is half row V square S CD for CD I will write CD0 plus K CL square
can I write this.
1
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆 𝐶𝐷
2
No, I cannot write this because, this drag polar is for wing, right. This is not this whatever form is
there, this is for wing lifting body. So I will not write, commit this mistake of writing like this,
however, I will know one thing this CD, I can write it as instead of CD some CD 0 + CD Alpha
into Alpha, that means there will change in CD because of Alpha that much I can approximate.
1
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆 (𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐶𝐷𝛼 𝛼)
2
So you could see since the Alpha is there, whatever moment this drag is giving nose down, will
have a Alpha component so the slope of moment because of drag also will be negative now.
Whatever moment is what? Moment will be D into whatever length okay, ZCG correct and D is
half row V square S CD0 plus CD Alpha into Alpha into ZCG but I have to ensure that I put a
minus sign, because I know with Alpha 0, Alpha equal to 0 this will give a nose down moment.
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1
𝑀 = 𝐷. 𝑍𝑐𝑔 = − 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆(𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐶𝐷𝛼 𝛼). 𝑍𝑐𝑔
2
So if I find DM by D Alpha, so this Alpha is here I will get a negative sign so this will make the
airplane little more stable.
So will find that this slope at this point will be more than the slope here so, basically landing gear
is changing the CM0, however marginally it may increase the static stability correct. Again if I see
this is the airplane let say CM versus CL is like this, and If I put another surface here that is I put
that canard here how this graph is going to change, if I assume that CG as not altered, how this
will change? It will become more stable or less stable.
This is the best way to check is always if this is CG any component which is ahead of CG will be
destabilizing, You have to checked that too, if AC is here and CG is here then only it is statically
stable. If AC is behind CG but this is AC of this component is ahead of CG so this will make it
less stable, and that is why when you want have a maneuvering aircraft, we will find lot of canard
surfaces are used so stability is reduced so I can turn faster way.
We were discussing about stability for long and we were very emphatic that, wing primary role is
for lift, but we will see in a secondary manner, wing also supports stability or it may contribute to
static stability.
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This is sinus 912 this is also high wing aircraft, and now when we are talking about static stability
suppose this airplane was flying at an angle 1 or 2 degrees, and there is a upward gust, additional
angle of the attack is coming like this, as a disturbance the moment there is an additional angle of
attack, there will be additional drag because, it comes through the drag polar, and additional drag,
which will be acting towards this, towards the tail that direction this will give nose up moment
about center of gravity, so high wing is not preferred as far as longitudinal stability is concerned,
you see high wings are in demand for lateral directional stability.
And that is why you will find why there is a high wing, why there is a dihedral, but theoretically
fundamentally you should know, although high wing is adding towards lateral or directional
stability, which will be coming later, but high wing in particular adds to instability of the airplane
okay because this drag through drag it operates and if you now come to that engine side here how
you are thinking or discussing, which we already have discussed in the class room.
What happens what is the contribution of this propeller, on the longitudinal stability of the airplane
specially static stability, and you know if there is angle of attack disturbance coming here, then the
there will be thrust will have a direction like in this way, and there will be normal component of
thrust which will be function of angle of the attack, in a loose way and this will give a nose up
moment about CG, so such nose mounted engine.
Whether it is a propeller driven, or whether it is jet engine or duct based, they all if they are ahead
of CG all such engines if they are located ahead of CG will contribute to instability of the airplane
as far as static stability concern okay, same engine if I put behind CG like a pusher, than they will
contribute towards stability static stability.
So wing this is the propeller , horizontal tail already you know landing gear, we have discussed
and that makes the whole understanding of static stability, that also makes us understand who
contribute what. To conclude we see that horizontal tail will primarily contributes towards
longitudinal stability and wing has the marginal effect high wing will contribute towards instability
in terms of static configuration concern, and if you see.
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This wing which is a low wing configuration so, this will actually act to static stability okay, in
terms of longitudinal stability, we will discuss their effect on lateral or directional stability in
lectures coming ahead okay. Thank you very much.
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 16
Trim-Cruse, Climb and Landing
Yes, Good morning friends, we have been so far discussing about how to control an airplane in a
longitudinal mode that is, how do I deflect the elevator to trim the airplane at different, different
CL right, and in this regard we developed one relationship that is Delta E.
That is Delta E trim or Delta E required is Delta E0, plus D Delta E by DCL trim into CL trim.
Further we know D Delta E by DCL trim which is this one, this is equal to - DCM by DCL by CM
Delta E what is CM Delta E? CM Delta E is elevator control power its sign is negative, and DCM
by DCL is - static margin. So, I can write this as N0 - XCG bar by CM Delta E, this is clear?
Because we know DCM by DCL is equal to - static margin, - of static margin is neutral point -
XCG location, so if I put it here this - sign goes so I have got this.
𝑑𝛿𝑒
(𝛿𝑒 )𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 = 𝛿𝑒0 + ( )𝐶
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝑑𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 ̅0 − 𝑋̅𝐶𝐺 ) 𝜕𝐶𝑚
(𝑁
( )=− = ; ̅0 − 𝑋𝐶𝐺 )
= −(𝑁
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿
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So, in a simpler form I can write Delta E trim or required, whatever you use is equal to Delta E0
plus N0 bar - XCG bar divided by CM Delta E. And you all know when you say bar means it is
non-dimensionalized with mean aerodynamic chord, this is not complete I have to write here CL
trim, so what is the message from this relationship we got? If I want to trim an airplane at a
particular CL once I know this, this, this and this I know how much elevator deflection has to be
given.
Let us say for an aircraft for an aircraft low speed aircraft, low speed means why I am saying low
speed, I am assuming that at low speed this derivative will not change with Mac number. So, they
remain fairly constant and this statement is fairly correct, if Mac number is up to 0.6 with all this
derivatives remain fairly constant,
So I am considering at low speed, so that means I know that Delta E0 which is minus CM0 by CM
Delta E that is also constant, also we are assuming that if there is slight change in the CG okay,
we do not attribute that much of change to change CM0 we are assuming CM0 is constant. But
one can always find out exact value. Similarly, here N0 bar which is for a stick fixed case is also
fixed right, but we have noticed that this N0 bar may vary depending upon for that power ON,
Power OFF, or propeller wind milling right, okay.
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So now, think if I have taken a particular aircraft, and if I want to find out what is the Delta E
required for cruise I am cruising at the particular altitude where density is rho, then what is the CL
required that I find through lift equal to weight, this implies CL equal to 2 W by S by rho V square.
Let us say I want to fly at a particular altitude were density is rho, and in particular speed V then
what is the CL required? I know from here CL will be 2 W by S rho V square and W by S is the
wing loading, you all know that.
So, what is this relation is telling me now? Then this becomes my CL trim for that cruise at altitude
where density rho, I will be simply using this CL value here right? As we have assume that CM
Delta E Delta E0 I am not changing, what is the next thing I should check I know that N0 I have
to be very careful, I have to see N0 for power ON Power OFF wind milling case which case it is?
While it is cruising at cruise which N0 will be relevant for us, it is not power OFF it is not wind
milling it is power on case.
So, I should put this CL trim here and along with I will pick up the value of N0 power ON and
find out what is the Delta E required okay. This will go there and N0 power on will be here come
here for cruise, but that’s not the end of the story. Suppose you want to cruise such that L by D is
maximum possible, and you know for that typically this is a condition when we say the thrust
required is minimum, if we revise you remember for a cruise thrust equal to drag, lift equal to
weight.
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So I can write thrust equal to W by L by D or equal to W by CL by CD, so from here I can make
an observation if I want thrust required minimum, that means this gentleman should be maximum
for a given weight right. So for CL by CD to be maximum we know that CD I can write as, CD0
plus K CL square and using this relation, I can find out the condition for CL by CD maximum
which we have done in your first course to be CL equal to under root CD0 by K.
Now notice this CL and this CL are not same now in general this is the CL when I am going thrust
required minimum, or this is the CL when L by D is maximum right. So now how do I get what is
the elevator deflection? what I will I will again take this CL, this CL value I will plug in here,
whatever this CL coming for thrust required minimum. This CL for L by D maximum or thrust
required minimum I will plug in here right and then next I will check what the N0?
Because it is also cruise although it is in a thrust required minimum configuration or CL by CD,

maximum configuration but it is power on so N0, again I will be using power on correct. Next case
we see, let’s say climb.
How did you model the climb? if we recall this is the airplane this is vertical tail, this is the
horizontal tail, this is the wing and say T this is D and this is Lift, and let the V be in the same
direction, this is W so this is W COS of flight path angle, which is gamma right so how did you
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form the equation? We said T - D - W sin Gamma equal to 0, because we are talking about steady
climb. we have done all this thing in your first course you are advised to go through that I will be
going skip, I will be just glancing through it because it as relevance and then here L equal to W
COS gamma.
𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝑊 sin 𝛾 = 0
𝐿 = 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾
So, message is If I want make a rectilinear flight along this direction, I should ensure that there is
a force perpendicular to this velocity vector, if there a net force perpendicular to the velocity
direction then it will take curve path. So we must ensure that, if we are flying like this steady climb
rectilinear path then I must ensure this lift force should be balanced, by the component of it W
COS gamma, so from here CL.
I find as W by half rho V square S into COS gamma. And you could see that if I am climbing the
CL climb is less than CL cruise right. That is exactly why we saying, induced drag during, cruise
is more than induced drag during climb. What is the Delta E required? Again I ask this question,
so I will now put I will estimate this, CL value depending upon what is the value of the gamma?
am I climbing at 15 degree or thirty degrees depending upon that I know the CL value, and this
CL value.
I now put to CL trim and next question of N0 okay, this is climbing when the power is on, so I
should take N0 power on this case correct, so what is the change? Change is only I need to find
out the CL for the climb, which is equal to W by half rho V square is into COS gamma depending
upon what is the gamma, what is flight path angle this CL value also will change CL for climb will
change right. And that value I will put here, I check what is N0 it is climbing that means thrust is
on the power is on, so I will be using N0 corresponding to power on okay.
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At this point you should remember that we have already proofed that, if this is N0 power off most
stable case, this is N0 on and this is power on and this is propeller wind milling correct. We are
measuring from this reference, and this graph, or this variation is typically correct for a nose
mounted propeller driven engine, or a engine nose mounted that means that engine is the thrust
line or thrust is ahead of CG.
The engine ahead of CG okay, now the story again doesn't end here, when you are in the operation
you see what are the things you do, what the pilot would like to do?
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If I take the climb case we have seen T - D - W Sin Gamma equal to 0, so I can write T - D by W
equal to sign gamma, or T V - DV by W is equal to V sin gamma. We have already done all these
so what is V sin gamma? If this is V, V sin gamma is this component, so this is rate of climb okay
this is rate of climb.
And what is TV, it’s the power available, power available and this is the power required and this
is the weight so, I know how rate of climb changes with excess power that is different between the
power available and, power required for a steady climb this is for a steady climb no acceleration
is there.
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Now from pilot point of view, if you see if I write power and V you know that power required
graph will follow something like this, and let’s say power available for particular type of engine,
propeller driven, let say remain almost constant with speed where ever this excess power is
maximum, this is the excess power maximum you know this is power required, this is power
available.
So this is the excess power, and there it starts increasing goes to maximum, and then start reducing
so there is a corresponding V let say V star (𝑉 ∗ ) which corresponds to rate of climb maximum
because I know excess power and this rate of climb they are related okay, V sin gamma is rate of
climb so, they are related.
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So wherever excess power is maximum rate of climb also will be maximum. Now suppose the
pilot wants to fly at a particular speed, where rate of climb is maximum, how it’s going to trim the
airplane? How much Delta he is going to deflect, so you know this is V from this chart you know
what is the V the pilot should fly, from that V pilot should find out CL using the climb equation,
and that CL, so this is V star he find CL from climb, and that CL he as to use it here okay. That
will give him the Delta E required to fly at a speed for which rate of climb is maximum.
Again he will be using N0 bar, which is for power on, these are pilot will not compute, all these
things, the designer you have to see that, these solutions are available pilot will go on handling
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elevator, and thrust extra together, but if you do not have a solution in the design, then pilot won’t
be able to get those thing through iteration right okay. So, these are very important for the
understanding for the designer so what you are doing, what are the solutions available, what sort
of bandwidth you have given for the airplane right.
We have been discussing on the cruise, climb and now landing also same story, same you have to
find out what is the CL, and then trim the airplane.
Based on Delta E equal to Delta E0 plus N0 bar minus XCG bar, by CM Delta E into CL trim,
see the landing. During landing, what is happening again the velocity vector is like this, and you
want to follow this path. This is the weight, this is the lift, this is the W Cos Gamma, CL will be
again W Cos gamma by half rho V square S, this is fine.
𝑊 cos 𝛾
𝐶𝐿 = ; 𝑊 < 𝑊𝑇.𝑂
1 2
𝜌𝑉 𝑆
2
So, what you will do, you can find out the CL by taking the weight, what weight should I take?
When I am landing this weight is not equal to the take-off weight, isn’t it because some amount of
fuel is consumed this weight will be different, so this weight will be less than W take off,
whatever when you are computing CL right, and you have particular speed so, you know what is
the CL value, that CL again will be putting here for CL trim but then as we have made it a habit,
we should check what N0 should I put in this case.
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When I am landing then we have three cases power on, power off, and power that is wind milling.
Which way should I pick? Generally when am landing like this, ideally power should be 0
because, why do you want unnecessary power. But that is not the case for all safety arrangements.
So, the propellers are generally put in a wind milling condition that is when it’s moving it is also
rotating because of wind milling effect, and sometimes it is some pilot to set 10% of the power,
10%, 20% percent power.
But we are thinking of a case where wind milling, and we know that, N0 for a wind milling is in
between this is N0 power off, this is N0 wind milling, and this is of course N0 power on, this is
typically for nose mountain engine. So, now when I am landing this N0 should be N0
corresponding to N 0 wind milling. Because it is not full power on, nor it is power off okay.
Then you will find what is Delta E required correct? it is as simple as that, but see there is a catch,
this is fine, but when you are landing what is happening, let’s see in flight in cruise, you are flying
in air and you have air and air all through, but when you are coming for landing.
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What is happening you see, when you are coming for landing at some distance, see there is
something called ground effect that we have talked about in our first course, what happens if this
is the, this is the wing of the airplane when I am landing like this there is a high pressure bottom,
low pressure at the top.
So there will be vortices they will come out of this, they will be hitting the ground and there is a
reflection right, and that is typically characterized through ground effect modeling. But for us
what happens? Because of ground effect primarily one of the important thing, that happened is
downwash reduces, so because of the ground effect the downwash reduces, and what is effect of
that let us see. Remember when your are modeling in free air or free space, where far away from
the ground we said Alpha tail is whatever the Alpha FRL fuselage reference line plus IT.
If I put IT some setting angle, you can check earlier note IT, plus IT but - epsilon because of wing,
vortices there will be a downwash component, then we have seen. If this is the freestyle V and the
local V, at the tail becomes, V prime, (𝑉 ′ ) it’s tilted downward and this is the downwash angle.
that means what is the message from the flight mechanics point of view.
The effective angle of attack at tail, because of downwash is reduced from free stream angle of
attack. That the only message, if the down-wash was zero, whatever the angle of attack is seen by
the wing same angle of attack is seen by tail, if there is no tail setting angles right. Now, what is
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happening it is you have put the elevator to counter the movement, which is coming because of
Alpha at the tail, Alpha tail will give moment like this down so, you have put the elevator of if you
are balancing it. But what happens as we come near to the ground, maybe within the one span
length of the aircraft, this downwash generally reduces approximately it becomes half so that
means what the airplane which was trimmed earlier.
As it comes close the ground, suddenly the tail angle of attack, Alpha tail increases because
downwash has reduced, if the tail angle of attack suddenly increases what will happen, it will a
nose down movement like this. So, if you want really land safely then you have to ensure that this
sudden increase in the nose down movement is also connected by putting the elevator up
otherwise it will hit the ground.
So this where while you are landing, you need to have additional care and keeping the Delta E or
elevator deflection or additional deflection reserve okay only to be used during landing, extra
amount right. How do I do that? How do I solve that?
We know because of downwash reduced, by half the change in the tail angle of attack is, it will be
CL wing by PI aspect ratio, because you know epsilon is 2 CL wing, by PI aspect ratio.
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We are taking ‘e’ to be one Oswald efficiency to be one, so this is this much change in the angle
of attack, that means angle of attack, of the tail will change by this much amount right? Earlier it
was twice of this, which was subtracted from tail of angle of attack. Now, this value itself as
become half, so now effectively tail angle of attack has increased, which will give a nose down
movement right. So, how do I find out Delta E? We know that definition of tau which is D Alpha
T by D Delta E, that means per unit change in elevator deflection, how much Alpha T gets change.
𝑑𝛼𝑡
𝜏=
𝑑𝛿𝑒
So, I can write tau into Delta, delta E plus CLW by pi aspect ratio should be equal to 0 that means
whatever additional increase in angle of attack is there in the tail, should be compensated by
changing the Alpha T through Delta E deflection using tau. So from here I get Delta, Delta E equal
to minus CLW by tau, pi aspect ratio that means, this much of elevator deflection should be kept
in reserve, meaning thereby, suppose Delta E max is ±15 degree what we have to do you find out
what is this Delta, Delta E is required for landing if it is 3 degrees, suppose it is 3 degree this is,
suppose then that means you to operate in the flight will be maximum of 12 degree.
𝐶𝐿𝑤
𝜏Δ𝛿𝑒 + =0
𝜋𝐴𝑅
Because anyway this 3 degrees you have to keep reserve clear. Let’s see an example there you will
get better idea.
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Let’s take an example, this for typical airplane, let’s say tau is 0. 5, CL max let’s say is 1.5 and
aspect ratio is 5, so essentially I am talking about low aspect ratio wing. you could see that if aspect
ratio is large, this value will be less right. So this effect will not be Delta E required will not be
very large, but if aspect ratio is small, for the high speed airplane this Delta, Delta E will be
pretty high, I repeat you could see here, this Delta Delta E, is inversely proportional to the
aspect ratio.
𝐶𝐿𝑤
Δ𝛿𝑒 = −
𝜏𝜋𝐴𝑅
Aspect ratio is more than Delta, Delta E required will be less, you have taken a aspect ratio 5
because, typically this phenomenon will be for an high speed airplane, what called is
recognizable right. So, if I now put Delta, Delta E this is equal to - CL that is – 1.5 by pi, let’s say
tau is 0.5, pi is 3.14 and aspect ratio is 5. So typically these value if you calculate, it will come
10.9 degree, because this will be radian and then multiply 57.3, you will get in degree,
10.9 degrees. What is the message?
Message is if you have Delta E max limit, let’s say ±20 5 degree, then please remember that 25
– 10.9, let’s say 11 that is 14 degree is only available for you to trim in free air, while landing
because, you know as I come to land right, I need suddenly additional of an 11 degree up, so this
is - sign, 11 degree up, so if that time if I have trimmed this whole airplane at 25 degree at for the
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landing, and trim the airplane at 25 degree, the moment I come closer to the ground it will demand
another 11 degree to be taken up.
But, the movement I put 11 degree over 25 degree, the elevator will not work because it will stall.
So what is the message you find out what is the Delta, Delta E required. So, whenever you are
trimming before you come down to landing, make sure from your maximum elevator deflection
allowable, this much angle is left reserved and you land there only okay. That is how you plan
your maneuver, and this is strictly true for very significant for lower aspect ratio aircraft that is
high speed airplane okay.
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 17
Trim: Maneuver
So far we were discussing about cruise climb landing, now let us talk about how to trim aircraft
for maneuver. We will take two cases one is pull up, another is steady coordinated turn, we will
be discussing how to trim an aircraft for maneuver one is pull up.
And another is steady coordinated turn right. What is a pull up? This is the airplane this is the V
you have generate lift W, this is the thrust this is the drag, and you know if I want to go for radius
R then lift has to be greater than W. So, L minus W equal to M V square upon R, you are all
familiar with this, because this difference in lift and weight is only giving centripetal acceleration,
and which is modelled through m V square upon R.
𝑚𝑉 2
𝐿−𝑊 =
𝑅
And we know L is equal to nW or in a sense we say n is L by W that is called load factor, you’re
advised to read my first course or introduction to performance, if you want to know more about
these things, but I will just glance through this so that there is continuity.
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So now from this relationship what I get nW - W is equal to mV into V by R or W n - 1 is equal
to mV into q, V by R is what? Is the pitch rate okay, this is the V and this is the DSR, so what is
the angular rate, that is q. So, this angular rate is about remember about Y axis correct? So, now I
have replaced V via by q, and I can write this mg(n – 1) equal to mV into q, m & m gets cancelled
so, I get q for pull up is g by V(n – 1).
(𝑚𝑉)𝑉
𝑛𝑊 − 𝑊 =
𝑅
𝑊(𝑛 − 1) = (𝑚𝑉)𝑞
𝑚𝑔(𝑛 − 1) = (𝑚𝑉)𝑞
𝑔
𝑞𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑝 = (𝑛 − 1)
𝑉
What is the meaning of this? If I plan to go for a load factor of n, at a particular speed V, then the
pitch rate will Q given by this relationship right. So, if I want to go for a same load factor at a
lower speed, then the q should be higher and you have to generate this q who generates this q? It
is through the elevator okay.
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This is one for pull up, similarly if I come for steady coordinated turn to lift this is W and this is
your Y axis, this is your Z axis, YZ are body fixed axis so, the airplane has banked by 5 so body
fix axis also tilted by this for example, this is the airplane and let’s say this is the Z axis this is the
body fixed axis so, if the airplane banks the Z axis also rotates, that is how you are seeing this Z
axis right? Similarly Y axis,
If this true it is taking a turn about, lets say psi dot (𝜓̇) about a fixed vertical axis Z, Z earth axis I
say, rotating through about that axis, and that notation is PSI Dot, turn rate is PSI Dot, it is
something like this it is banking like this, and turning like this okay. So, this is the definition of
PSI dot.
Now if I write the equation, I find if it is coordinated, that we should not also lose the height, so,
this is L COS 𝜙, so I must have L COS 𝜙 equal to W. So that L COS 𝜙 component of lift should
balance the weight, and N SIN 𝜙 component must be equal to MV square upon R because this L
SIN 𝜙 component, it has two component one this, and one this, it is the L SIN 𝜙 component, that
is going to give you L SIN 𝜙, if I write it here that is responsible to give you centripetal acceleration
right.
𝐿 cos 𝜙 = 𝑊
𝑚𝑉 2
𝐿 sin 𝜙 =
𝑅
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So, this is equal to MV square upon R so, I can write TAN 𝜙 equal to V square upon Rg this is
straight forward dividing this by this, and we also know PSI Dot (𝜓̇), equal to V by R that is true
let me write few expressions so, that we do not get lost unnecessarily so, PSI Dot equal to V by R
what is Q? will there be any Q in this see 1 thing you understand, if the airplane is like this and
taking a turn like this then there should not be any Q that is local Y axis, local body Y axis but if
the airplane is bang like this, then it is turning like this, then there will come a component about
local Y axis which is the along the span of the airplane.
𝑉2
tan 𝜙 =
𝑅𝑔
𝑉
𝜓̇ =
𝑅
You could see that this is Y axis, and this is the PSI Dot, if I draw a PSI dot here parallelly, there
will be component along Y axis, and that is equal to PSI Dot sin 𝜙. you see this, any one component
will come here, and that is nothing but this is 𝜙 this angle is 90, this is again 𝜙 you can find out
yourself, this is 90 minus 𝜙 so, it 90 minus 𝜙, the COS component will become SIN component,
because COS (90 – 𝜙 ), SIN 𝜙, so Q equal to PSI dot SIN 𝜙 however physically also you could
see.
If I am turning like this there is no motion of like this, but you have banked like this, and my Y
axis is this one, now if I turn I am actually turning about Y axis also, that is if you could check it,
if 𝜙 is 0 then, there won’t be any pitch rate because of PSI dot. But if there is a 𝜙 there will be Q
because of 𝜙 because of PSI dot okay. We know we will substitute few expression, and try to get
Q for steady coordinated turn in terms of load factor and velocity.
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So you will do some manipulation, we have seen that TAN 𝜙 equal to V square by Rg or R equal
to V square by g TAN 𝜙 right. This is what we have derived. Now what is Q? Q is PSI Dot, SIN
𝜙 and what is PSI Dot? PSI Dot is V by R SIN 𝜙 okay. This part we have come, after that Q equal
to V by R SIN 𝜙 and R equal to V square by g Tan 𝜙, if I put R here I should get expression.
𝑞 = 𝜓̇si n 𝜙
𝑉2 𝑉2
ta n 𝜙 = ,𝑅 =
𝑅𝑔 𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙
𝑉
𝑞= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙
𝑅
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If I put R here please do yourself R here, then I will get Q equal to G by V SIN 𝜙, Tan 𝜙 Q equal
to G by V SIN 𝜙 Tan 𝜙 and SIN 𝜙, is what COS 𝜙 Tan 𝜙 is what? if I know this I can put it here,
I can get this expression for Q one thing I know, that L COS 𝜙 is equal to W or L by W is equal
to 1 by COS 𝜙, this is equal to n for the load factor, no objection you know that L COS 𝜙 was
balancing the weight, so L by W will be 1 by COS 𝜙 and L by W is nothing but load factor, so I
can write load factor is equal to 1 by COS 𝜙, what is the meaning of that?
𝑔
𝑞 = sin 𝜙 tan 𝜙
𝑉
𝐿 1
= =𝑛
𝑊 cos 𝜙
If you are turning and not losing your height or altitude, then you can easily find out what is the
load factor, by just taking 1 by COS 𝜙 as a computation okay. So now what our aim? Our aim is
to see here, it’s very straight forward COS 𝜙 you know 1 by n, so you can show that SIN 𝜙 is
equal to under root, n square - 1 by n and you can show Tan 𝜙 is equal to under root n square – 1.
So if I put all these things here then.
1 √𝑛2 − 1
cos 𝜙 = ; sin 𝜙 = ; tan 𝜙 = √𝑛2 − 1
𝑛 𝑛
I will get q for I write here, q for steady coordinate turn, as G by V n - 1 by n. Let me repeat this
is little bit of algebraic manipulation, and I will always suggest you do yourself, but let me repeat
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for your clarity, q is PSI Dot SIN 𝜙 this you have understood, Tan 𝜙 V square by Rg already you
have seen, so R is this so in q PSI Dot SIN 𝜙, PSI Dot nothing but V by R, so I have put V by R
here and SIN 𝜙 is here, for R we substitute this expression to get q as g by SIN 𝜙 Tan 𝜙.
We wanted to find SIN 𝜙 and Tan 𝜙 what are their expressions, we know L COS 𝜙 equal to W,
so we know n equal to 1 by COS 𝜙, so COS 𝜙 equal to 1 by n, so you can find SIN 𝜙 and Tan 𝜙
substitute there, and will get expression this. So, what is the meaning of this? Let me erase all these
terms all, once again I repeat.
If you have any difficulty please read my first course, most lecture you will get or any standard
textbook, you take now we are coming back to the control part of it. What sort of elevator
deflection you should give? Before we decide what sort of elevator deflection you should give, let
us again relook what are these, what is this q pull up? What are these say, If I want to go for a load
factor of n pull up like, this then I need to generate this much of q, and let’s say if you want to go
for steady coordinator turn, for a given load factor n.
Then I need to generate q given by this expression at particular speed, and also realize that if the
speed is lower, then q will increase, but we also known that there is a limit on V, it cannot be less
than V stall okay. Now what is the question?
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So, what is the Delta E required for pull up or pull up with load factor N right? So, this is important
please understand, what I am going to say now. We are looking for Delta E required for pull up
with load factor n, what is the pull up the airplane going remember this is the fuselage, assume
there is a wing and this is the tail right.
White part is the tail so, I am going in a cruise then I have to pull up means, I have to generate a q
so I do like this, the moment I am giving a q and this q is proportional to whatever load factor I
want. So once I give you a q what is happening? This tail is going downward about CG, going
downward so, it is it will be seeing induced air component, which I write 𝑞 𝑙𝑡 right. This is the
induced 𝑉𝑖 , relative airspeed, right? This is going q up this is going down 𝑙𝑡 is the distance to CG,
and AC of the tail right, if I draw it this is the tail, this is the AC of the tail.
And this is the CG, it’s going for a q like this, so it is going down like this so, there is a relative air
speed which is q into LT, where LT is the tail moment arm, we know that and this is q. We could
see from here, if this airplane is going for a pitch rate q, then this tail is going downward like this,
so there relative air 𝑞𝑙𝑡 that V equal to 𝜔𝑅 right, that will be seen at the AC of the wing, So and
this airplane is also moving forward, so Delta Alpha T tail (Δ𝛼𝑡 ) will be q LT by V, this much of
additional angle of a attack,
𝑞𝑙𝑡
Δ𝛼𝑡 = ( )
𝑉
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Will be seen by the tail whether the airplane is doing a pull up like this, that is when there is a
Q and the moment Delta Alpha T, which is now more than the Alpha seen during cruise, because
he was cruising like, this then he is doing the pull up, so have to again put additional elevator so
that this Delta Alpha T, which will cause a nose down moment is now taken care right.
So I have to give more Delta E, that this Delta Alpha T will give some Delta L (Δ𝐿) and that will
give some Delta M (Δ𝑀). So If I want to trim at Q, I must ensure that this additional Delta M
should be corrected by elevator deflection, over and above whatever Delta E was there for cruise
this part is clear? I repeat again when I am cruising, I have put some Delta E elevator deflection.
Now I am pulling up, the moment I try to pull up then I see additional angle coming at the tail, so
that additional angle of tail will give me nose down moment.
I do not want that I have to counter it. So I have to give the elevator deflection little more up, so
that I counter whatever change of Delta Alpha T is there, so that will be my new Delta E required
for a pull up. One thing we are gonna understand I can say that in a pull up, since there is a
additional moment nose down moment is coming, which is trying to opposite so I say,
It is apparently increasing its stability okay. That is why I need to give additional elevator
deflection, because it has become on the in the process, it has become more stable right. So now
how I do I find what is the Delta E additional required if this is clear then the job is simple.
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I know that what is TAU, TAU is D Alpha T by D Delta E, so I can write TAU into D Delta E, the
additional Delta E required to change Alpha T by how much amount? By Q LT by V,
If they balances, so I put equal to 0, so I get Delta Delta E, equal to minus q LT by TAU into V.
This is the additional Delta E up required for a positive q. But generally what happens we have
considered only tail, if it is customary you multiply by 1.1 to take care of wing fuselage which are
ahead of the wing or wing fuselage combination,
𝜕𝛼𝑡
𝜏=
𝜕𝛿𝑒
𝑞𝑙𝑡
𝜏Δ𝛿𝑒 + =0
𝑉
𝑞𝑙𝑡 𝑞𝑙𝑡
Δ𝛿𝑒 = − = −1.1
𝜏𝑉 𝜏𝑉
It is the typical number; around 10% you can add right okay. So what is the method now? It should
be very straight forward to you, what we have got.
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The Delta Delta E, required to trim at maneuver is – 1.1 q LT by TAU V, I repeat Delta Delta E
required, the additional elevator deflection required, for a pull up by q is – 1.1 LT q TAU V right.
So what was at during it was Delta E0, plus D Delta E by DCL Trim into CL trim right? Now what
will happen? Because of this Q I have to add this also right.
𝛿𝑒 = 𝛿𝑒0 + 𝑑𝛿𝑒 /𝑑𝐶𝐿
This is clear? So this is the additional thing you have to add to whatever you are in the cruise
whatever elevator deflection of the cruise, the moment you want to go for a pull up, I have to
calculate what is the value of q, and with this expression I must give additional Delta E to trim for
that pull up maneuver, this is the understanding okay. So if I ask you a question if I am going for
a pull up then what q I should use for pull up I should use this q, if I am going for a steady
coordinator turn which q I should use? I should use this Q that’s all as simple as that that.
𝑔
𝑞𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑝 = (𝑛 − 1)
𝑉
𝑔 1
𝑞𝑆𝐶𝑇 = (𝑛 − )
𝑉 𝑛
That answers the question how much Delta E required to trim the airplane for the particular pull
up, or particular steady coordinated turn right for a given load factor n correct.
247
So, Delta, Delta E you are trying to find out what will be the Delta, Delta E for pull up. We know
that Delta, Delta E is given by - q LT by TAU V, and into 1.1, we agreed for giving some
consideration for fuselage and wing etc. So then I should know this equal to - 1.1 LT by TAU V,
and for pull up I will pick up the expression of q for pull up,
And that is g by V into n - 1, so effectively it becomes – 1.1, g by TAU V square LT into n - 1.
This is the Delta, Delta E required for pull up meaning thereby for a given velocity, if you are
going for a pull up, over and above if you are cruise Delta E, I have to give this much of elevator
deflection up.
1.1𝑙𝑡 𝑔
(Δ𝛿𝑒 )𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑝 = − (𝑛 − 1)
𝜏𝑉 𝑉
1.1𝑔
Δ𝛿𝑒 = − 𝑙 (𝑛 − 1)
𝜏𝑉 2 𝑡
So Similarly, for Delta, Delta E for a steady coordinate turn, will be again – 1.1, now for q I should
take the expression for, study coordinate turn which is n - 1 by n, so – 1.1 into q into LT divided
by TAU into V. So what is expression then becomes, so Delta, Delta E for SCT equal to - 1.1, gLT
by TAU V square, into n - 1 by n. What was for pull up? it was – 1.1 g by TAU V square, LT into
n - 1 but here it is - 1 point gLT by TAU V square n - 1 by n, that is the difference.
1.1𝑔 1 𝑙𝑡
(Δ𝛿𝑒 )𝑆𝐶𝑇 = − (𝑛 − )
𝑉 𝑛 𝜏𝑉
1.1𝑔𝑙𝑡 1
(Δ𝛿𝑒 )𝑆𝐶𝑇 =− 2
(𝑛 − )
𝜏𝑉 𝑛
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So let me write it neatly as the final result, because we will be using this in your next class. I repeat
please all of you derive this yourself, unless you derive this yourself in pen and pencil, it will not
go to your mind.
So what you have to derive this Delta, Delta E or pull up is given by – 1.1, gLT by TAU V square
into n - 1 and Delta, Delta E for steady coordinate turn, as – 1.1 gLT by TAU V square into n - 1
by n, so what happens?
If I am trying to find out how much Delta E, you have to give for a pull up? Total one part will be
because of cruise, which is already there Delta E 0 plus D Delta E, by DCL into CL now it will
come – 1.1 gLT by TAU V square n - 1 and what is the CL here? CL is nothing but, nW by half
row V square S, because L equal to nW so CL will be nW by half row V square S, this is for pull
up okay. Similarly, Delta E for steady coordinate turn, already equilibrium cruise that much Delta
E is required by DCL into CL.
𝑑𝛿𝑒 1.1𝑔𝑙𝑡
𝛿𝑒 = 𝛿𝑒0 + − (𝑛 − 1)
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝜏𝑉 2
𝑛𝑊
𝐶𝐿 = ; 𝐿 = 𝑛𝑊
1 2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆
𝑑𝛿𝑒 1.1𝑔𝑙𝑡 1
(𝛿𝑒 )𝑆𝐶𝑇 = 𝛿𝑒0 + 𝐶𝐿 − 2
(𝑛 − )
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝜏𝑉 𝑛
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Where CL is again nW by half row V square S, and then – 1.1 gLT by TAU V square n - 1 by n.
This is our final finding, So, I lock it here, focus here. Let us come back here, so if N is equal to
1, that is just cruising Lift is equal to weight, how much Delta E is required? DeltaE, Delta E0, D
Delta by DC into CL trim.CL trim is nothing by CL cruise with n equal to 1 right.
But as n is increased, then Delta E has more negative component from here that is you have to put
elevator up and up. Similarly proof here for steady coordinate turn right. The difference is coming
only because, the q are different one is q by Vn - 1 and, g by V n - 1 by n right. One thing you
could see loosely as a designer, if n is very large, then n - 1 becomes n and n - 1 by n also becomes
n.
So that time the q both the q's are same right as ‘n’ increases then q will remain same so, the Delta
E is required additional will be complete will required will be always same right. That you should
know that clearly. From here next lecture we will try to find out what is that CG location at which
D Delta E by Dn goes to 0, because CL for CL I put in here, here n is there if I find this gradient
that is D Delta by Dn, D Delta E by Dn that is for different load factor how much, what is the
gradient of Delta E in terms of load factor increase or decrease.
That derivation we will find out and will see something very interesting, we will find there is a CG
location, at which D Delta by Dn becomes 0, and that will define it as stick fix maneuvering point.
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Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Lecture- 18
Maneuvering Point: Stick Fixed
Yeah dear friends, we were trying to develop an expression for Maneuvering Point. You know that
we took two examples, one was steady coordinated term, another was pull up and doing that. We
found out expression for pull up.
Pitch rate q is called G by V into n minus 1 and for study coordinated turn, q was equal to g by V
n minus 1 by n, what is n? n is the load factor, and you could see that, if I want to have a pull up
with a given load factor n, at a given velocity V then this expression tells you how much pitch rate
you need to generate okay. And how to generate the pitch rate it? You generate through elevator
movement okay and how this pull up Maneuver is done?
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You know that I am going at a cruise, then I pull up I go for given elevator deflection, and I go in
a radius and depending upon the value of n I need amount of q through this expressing for a given
speed V, right. Same story true for steady coordinated term. The question was how much elevator,
I should in addition put to get these Maneuvers. And what we realized was, suppose the airplane
was going in a cruise, so further there is some Delta E required for trim which I know how to find
out through Delta E equal to Delta E 0 plus D Delta E by DCL into CL.
Now he has to give additional input, elevator input to go for a pull up, and this pull up what we
have realized is, if I see the tail then as it is going for a q pull up then there is additional relative
air velocity this tail will see and that induces angle of attack that is roughly you can write qLT by
V.
We have our LT as a distance between CG and AC of the tail. We have already done that and then
we asked the question how much the Delta E I need to give in addition to whatever Delta E is
given for cruise. So, that this additional angle Delta Alpha T which will generate a additional
moment pitch down moment that does not happen to have to neutralize that, to neutralize that how
much Delta E is required we derive it like this, Delta Alpha T which is qLT by V this equal to 0.
𝑞𝑙𝑡
Δ𝛼𝑡 =
𝑉
𝑞𝑙𝑡
𝜏Δ𝛿𝑒 + =0
𝑉
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Because I know tau is nothing but D Alpha T by D Delta E so this tells me per unit deflection of
elevator how much change in the tail angle happens. But from there I found Delta Delta E require
is, minus qLT by V into tau, and we also said that we need to take care of the fuselage portion
ahead of the wing and roughly it is not bad approximation if I just add 10% to whatever Delta,
Delta E I am getting to this approximation so this is basically Delta, Delta E required.
To go for the Maneuver, please remember it is in addition to whatever Delta E, was given for
trimming the aero plane for a cruise okay. So what happens now if I try to find out what is the
Delta E is required? we showed that and that was given by.
Delta E you know that Delta E0, plus D Delta E by DCL trim into CL trim, this is required for the
cruise, then because I am doing this maneuver. so this additional Delta, Delta E will come, this is
minus 1.1 qLT by V so I know that Delta E required for a pull up, I have to go like this Delta E0
plus D Delta E by DCL into CL trim – 1.1 in place of q.
𝑑𝛿𝑒 1.1𝑞𝑙𝑡
𝛿𝑒 = 𝛿𝑒0 + 𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 −
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝜏𝑉
I should put the expression for q pull up, which is here tau will come, which is G by V n minus 1
into LT by tau V. So, if I write this expression, I will get Delta pull up equal to Delta E0 plus D
Delta E by DCL into CL minus 1.1 G by V, V square this is tau, this is n minus 1 into LT. So, LT
I can put it here. This we have done last time, and we also realized what is this CL trim now
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because I am going for a pull up so lift is equal to nW so CL equal to nW by half rho V square S
so that is the CL value here which is nW by half rho V square S.
𝑑𝛿𝑒 𝑔 𝑙𝑡
𝛿𝑒 = 𝛿𝑒0 + 𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 − 1.1 (𝑛 − 1)
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑉 𝜏𝑉
You could see from here this is Delta E pull up you could see here if I am going from a cruise, at
n equal to 1 so, this term vanishes and n is 1, so this is the typical CL for N equal to 1. It is a level
flight okay. So, this is the expression correct which we have done last class.
Let me continue will pull up, let me write this expression. Delta E equal to Delta E0 plus D Delta
E by DCL into for CL I write nW by half rho V square S this is nothing but CL equal, this is CL
expression right or lift is equal to nW, which you have been expert now so minus 1.1 gLT by tau
V square n minus 1.
This is typically Delta E is required for a pull up, with a load factor of n right. Now let us see what
D Delta E by DL that will be what that this man goes, so this will be D Delta E by DCL into W by
half rho V square S, minus 1.1 gLT by tau V square, D Delta by Dn so, this n so one is here and
this n vanishes and this is like this. Now let us focus here.
We define stick fixed neutral point that is XNP as, or sometime NP this is as the CG location, at
which D Delta E by Dn is equal to 0, what was stick fix neutral point? It was CG location at which
DCM by DCL is 0. What is Maneuvering point will define as CG location at which D Delta E by
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Dn is equal to 0 right. So you can easily find from here the value because the CG location is
somewhere sitting here remember D Delta E by DCL is what? That is XCG minus N0, so it will
be there, so we will now do a simple algebraic manipulation.
And find out what is location for maneuvering point right. And I say we are now discussing about,
maneuvering point is stick fixed, when I say stick fixed you all understand by now, that we are not
allowing the elevator to float, that is give deflection and hold it okay. There is no floating tendency.
So, whatever angle I have given for an elevator it is fixed there. Generally, since elevators are
mounted through a hinge, there is a floating tendency of the elevator, which will come from the
next class, next or one or two classes.
However, you, remember we are allowing anything happens we say stick is fixed. So, now what
happens if I put D Delta E by Dn equal to 0, D Delta E by Dn equal to 0, we get an expression, 0
equal to D Delta E by DCL into W by half rho V square S minus 1.1 GLT by tau V square. So
from here you could see D Delta E by DCL is nothing but XCG minus XN0 by CL Delta E or if
you are not able to comprehend remember D Delta E by DCL was minus DCM by DCL by CM
Delta E and DCM by DCL was minus static margin.
𝑑𝛿𝑒 𝑑𝛿𝑒 (𝑋𝐶𝐺 − 𝑋𝑁0 )
= 0; =
𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
𝑑𝛿𝑒 𝑊 1.1𝑔𝑙𝑡
0= . −
𝑑𝐶𝐿 1 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆 𝜏𝑉 2
2
𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝛿𝑒 (𝑋𝑁0 − 𝑋𝐶𝐺 )
=− ; =−
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
So, I write this static margin means, XN0 neutral point minus XCG this is divided by CM Delta
E. So, this is D Delta E by DCL, so which I have written taken the sign appropriate to it is like that
okay. And of course, these are all non-dimensional with chord, so I put it like this bar, always I
put the bar and understanding this is a non-dimensionalized with chord.
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So Now what happens I put it here, so I get an expression 0 equal to DCM by DCL fixed right,
into W by half rho V square S minus 1.1 gLT by tau V square of course here this is a CM Delta E
because I know D Delta E by DCL is minus DCM by DCL CM Delta E. So minus DCM by DCL
fixed by CM Delta E, into W by half rho V square S minus 1.1 GLT by tau V square, this is equal
to 0 means.
You may straight forward you could see DCM by DCL fixed equal to from here you could see this
equal to, I did not, write the expression because, unnecessarily we are wasting time gLT rho CM
Delta E by 2W by S. Once you solve this equation, you can easily show that DCM by DCL fix is
minus 1.1 gLT rho CM Delta E by 2W by S.
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𝜕𝐶𝑚 1.1𝑔𝑙𝑡 𝜌𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
( ) =−
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 2(𝑊 ⁄𝑆)
I will advise you to do yourself these things otherwise you lose insight. What is our aim? Our aim
is to find the maneuvering point and what was maneuvering point it is that XCG location at which
D Delta E by DN is 0 and we have put the D Delta E by Dn is equal to 0 from the regard this
relationship. And now what is DCM by DCL shift? is XCG minus N0 equal to minus 1.1, GLT
rho CM Delta E by 2W by S.
Can you tell me how to get the maneuvering point expression from here, I repeat maneuvering
point is that CG location, at which the D Delta E by Dn is equal to 0, by putting it 0 by doing some
algebraic manipulation, we have come to this stage DCM by DCL fixed equal to minus 1.1 GLT
rho CM Delta E divide 2W by S. So now I get expression XCG N0 is equal to this. What is this
XCG? This XCG is corresponding to the case where D Delta E by Dn is equal to 0.
That is how I got this expression, because this is zero so from here I got this expression this XCG
corresponds to case where D Delta E by Dn equal to 0. That is how we derived, hence this XCG
becomes of the maneuvering point NM stick fixed. Sometime I am missing this bar, please
understand that whenever I am putting the dimension they are non-dimensionalised with chord, so
please be careful okay. So what we have got from here? We got a very interesting relationship that.
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NM minus N0, NM minus N0 equal to minus 1.1 gLT CM Delta E, and also a rho divided by 2W
by S, or I can write NM is equal to N0minus 1.1 gLT rho CM Delta E by 2W by S. What is the
message you are getting now, you know that CM Delta E is negative so this term, this sign, with
minus sign, become positive therefore if this was N0 stick fixed okay then NM is greater than N0
because, this is minus so minus minus plus. So NM is greater than N0, that means NM will be aft
of N0 which is correct or not? NM should be behind N0 means this is the more stable case, and
we know as its goes for a pull up there is a Delta Alpha T which tries to give a nose down
movement.
1.1𝑔𝑙𝑡 𝜌𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
𝑁𝑚 − 𝑁0 = −
𝑊
2( 𝑆 )
1.1𝑔𝑙𝑡 𝜌𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
𝑁𝑚 = 𝑁0 −
𝑊
2(𝑆 )
So apparently it becomes more stable right that is they indeed this expression, make sense because
apparently more stable means the neutral point, the maneuvering point should be AFT of stick
fixed neutral point, that is if I bring the CG close to N0 it becomes statically unstable but as for
maneuver is concerned I can draw the CG up to this point were D Delta E by Dn will be zero.
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That is why this is maneuvering point, and this is stick fixed neutral point, this is stick fixed
maneuvering point. This is a wonderful expression and generally we do experiment and I try to
find out this, through some experiments. I will tell you how to do that okay only my worried to all
of you that so many expression we write it should not loose insight please every time ask yourself
why am writing all this expression, what I am going to find out, this is whole lecture today what
is going on.
We are trying to find out the maneuvering point, what is the maneuvering point? It is that the XCG
locations at which D Delta E by Dn become 0. So let us do little bit of more algebraic manipulation,
it may help us to give some insight.
We started with D Delta E by Dn equal to minus DCM by DCL fixed by CM Delta E into 2 W by
S rho V square minus 1.1 gLT by tau V square. This again I can write little differently D Delta E
by DN we can write as minus 1 by V square 2 W by S by rho CM Delta E to 1.1 gLT rho CM
Delta E by 2 TAU W by S plus XCG bar minus N0 bar nothing great we have done anything we
have just taken.
𝜕𝐶
( 𝑚)
𝜕𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑖𝑥 2𝑊⁄𝑆 1.1𝑔𝑙𝑡
= − −
𝜕𝑛 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝜌𝑉 2 𝜏𝑉 2
[ ]
259
𝑑𝛿𝑒 1 2𝑊⁄𝑆 1.1𝑔𝑙𝑡 𝜌𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
=− 2 { + 𝑋̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑁
̅0 }
𝑑𝑛 𝑉 𝜌𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 2𝜏𝑊⁄𝑆
1 2𝑊⁄𝑆 1.1𝑔𝑙𝑡 𝜌𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 1.1𝑔𝑙𝑡 𝜌𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒

=− 2 { + 𝑋̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑁𝑚 − }
𝑉 𝜌𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 2𝜏𝑊⁄𝑆 2𝜏𝑊⁄𝑆
This common, so since in the first this term W by S was not there, so I put W by S. So I get XCG
by N0. So what I will do we know from this expression N0 equal to NM plus this term, where
from we got this expression by putting D Delta E by Dn equal to 0. So this was the
maneuvering point. So now there is a N0 lying there, so I will replace N0 by NM plus 1.1 G. So
this will further I will write as.
minus 1 by V square 2 W by S 0, CM Delta E and then 1.1 gLT rho CM Delta E, you please do
yourself two tau W by S, then XCG bar for N 0 I am writing NM plus this term right. Since this is
minus sign, minus N0 so it will be minus NM and – 1.1 gLT rho CM Delta E by 2 tau W by S.
Nothing great I have done.
𝑑𝛿𝑒 1 2𝑊 ⁄𝑆
=− 2 {𝑋̅ − 𝑁
̅𝑚 }
𝑑𝑛 𝑉 𝜌𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝐺
Please I repeat, N0 I have replaced by this expression, N0 is equal to NM plus 1.1 g LT rho CM
Delta E by 2W by S and what was happened by doing this, this gentleman, this gentleman get
cancelled, and you get an expression D Delta E by Dn equal to minus 1 by V square 2 W by S by
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by rho CM by Delta E into XCG bar minus NM. This is very interesting expression, these, all these
expression we could derive, because we have assume that neutral point is a location at which DCM
by DCL is zero, and here we assume that maneuvering point is at location at which is that CG
location at D Delta E by Dn equal to 0.
Based on that by doing some sort of algebraic manipulation, we have come to this expression, and
it can be verified that if XCG is at maneuvering point then D Delta E by DN indeed become 0. It
also tells as D Delta E by Dn, largely depend upon wing loading, and inversely with the control
power and inversely with the V square. This is very very important from pilot feel point out view
okay? Let us summarize what are the things we have learnt. See we know.
Now the definition of N0 sometime I have written it as XN0 this is called neutral point. Neutral
point is stick fixed, then you have understood what is NM. It is maneuvering point stick fixed,
there is one word every time I am saying stick fixed just for initial introduction and let me tell you
that, if this is the elevator here because, this is the hinge line with any Alpha, it will have a tendency
to float.
Because there will be a pressure distribution, and if this resultant is behind the hinge line its natural
tendency to float this way or that way depending upon where is the location because in this fiction
is too less. But when you say stick fixed, I am not allowing this to happen that’s the meaning of
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stick fixed. Here, stick is fixed having no effect floating is allowed, we will see actually it floats
then what is the how to model the problem, that is the different issue. But, When I
say stick fixed is stick is fixed nothing, no floating is allowed. Now the question comes how can I
determine.
How to determine N0 bar and NM bar through flight test. Let us first talk about N0 bar, which is
stick fixed neutral point. How do I define stick fixed neutral point? We define it is at CG location
at which DCM by DCL is 0. Now you also know from equation that D Delta E by DCL trim equal
to minus DCM by DCL by CM Delta E.
So if neutral point is at CG location at which DCM by DCL is 0 I can equivalently say because
DCM by DCL is here this becomes 0 this is never 0. So I can equivalently define neutral point in
that CG location, for which D Delta E by DCL trim 0. This is an approximation is because you
know whole this expression is an approximate expression. But from experimental point of view
this is good enough right.
Why this is important because, when I do experiment I can easily measure Delta E I can calculate
CL trim right? How do I measure Delta E?
262
You know if this is an elevator, when the elevator rotates it is connected to a potentiometer shaft
rotary potentiometer something like this so as this man rotates the shaft also rotates and then it
develop some potential difference of voltage and that voltage I can calibrate and get what is the
amount of deflection of the elevator. So it is easy to measure and CL trim always, you know we
can do it.
Because lift equal to weight and CL equal to 2, W by S by rho V square so if I know about altitude
I am flying can get the density, if I know what is the speed I am flying I can know this V square
and what is the W by S weight of the airplane and the wing area. So this also I can compute easily.
So to calculate neutral point through experiment, I will be using this concept that it is the CG
location at which D Delta E by DCL trim is 0. So how do I do this experiment? Let us understand
that.
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So we are saying it is N0 is that CG location approximately for which D Delta E by DCL trim is
0. So what I do? I go for an altitude let’s say altitude, I also note down the outside air temperature
because I need these two information to calculate the density of the air at the altitude right? This
is required for calculating rho at altitude, okay. Now what I do? I cruise I go to the altitude, and
try to cruise at a particular V let’s say V1, V2, V3, V4, V5 and then ensure that.
I have trimmed the air plane, because I am cruising, so I will measure that Delta E so Delta E1
Delta E2 Delta E3 Delta E4 and Delta E5. I repeat I will go to an altitude, I will fly at a particular
speed and note down what is the elevator deflection given for trim similarly for V2 what is Delta
E2 like that up to V5 what is Delta E5 I can take 6 7 8 9 10 readings whatever is possible. But
before I do this experiment remember what is our aim?
Our aim is to see that what is that CG of which the aircraft becomes neutrally stable or D Delta E
by DCL trim is zero equivalently. So when I am going for the experiment I should note down,
what is the CG configuration of the airplane this is extremely important. So what we do? Suppose
we are five passengers are going so we will take the weight and find out the CG location okay.
And let’s say this reading is for a one combination of XCG 1 then second batch will go, they will
also generate.
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Similar reading V and Delta E right which will be corresponding to XCG 2 location. So different
people, different way they can swap here and there, and give try for different CG different location
like this XCG3, XCG4, XCG5 various combination of CG we will fly, and we will trim at different
V1, V2, V3, V4, V5 okay. Once you have done that, if I take first case for a combination or the
combination X, XCG 1, one group so I can plot for the group.
What is Delta E and what is the CL so the question is how do we find the CL? You can answer
because I am cruising. We are trying to find out N0 we are cruising and when I cruise that means,
CL equal to 2 W by S by rho V square, since we are taking all these measurements you will know
what is the value of CL for a corresponding V.
So this is CL1 this is CL2, this is CL3 like this using this relationship. So you have Delta E which
you have measured we have CL1, which through V using this relationship, I got CL1 for XCG 1
combination that is for one group of people the total aircraft CG is let’s say XCG 1.
So I will be plotting this, and I will get a graph D Delta E by DCL at let’s say XCG 1 correct. So
similarly I take another case for XCG 2 again I have plot Delta CL so there is a graph is like this,
the second maybe like this, and third one maybe like this, fourth one maybe like this depending
upon where is XCG to XCG 3 XCG 4 now what I should do?
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I will take the slope of this line and the cross plot, D Delta E by DCL and the slope versus XCG
clear. So I take the slope, I take the XCG location, so this is the point I take this slope and this is
the CG location so this is the point. Like this I will get points I join then and it cuts at the point of
X axis.
So this is the point at which this is the CG location, at which D Delta E by DCL trim is 0. So this
is the neutral point stick fixed clear? Let me repeat, we want to find out N0 which is the CG
location for which D Delta E by DCL trim is 0. Now how do I do that? I know how to make sure
elevator deflection, through an instrumentation based on potentiometer rotary potentiometer. So
I go for a cruise I note down the altitude.
I note down the outside air temperature because, this will be used to find the density at the altitude,
of air at that altitude right? I fly in a configuration let’s say four people and we have fuel in the
tank, so you find out what is the XCG location for that configuration. I call it XCG 1, then I cruise
that V and select and check what the Delta E elevator required for trim. Similarly, now only for
V2, V3, V4, V5. So I have series of V1 Delta 1 V 2 Delta 2, like the V 5 Delta 5.
Now once I know what is V, at what we say V1, I need to know what is CL1 because I want to
find this D Delta E by DCL trim so CL trim I can find because I know I am cruising so CL is given
by 2 W by S rho V square. So I use this V I use this rho then I find what is the CL? And then I plot
Delta E versus CL for the XCG 1 configuration.
I draw a straight line, similarly for XCG 2, XCG 3, X CG 4, XCG 5, now what I do I take the slope
so D Delta E by DCL and this correspond XCG 1 so I mark it here similar here. So all this point,
then I join and extrapolate and where it gets cut this is the XCG location at which D Delta E by
DCM trim is 0, so this is called the neutral point stick fixed. This is the way to find out
experimentally, okay.
Now once neutral point stick fixed, you know how to find experimentally you need to also know
how to find maneuvering point stick fixed through experiment.
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So now we will be discussing how to find out experimentally the maneuvering point okay. What
is maneuvering point? It is that CG location at which D Delta E by Dn equal to 0 correct. What is
n, n is the load factor, and Delta E is the elevator deflection okay. We can do two maneuver that
will be actually doing say for steady coordinated turn and what is that I go like this and bank the
airplane and turn like this without losing the altitude. And you know in this process the load factor
is given by n equal to 1 by COS 𝜙. So whatever bank angle I am maintaining I still maintaining
the coordinate turn from the bank angle.
I will see from the cockpit what is the bank angle, immediately I know what is the load factor
because I know n equal to 1 by COS 𝜙 if the air plane is taking the steady coordinated turn, without
losing any altitude. So, indirectly I am getting the value of load factor, through bank angle and
bank angle, I see from bank angle indicator which is house in the cockpit (34:32), okay.
So now how do I plan it? So what I do? Again I go for an altitude right then I will note outside air
temperature and then I take XCG 1 again one group of people they are going for one experiment
so they will go for a steady coordinated turn and they will note down what is the V what is the 𝜙,
and what is the Delta E right clear?
So how do I get 𝜙, 𝜙 get for the bank indicator, bank indicator is there in the cockpit from there
you can find bank indicator right. By knowing 𝜙 immediately you can calculate what is n, because
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n is equal to 1 by COS of 𝜙 so know you have Delta E and you have n, for a given XCG 1 location
okay. So again I will do that what I will do.
I will plot Delta E versus n, I will get some value and this is XCG 1. Second batch will go and do
exactly the same, but that will trust one to a different CG location. Because different people will
be sitting different weights sometime what we do initially go five people to get that they will put
two people to get there then they will put one student in the front. So that there is the difference in
the CG location, there is a variance in the CG location, so you can do like that let it be XCG 2, this
is XCG 3, and this XCG 4 like that you will get different data points.
Now what we do again you recall maneuvering point is that CG location at which D Delta E by
Dn equal to 0. So I will find D Delta E by Dn from the slope of this line, it will be straight line
approximately so I put D Delta E by Dn and this is XCG so again D Delta E by Dn, 0 for different
CG location I will get point if I join them this is my NM.
This is the CG location at which D Delta E by DN equal to 0 so this becomes my experiment to

determined maneuvering point. Is this clear? You could yourself check why D Delta E by Dn for
a given XCG location be negative, see the expression of D Delta E by Dn and put the appropriate
sign of the derivatives, you will find the answer okay and I am sure you will be able to do it. I may
ask such questions for the assignments. Okay, thank you very much.
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Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Lecture-19
Numerical: Stick Fixed Maneuvering Point and Flight Demonstration
We have just now solved a problem on Delta E required for cruise for climb we will also talk little
bit of about the maneuvering point.
̅𝑚 ) again it is
We know by now what is maneuvering point, we generally denote by NM bar (𝑁
expressed in terms of chord this much percentage of chord or that’s why bar is there to non-
dimensionalized the actual distance dividing it by mean aerodynamic chord, what was
maneuvering point if we see we have already explained that NM is N0 let me write this expression
minus 1.1 g rho LT by tau CM Delta E by W by S right?
1.1𝑔𝜌𝑙𝑡 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
̅𝑚 = 𝑁
𝑁 ̅0 −
𝜏 𝑊 ⁄𝑆
So what is N0 here? N0 is stick fixed neutral point and what is NM? NM is stick fixed maneuvering
point okay. And now if you see what is the relationship little closer, if this is the reference if this
is the N0 bar the maneuvering point NM will be this side or this side from this expression let us
check first see here this sign is negative CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) is negative so negative into negative
positive. so NM bar is greater than N0 bar so if it is N0, NM will be somewhere here okay.
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Which by conceptually we also are very clear as airplane maneuvers there is additional angle at
the tail, which gives the pitch down moment so it increases apparent stability of the airplane
longitudinal stability of the airplane. So, naturally its neutral point or maneuvering point should
be behind the neutral point stick fixed because I already said more stable during maneuver right?
meaning thereby if you draw the CG here it will be statically unstable but if I am doing a pull up
put the CG here right CG here the moment you put CG here you find the D Delta E you have seen
that D Delta E by Dn (𝑑𝛿𝑒 ⁄𝑑𝑛) equal to 0.
When the XCG is at NM bar the D Delta E by Dn that is elevator per g, this gradient become zero,
so that is definition we knew I just revise that, and if you want to solve such a problem before
solving a problem see, what are the relations and what are the parameters that creates this
difference numerically. You could see here this is the term and this term is a positive term this
term is positive, and what are the parameters we have ‘g’ off course acceleration due to gravity
rho is decided by what altitude I am going to fly.
So now you see if I go on flying higher and higher and higher, if I go on flying higher and higher
if everything remains same theoretically, what is the effect of rho? This rho will go on decreasing
so the effect the numerical value of this will go on reducing so, theoretically there would be a point
where NM and N0 will remain will be very very close, they cannot be distinguished theoretically
speaking because rho is reducing as we go higher and higher.
And that is true also if conceptually, all these terms whatever you are seeing here when I say it is
going for a ‘q’ there is a change in angle of attack here, there are almost like a damping effect
okay. And damping definitely rho is going down so damping effect also will reduce so as I go
higher and higher these two try to come closer this NM try to come closer to N0 bar right. This is
one understanding second understanding, you do not require any other additional information, to
find NM bar.
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If N0 bar is given if N0 bar is given we are discussing that how to find NM the maneuvering point,
if N0 is given and you will see in such numericals or in practical feel also you will find N0 could
be given two ways, one is directly another is you know, if you know static margin say it is static
margin let’s say it is something like this this is CM vs CL graph is there, let’s say this value 0.6
this value is let’s say this is slope is minus 0.1 and XCG is 0.3 correct. What is given even.
If CM versus CL variation, let say this point CL 0.6 this slope is minus 0.1, and this corresponds
to a particular CG location, which is 0.3 XCG bar (𝑋̅𝐶𝐺 ) is 0.3. Now if you see this diagram you
also can estimate what is N0, we are trying to find out stick fixed neutral point, by analyzing the
data given in this CM versus CL graph.
Very simple and know DCM by DCL equal to minus static margin and that is equal to minus of
N0 minus XCG or this is XCG bar minus N0 bar, now DCM by DCL is how much from this graph,
it is -0.1 what is XCG? XCG is 0.3, so if I solve this I get N0 bar equal to 0.4, so two ways we find
mostly the problems are displayed like this okay? You should very carefully know this, this
information you can easily find out what is the N0 or neutral point stick fixed.
So once I know N0 this is known N0 bar what information I require to find NM, CM Delta E,
which will be available because it is the elevator control power tau (𝜏) depends upon Se by St
(𝑆𝑒 ⁄𝑆𝑡 ) you also know it maybe around 0.4-0.5. lt (𝑙𝑡 ) the distance between AC of the wing and
CG of the tail that also will be given. How it will be given, you see many airplane there will be
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given VH let’s say 0.6 and VH is nothing but you know St, lt by Sw, C bar, S tail will be known
SW will be known C bar will be known and VH is given you can find lt.
𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡
𝑉𝐻 =
𝑆𝑤 𝑐̅
It’s a physical number right? Nothing so you have nothing to do actually all the things are available
once you know N, put the number here you will get NM bar I am explaining this problem just to
familiarize you that problems are given a different fashion that data is present a different way you
need to extract relevant information as long as you understand what do you need. So that is the
skills of solving the problem but before I end, please see here this gentleman W by S is also here
so before I end this part of this lecture, let us have a closer look on W by S.
And you could see, if W by S increases then this term goes on decreasing, because this is in the
denominator, so as W by S goes on increasing the difference between NM and N0 bar or NM bar
N0 bar also shrinks. What is the meaning of W by S increasing means it is ‘S’ is going down for a
given W right. Then only W by S increases, smaller area larger weight typically high speed airplane
so, you will find high speed airplane will have larger W by S compared to a glider.
And hence you will find as I go on increasing the W by S the difference between NM and N0 will
shrink as we were seeing as I go higher and higher altitude the difference also shrinks so these are
the two very. Important parameter you should be very much aware at design stage that difference
NM and N0 reduces as I go higher and higher and as I make W by S wing loading higher and
higher okay. This is a designer need to understand this so I thought I will mention this here at this
point thank you very much.
(Video Starts: 10:20) Dear friends we are going for a sortie now, I have former Captain Amit
Dhayya with me. He is the pilot in command, and we will try to show you few aspects of stability
and control, while flying I will request student to focus here, and I will ask Captain Dhayya what
is this? This is my knowledge it is PFD Captain Dhayya can you tell me what represent this?
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(Professor-captain conversation starts) This is the primary function display this give you some
basic instrument there in flying sir, that is called manifold pressure, rpm, airspeed, artificial
horizon with attitude indicator DGI, then altimeter then gives you VSI that is six basic. VSI
basically vertical speed indicator where do I see the airspeed?
So let us focus here on this screen what we will do we will go for a cruise mode and during the
cruise you know that it will have a fixed altitude it is airspeed will be also constant and the bank
will be zero first we will check that will be our equilibrium point about which we will introduce
disturbances to check whether this airplane is statically stable or not.
But the question is how do I introduce disturbance, you could see this a control column so if I pull
this column towards me then the elevator will go up and if I release it elevator again go to neutral.
So this is elevator going up and then it is coming to neutral or if I push it, it will go on the opposite
direction so we will give a elevator disturbance by pulling the stick and see what is happening
whether it is going to come back to its neutral position or not or equilibrium position or not.
You can understand once I pull this elevator and by doing this the elevator is going up that means
to maintain the that sort of the CL, it needs to give a higher angle of attack because speed has
decreased, so elevator goes up and that gives a nose up moment and with this background we will
be seeing how elevator disturbance will create problem for the airplane whether it is statically
stable or not in class I have talked about disturbance in terms of angle of attack.
But now we will be giving the disturbance through elevator, the elevator will give a angle of attack
and we will withdraw that we will see how the airplane is behaving whether it is coming back to
his equilibrium or not. Once you want to increase the speed, so we have a throttle setting here,
through this throttle we can increase the speed, we can give a speed disturbance also increase the
speed and release it then again will see whether it is come back to all those speed or not.
So that will talk about speed stability, so like that will be the discussing a while will be doing the
flight right. Let’s go for a flight now captain Dhayya will initiate the flying process. We can start
over aircraft then first of all you can battery on arm check, down test for ten seconds then arm on,
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then is called red mixture, mixture in, half inch throttle and fiction of tie and give you fuel pump
for time three seconds 1, 2, 3, then you check fuel flow then
You could see here fuel is flowing is there. Yes make sure fuel pump out and then you can check
the ignition buttons first of all right magneto left magneto both then start, prop area clear. You
could see here the rpm is increasing and coming down to around 1,400 to 1,500. If we reduce the
throttle rpm will further go down., then alternator ON, Avionics ON. Aircraft Noise Could not
hear clearly.
You could see here Captain is taxing rpm is around 1110 and you could see there is a fuel flow
green indicator is there we are operating somewhere here oil pressure, oil temperature, cylinder
head temperature everything is being displayed here which are very important for captain to have
those information for flying. We are now entering into our runway this is IIT Kanpur runway this
length is around eight eighty five meters and you could see we are turning from this indicator pilot
knows how much he has turned.
So I was asking Captain why speed is not being shown here and you understand any speed lower
than stall is none our concern for flying so unless we cross stall speed or come around that this
display will not get activated and I will show you at what point you will start getting the speed and
this is air relative speed. You could see here there is analog altimeter reading so almost showing
zero these are all standby instruments you could see here altimeter and the air speed this is the
attitude indicator right.
So we are going for Take-off, so you can see this speed coming once we are cruising, We have
taken -ff at 76 knots. We are flying at around 88-89 knots here and our altitude is here around 500
ft. Now we are turning towards left, so the rudder is now been turn towards left, rudder has gone
like this, so there is a force like this, it’s turning the airplane. As pilot says its cruising now, we’ll
see the airspeed is almost constant around 95 knots, altitude is around 1000 ft, wings level, so
wings level speed is around 96 knots and altitude around 1000 ft. so we are actually cruising like
this and that is what is our equilibrium point. Now we want to cruise at lower speed what you are
going to do.
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Now we are now cruising at higher 1160 ft. Now the speed has gone down so angle of attack will
increase.
[25:03] When I pull this stick, I am trying to reduce the speed, when I push it speed increases.
Now we are planning for landing. You see we are reducing altitude, we have now come to 500 ft
and speed is also reducing, if speed reduces, he has to increase angle of attack.
We could see the airstrip aligning along the center line of the airstrip our speed will further go
down and as you could see the rpm is also go down and the speed has come down around 75 that
is near the stall speed and we are touching down. You see the pilot is pulling because as he pulls
it the speed goes down and drag will increase as the elevators are also going up. (Professor-
captain conversation ends) (Video Ends: 28:53)
275
Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 20
Revision
Good morning friends, we have been doing so many activities, we try to understand what is static
stability, we try to understand how to trim a particular aircraft at a particular CL, or CL trim. We
also understood the significance of neutral points, stick fixed neutral point and on the stability
aspects we have solved one problem and as I promised that we will have a session where, we will
more focusing on how to implement.
Whatever we have derived, in understanding Delta E required or how to calculate CM0, how to
design an airplane to have a particular CM0. What should be the elevator deflection required? To
trim an aircraft while it is climbing, while it is cruising, while it is landing, we also know what
happens when the aircraft lands very close to the ground. With this background we will try to
solve, one or two examples may be one example in detail today. So before I solve a problem or I
discuss a problem.
Let us again revisit few basic understanding this part is climb, this is cruise and this part is landing
all of you know. Now, when I am climbing, what happens?
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This is the wing, this is the CG, this is your Mg acting here or the weight, and here it is drag, here
it is thrust, here it is lift. We have assumed that, the thrust axis is along the fuselage reference line,
we are also neglecting the angle of attack, or not neglecting, we are saying the angle of attack is
small, okay. And we are trying to develop a model for steady climb, so no acceleration right.
It has going like this rectilinear motion like this, so if I use this diagram I know this is GAMMA
(𝛾), flight path angle and then you know, if I want to ensure that this plane is going in
rectilinear direction, in this direction then net force on the body across this line should be 0. So,
no acceleration here no acceleration along this no acceleration along perpendicular to this. We are
assuming the airplane is moving in a vertical plane okay.
So if I do that and I find L should be equal to Mg COS GAMMA, because steady climb, steady
climb means you know that L minus Mg COS GAMMA equal to M into acceleration in the
perpendicular direction, but this we are putting zero because, it is going in rectilinear motion and
unaccelerated steady climb. So L equal to Mg COS GAMMA or which we know L equal to W
COS GAMMA and what is L?
𝐿 = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝛾 ; 𝐿 − 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝛾 = 𝑚𝑣𝜔(= 0)
𝐿 = 𝑊 cos 𝛾
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L is nothing but half rho V square SCL half rho V square SCL so I get CL equal to W COS
GAMMA by half rho V square S. This is my CL climb okay. So, we are trying to model, or we
are trying to ask a question, if this airplane is to remain in this rectilinear path, then what should
be the CL with which I should fly? And you know if it is suppose to be in rectilinear path then the
forces along this path, and forces perpendicular to this path should be balanced.
1
𝐿 = 𝑊 cos 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆 𝐶𝐿
2
𝑊 cos 𝛾
𝐶𝐿 =
1 2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆
Net force along these two direction should be zero okay. And in this case, please remember what
we are asking is, this is fine this diagram tells you what CL I should fly? But what is our question?
Our question today we have become mature enough to ask another question is for this airplane, if
I should follow rectilinear path, but it should be trimmed, trim means not only these forces should
be 0, but it should have net CM 0, okay. That is what we call as the airplane is at trim, okay.
That is this point CM is 0 and what is this CL? This CL is CL climb, and how do I find CL climb?
I use this relationship. What is my next question is, what is the Delta E required for this climb? Is
this question clear? fine right. And we will just formulate a problem to solve this, and we will very
well understand what I am talking about and what is the relevance of this example.
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We know that Delta E equal to Delta E0 + D Delta E by DCL trim into CL trim okay. And what
is Delta E by DCL trim is nothing but minus DCM by DCL by CM Delta E
𝑑𝐶𝑚
𝑑𝛿𝑒 𝑑𝐶𝐿
( =− )
right. So let us take an example, let’s say weight is thousand KG of the airplane right. Assume V
equal to 100 meter per second is the climb speed okay. It is very high but for numerical advantage
I am taking 100 meter per second, let’s say rho is 1 KG per meter cube, if it is at sea level will be
1.225 something like that, but I am taking 1 KG per meter cube and S I am taking as 10 meter
square okay.
𝑊 = 1000 𝑘𝑔
𝑉 = 100 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝜌 = 1 𝐾𝑔⁄𝑚3 ; 𝑆 = 10 𝑚2
These are my input right? So, what is the CL required for climb we could see from here, I will
erase this part. So CL climb will be how much? Will be W, W is 1,000 into 9.8 because this unit
should be Newton, it is in KG, so I am taking the value of ‘g’ as 10 meter per second square no
problem. So put as 10, which is nothing but value of g, which is typically 9.8, 9.79 depending upon
the location. But for computational simplicity I am taking as 10 meter per second square.
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So W, then half is 0.5 into rho is one into V is 100 square, 100 into 100 and into 10, 10 is your
area. So how much it comes down to 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, point is going there, so here 5 into 2, 2, 4 and 5,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 2, 2, 4 and 5 and point 5 has gone here, so this is 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 3, 4 and for point 5
this has become 5, right. Here also 5, so this gets cancelled, so I am getting CL climb equal to 1
by 5 and that is equal to 0.2 correct?
So I have to fly at CL equal to 0.2, so what is the next question? What is the Delta E required to
trim the airplane at CL equal to 0.2 how do I find out? Now I know what is Delta E0 is minus CM0
by CM Delta E, so for this aircraft there should be a fixed value of CM0 and CM Delta E. So let’s
assume CM0 (𝐶𝑚0 ) equal to 0.05 and CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) equal to -1.0 per radian. So if that is
the value I am assuming which are typical value for an airplane, so Delta E0 will become -0.05 by
-1.0 this equal to 0.05 radian.
Please understand this is radian because CM Delta E is given per radian, in many problem we will
find CM Delta E will be given in per degree, so then Delta E0 will become in degrees okay. We
should be very very careful about the unit, whenever these things are coming check, unit is per
radian or unit is per degree okay. CM0 is this, now D Delta E by DCL trim I want so further let’s
say DCM by DCL you remember DCM by DCL is given as minus static margin.
And typically let’s say the static margin is 10%, so this 0.1, so this value is -0.1. So what is the
static margin the airplane is having static margin is 10% okay. That means the difference between
neutral and the CG is 0.1 into C bar mean aerodynamic chord okay. So I know now you see for
DCM by DCL the value is minus 0.1, and CM Delta E is 1, so what is the D Delta E by DCL trim?
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Let me write it here so D Delta E by DCL trim equal to minus of minus 0.1 divided by minus 1.0,
so this equal to minus 0.1 radian.
𝑑𝛿𝑒 −(−0.1)
= = −0.1 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 −1.0
Please note that here also DCM by DCL then CM Delta E is per radian so this becomes radian
here also the unit is radian. So now, what is Delta E required? Delta E required will be Delta E0
that is 0.05 plus D Delta E by DCL trim is minus 0.1 into CL trim is 0.2 so what is Delta E required?
Delta E required will be Delta E0 which is 0.05 plus D Delta E by DCL trim which is minus 0.1
into CL trim is 0.2 right.
(𝛿𝑒 )𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑑 = 0.05 + (−0.1) ∗ 0.2 = 0.05 − 0.02 = 0.03 𝑟𝑎𝑑
So this becomes point 0 5 minus point 0 2 and is equal to point 0 3 radian, and which is
approximately you can see point 0 3 into 57.3 this is degrees, right. So that will be around 1.8
degrees, correct. So that much of elevator deflection is required to trim the airplane during climb,
which is climbing with CL equal to 0.2 correct. Now see if I want to solve a problem this problem
little differently, now if we want to solve this problem little differently.
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The information could be instead of given static margin 10% the information would be given like
this, XCG the airplane is at 0.5, or to say 0.3 and neutral point power ON is at 0.4, and also it could
be given neutral point power OFF equal to 0.45, because you know power OFF is more stable
compare to power ON, we are assuming that engine weather it is in propeller driven engine or a
jet engine they are ahead of CG, okay? So, if information is given like this, if static margin is not
given directly, then you can easily find out DCM by DCL which is equal to minus static margin,
which will be equal to minus of, how to find the static margin?
It is the N0 minus XCG bar and the question will come, which N0 you will take N0 power ON or
power OFF? Obviously it’s an airplane with engine, so when it is climbing like this power is ON,
so I will take, I will pick this N0, so I will write minus of 0.4 minus XCG 0.3 right. So this will
be my static margin.
So I can solve this problem into different ways depending upon what information has been given
to us, okay? So this is for the climb, now we will do the exercise, for cruise phase okay. Let’s come
back to the cruise, let us solve this problem for cruise case.
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Let us see, I say that cruise speed is 100 meter per second, I say rho is 1 KG per meter cube, that
is at an altitude which is little higher than sea level altitude, and of course same airplane ‘S’ is 10
meter square right. So when I am talking about cruise, I can ask a question I want to cruise such
that thrust required is minimum, okay. I can cruise such that the thrust required is minimum, one
and I can also question thrust required is as driven by altitude, I will explain both the problem and
we will solve both the problem.
𝑉𝑐 = 100 𝑚⁄𝑠 ; 𝜌 = 1 𝐾𝑔⁄𝑚3 ; 𝑆 = 10 𝑚2
So thrust required minimum the moment I want to solve this problem what is my question?
question is what is that elevator required to ensure that the airplane when is flying, when it is flying
at an altitude where rho is 1 KG per meter cube and cruise speed is 100 meter per second, so what
is that elevator required to trim the airplane with these condition, right?
So, now once we are talking about thrust required minimum that means you know CL equal to
𝐶𝐷0
CD0 by K (𝐶𝐿 = √ ), I hope you remember this. Those who do not remember, for them for a
𝐾
cruise flight, for a cruise thrust equal to drag, lift equal to weight, so this implies thrust equal to W
by L by D this equal to W by CL by CD, and that means thrust required minimum if for a given
weight CL by CD is maximum and you know that.
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The condition which we get from drag polar that is CD equal to CD0 plus KCL square I can show
that for CL by CD to be maximum the condition is CL equal to under root CD0 by K, okay. So,
now if I want to trim the airplane and cruise, so that thrust required is minimum it tells me the CL
𝐶𝐷0
cruise should be given by CD0 by K (𝐶𝐿 = √ ). Now there will be a conflict if we prescribe
𝐾
what is the speed and we are telling what is the CL cruise.
Now see that's why this problem I have formulated. The moment I have to fly at thrust required
minimum, the CL cruise is fixed why it is fixed? Because for an airplane CD0 and K are fixed for
example CD0 let’s say for this is 0.02, or let’s say 0.02 and K we can find out, let me say is 0.02.
So we understand that is I want to fly such that thrust required is minimum. Then CL cruise will
be given by CD0 by K, let’s take for this airplane CD0 value is 0.02, here, and K is 0.02.
So then CL cruise we are getting as under root of 0.02 by 0.02 and that is one pretty high but for
numerical example this is okay. The point what I am trying to tell you, if you decide altitude, right
If you decide I want to fly such that thrust required is minimum, is minimum that means CL equal
to CD0 by K.
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Then that means this is CL is fixed, because CL is root CD0 by K than you cannot keep cruise
speed arbitrary it cannot be 100 meter per second, this has to be corrected, the cruise speed possible
at that altitude to maintain thrust required minimum which gives CL fixed, VC will be or the cruise
speed will get fixed by these two conditions, how because after all at cruise lift has to be equal to
weight, right?
So lift will be equal to half rho V square SCL that should be equal to weight. So V will be equal
to 2 W by S by rho CL, and what is this CL I will take? So this becomes the cruise, what is that
CL I will take here for thrust required minimum? This will be this CL this is CL for thrust required
minimum, that is one for this example, so I find V equal to 2 W is how much? W is thousand, so
thousand into 10 value of g, approximately I have taken divided by S is 10, rho is 1 and CL is 1
okay.
2 W by S rho CL, so this gives me how much? This is of course V square equal to right? So V
square to this, So this is, this 10 one goes here, so this is under root of so V will be equal to under
root of 2,000. So this is typically equal to 10 root twenty and root twenty we could take around 4.2
or 4.5, So this will become around 10 into 4.3, so around 43 meter per second, right. If my
calculations are okay, so it will be around 40 to 45 meter per second cruise speed.
2𝑊 2 × 1000 × 10
𝑉2 = = = 2000
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿 1 × 10 × 1
𝑉 = √2000 = 10√20 = 10 ∗ 4.47 = 44.7 𝑚/𝑠
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What is our observation? We said that, to fly at thrust required minimum at a given altitude where
rho is 1 KG per meter cube, then, what we have.
To fly will be governed by this relationship which comes from lift equal to weight and that is 2 W
by S rho CL as CL corresponds to CL equal to CD0 by K. So once you have fixed rho and once
CL is fixed from a condition thrust required minimum, then the V cannot be arbitrary V will be
driven by these two values for a given wing loading, right? So an incidentally for this case V is
coming between 40 to 45 meters per second.
Second problem is you fix a rho right and you fix V, what was fixed here? Rho was fixed, CL was
fixed right. I repeat rho was fixed because the altitude was fixed, which corresponds to density 1
KG per meter cube, CL was fixed, how CL was fixed? CL was fixed because CL has to correspond
to thrust required minimum, which is given by CD0 by K under root. So first case rho and CL was
fixed so naturally since we are cruising lift equal to weight, V automatically get fixed that becomes
V equal to around 40 to 45 meter per second for this example right. But for the second example if
I say I keep rho fixed and V fixed clear.
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I want to cruise at 100 meters per second at altitude where density is 1 KG per meter square, so
this also will give me, what is the CL cruise required as 2 W by S by rho V square right. If it is
100 meter per second we put 100 here, rho value W by S we put here, we will get CL cruise, any
altitude, but it is not necessarily CL for thrust required minimum, for CL thrust required minimum
your V has to be related to rho and CL because you are not changing the altitude.
Now this is what the CL concept, now what is our main aim? I want to know what is the Delta E
required for let’s say CL corresponding to thrust required minimum okay. And we have seen.
We have just now seen CL required, CL required for thrust required minimum is 1.0. I repeat this
higher value, because of numerical convenience I have taken some values but typically CL cruise
at a appropriate altitude for our jet driven airplane and all which flies at an around 11 kilometers,
CL cruise will be 0.2, 0.3 not more than right. But this is an example.
So CL required is or I would say CL trim is 1, so we know Delta E equal to Delta E0 plus D Delta
E by DCL trim into CL, and this equal to Delta E0 this value also you know and this is minus
DCM. So we are trying to find out what is the Delta E required to trim the airplane at CL trim
equal to 1.0 which corresponds to thrust required minimum during cruise. So you know Delta
equal to Delta E0 plus D Delta E by DCL trim into CL trim, which again I can write as CM Delta
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E into CL trim and this equal to Delta E0 plus - DCM by DCL means this will be N0 bar minus
XCG bar by CM Delta E okay.
𝐶𝐿𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑚 = 1.0
𝑑𝛿𝑒
𝜕𝐶𝑚
−
𝜕𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
̅0 − 𝑋̅𝐶𝐺 )
(𝑁
𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
This is cruise so N0 bar we will take from here power ON 0.4 and every numbers I know. So I can
find out what is Delta E required, As simple as that, the trick was what is the CL I need to trim?
If it is CL for any other combination, that CL has to be put for cruise, so this is into CL trim and
CL trim is you know it is 1 in this case for this numerical that we are solving. So I am sure that
you all will be able to complete this.
Now the question comes, suppose it is now coming for landing let’s say, it is coming for landing
and or without ground effect okay.
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I am solving this problem without ground effect that means for a distance which is ground distance
is more than 1 to 2 span of the airplane so without any ground effect because you know with
ground effect I have to give additional Delta E so we not talking about that so then again that Delta
E will equal to Delta E0 plus - DCM by DCL by CM Delta E into CL trim and this again equal to
Delta E0 plus N0 bar - XCG bar by CM Delta E into CL trim so what will be the CL trim required
for coming for landing.
That will be again governed by same is coming like this it should follow rectilinear part it will be
again the way we solved for climb you have to solve like this same equation will come so you can
easily find out CL trim only point would be what N0 I should take so I will come back to this but
physically see what happens when I am coming for landing I am actually trying to land at a lowest
speed possible right? Little more than the stall speed.
So I increase the angle of attack and reduce the speed and start landing okay. So the CL that is
why very high so the CL could be around 0.8, 1.0 during landing 1.2, statistically we talk about
1.2 for normal airplane it is safer to land at 0.8 that is good enough value for CL but the question
is when I am landing like this I have two way I can land one is theoretically speaking I put the
engine OFF, okay and land like glide mode I land, its coming like a gliders descending like a glider
or I keep the engine at 10% or I have not lock the propeller.
289
So when it is landing because of wind mill effect you know the wind is rushing the relative airspeed
and the propeller will start rotating that will generate some thrust okay. Typical windmill examples
which are lifesaving concept for helicopters right okay. You must do a net surfing read more about
wind milling right? So, the question what I am asking is what N0 should I take for landing and
when I am thinking about landing definitely thrust is not fully on it 10% 20% or wind milling.
So if you have switch OFF the engine typically gliding phase then you have to take N0 as N0
power OFF 0.45 whatever value is given for the airplane. So I will take N0 bar as 0.45 in this
example if during landing power is OFF rest everything remains the same but if it is the pilot has
initiated the wind milling that is he has not put the break on the propeller rotating because the
relative wind is coming and some thrust is being generated.
Then this N0 should be propeller wind milling and that value I need to have so let’s say that value
will be propeller wind milling typical that value will be in between 0.4 and 0.5 what is it this is
power ON, N0 this is N0 bar power on this is N0 bar power OFF, more stable so propeller wind
milling will be within this N0 wind milling okay. So, between these two number it could be around
0.42 the point is whatever the number be you need to understand N0 for propeller wind milling.
𝜕𝐶𝑚
−
𝜕𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
̅0 − 𝑋̅𝐶𝐺 )
(𝑁
𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
̅0 = 0.45 (𝑖𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑂𝐹𝐹)
𝑁
̅0 = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝. 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑁
Will be between these two somewhere and when I am calculating Delta required for landing so I
will be taking N0 corresponding to propeller wind milling we will not take N0 correspond to power
ON, is it clear? And that is what you should be very, very careful okay. Thank you very much.
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Deptartment of Aerospace Engineering
Lecture-21
Directional Stability
Today, I will be discussing about directional stability, directional control and then later on lateral
stability and lateral control. You know by now longitudinal stability and what was the
understanding that if this airplane is flying this is the tail plane and if there is any angle of attack
disturbance coming like this positive angle then it will generate a lift and this lift will give moment
about center of gravity nose down, so you say for a positive Alpha the tail is producing the nose
down moment which is negative.
And you say CM Alpha (𝐶𝑚𝛼 ) is negative so the contribution of the tail is towards the making the
aircraft statically stable in a longitudinal plane right. Today we will be talking about the directional
stability and what is the directional motion if this is the airplane, if this is the airplane let say and
this is the X axis, this is the Y axis and this is Z axis then directional motion is about Z axis like
this and we will see that this horizontal stabilizer was helping for longitudinal stability.
Now this vertical stabilizer this whole vertical stabilizer will help to give directional stability and
as in longitudinal case elevator was giving longitudinal control that is why when I was pulling the
elevator up the airplane also will pitch up and when I was putting elevator down the aircraft also
will pitch down. So we are discussing this in terms of longitudinal control and this is the elevator
control similarly for directional case you could easily see if we deflect the rudder this way.
And airplane is moving in this direction so it will generate a force in this direction and that force
will give a yawing moment taking the nose towards left and if I do it like this then the force will
be towards me and this will give a yawing moment, which will take the right wing back right. As
per as the convention is concerned, we’ll assume that which everybody as following in this
convention that.
291
When I am flying like this rudder towards our left is a positive rudder deflection and rudder
towards right is a negative deflection so keep this back of your mind now we will go to the class
room and we will discuss in detail. We have just now seen vertical tail or we call vertical stabilizer
and also a rudder and the purpose of today’s discussion will be on directional stability.
If I draw the diagram for axis system this is X, this is Y and this is Z and we know that when we
were discussing the longitudinal stability, longitudinal static stability. We are talking about motion
about Y axis that is pitch up pitch down but now once you talking about direction stability, we will
be talking about motion about Z axis. And the convention is if this, this are the two wings if right
wing going back the yawing moment is positive that is if right wing going back that convention
wise that will be yawing moment positive and left wing going back is yawing moment negative
what is the yawing moment.
Yawing moment is the moment about Z axis right. So as per as yawing moment which is about Z
axis and convention by positive if right wing going back while flying going back right. And this
is negative when you see right wing going back yawing moment is positive and when left wing
going back this left wing going back then yawing moment is negative right. Who causes this
yawing moment you can understand that if some motion as to be there about Z axis then the force
as to come like this right so for example if I take this case.
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If I see vertical tail or vertical stabilizer and this is the airplane suppose like this and Z is here so
if it as to turn like this that means some force has to act here right. So vertical stabilizer will play
that role will generates yawing moment which will try to help in giving static stability in the
directional case but always remember one thing this directional case that is motion about Z axis
and the motion about X axis they become coupled know how it happens you see you could see.
When I am yawing we are discussing about directional motion and try to see the directional motion
and lateral motion gets coupled right. Think these are two wings if I am giving a positive yawing
moment that is right wing going back see what is happening at the wing this wing is seen lesser
velocity because I am moving forward but the wing is going back so relative air speed is less
whereas relative air in the left view on the left wing is more.
So lift air will be more so naturally lift here is more compare to this, this will also bank that means
what is happening as I am yawing I automatically get banked so I can say the directional motion
and the lateral motion they get coupled but we will be now studying directional stability separately
then lateral stability separately then we will discuss about their coupling etcetera okay.
This thing will not happen for longitudinal case for a small rate or small change in angle of attack
it will not influence anything about other directional or lateral case at small angle of attack okay.
Let us come back to directional stability what does it mean?
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We have to define something called side slip angle for example suppose this is the path and the
aircraft this is the velocity direction and this is the fuselage reference line. So now the relative
airspeed I can write it as if it is coming in this direction right. When I say relative air means it is
relative to aircraft right. So now what is happening actually the airplane is moving like this okay
not like this. For normal case if I am flying a machine I am going like this, but here actually if you
see instead of this I am actually going like this.
So this angle Beta (𝛽) is called side slip angle Is it clear? I repeat again if this is the center line
and if I am flying like this and relative air is coming like this. This is the axis, this angle is Beta
(𝛽) which is called side slip angle and this will have an effect on the directional stability we will
see how the airplane will gives a response to such Beta (𝛽), such side slip angle to ensure that it
is having some sort of an static stability in the directional case right.
Now this Beta is let say I call side slip angle soon you will realize that how important is vertical
tail to ensure that it does have static stability in directional case. So let us try to understand what
is the meaning of static stability we have seen that static stability means if a is body is disturbed
from its equilibrium state and if it has initial tendency to come back to the equilibrium then we say
the body posses a static stability okay.
Now let say this body was flying like this Beta equal to zero mostly the pilot will fly a machine at
Beta equal to 0 so for all practical purpose Beta equal to 0 is the equilibrium state for an airplane
294
there are some one or two occasion during especially while landing or when you try to reduce the
speed increase the drag for some specific purpose that also will come to know the pilot may tend
to fly at a particular yaw angle or particular side slip angle what accurately side slip angle it is not
yaw angle, yaw angle by convention is different than side slip angle which we will discuss as we
go forward.
Let us talk only about Beta and that is side slip angle so if an pilot is flying at Beta equal to 0 and
let say there are some wind coming from right hand side so this will make the relative air speed
this way and so this will introduce a Beta but what is the equilibrium. Equilibrium is Beta equal to
0 so if the airplane as initial tendency to come back to Beta equal to 0.
Then what the airplane should do, airplane should immediately generate a yawing moment like
this, right wing going back then only Beta will become 0 am I correct is it clear? So, it should for
positive Beta (𝛽), it should generate a positive yawing moment. Why positive yawing moment?
Because we know that as per the convention right wing going back is positive right. Let us
understand this concept little more clearly before you go to next step.
We have just introduced something called Beta which is side slip angle we have introduced symbol
Beta which is side slip angle and I have told you be careful this is not yaw angle. We will define
yaw angle later at this point we only restrict to Beta side slip angle and what is this side slip angle
this is the airplane.
295
The top view I am taking this is the central line and if the aircraft CG is moving in this direction
so it is moving like this the airplane moving like this okay. This angle is Beta and Beta is positive
convention wise when you are flying the machine and the relative wind is coming from the right
end side okay. The relative wind from right hand side so what will be the Beta negative convention
wise Beta negative will be other way it is like this that is Beta negative.
Now you know the most of the time Beta equal to zero is the equilibrium so suppose I am going
with Beta equal to zero and suddenly there is a disturbance that has introduced Beta so if it has
initial tendency to make it to Beta equal to zero we say statically stable that means it as to turn like
this, turn like this means right wing going back that means it has to generate for a positive Beta it
must generate positive yawing moment okay that is clear.
Similarly for negative Beta it should generate negative yawing moment right. Remember for
longitudinal case it was for positive Alpha (𝛼) longitudinal case positive Alpha (𝛼) the pitching
moment was negative to make it statically stable but for directional stability you are seeing for
positive Beta it should generate positive yawing moment right. So if I am going like this and
suddenly some wind disturbance has come which has given you Beta so I should be able to turn
like this to make Beta equal to 0 and then only you will say this aircraft as directional stability.
And we will also discuss how many directional stability is required as we develop our lecture
right? If this is clear so, now see how to design an airplane so that this phenomena can happen so.
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What you have seen for static stability for positive Beta it should give positive yawing moment
and for negative Beta it should give a negative yawing moment and generally by notation we use
N for yawing moment okay. And similarly we will define CN yawing moment coefficient let N by
half rho (𝜌) V square (𝑉 2 ) S (𝑆) and b, see this is moment so this is the force and this is the length
some for longitudinal case we are using mean aerodynamic chord as that length to be used for non-
dimensional we are using C bar (𝑐̅) as a length to non-dimensionalized pitching moment.
+𝛽 → +𝑌𝑀
−𝛽 → −𝑌𝑀
𝑌𝑀: 𝑌𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑁
𝐶𝑁 =
1 2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑏
But for non-dimensionalizing yawing moment or roll moment you will see we will be using b that
is the span of the wing right okay. So, this is CN which is also called yawing moment, yawing
moment coefficient like for longitudinal we have pitching moment coefficient CN for directional
case we have yawing moment coefficient CN.
297
And as we have understood for static stability for directional static stability, we have seen for
positive Beta yawing moment should be positive so I can write CN should be positive so here CN
should be negative other anyway CN and yawing moment are related like this. So if I write CN
here and Beta here and equilibrium is at Beta equal to 0 so if I draw it like this do you think this
will have static stability check here for positive Beta yawing moment should be positive or CN is
positive for positive Beta at is negative so this is wrong this is not correct.
298
+𝛽 → +𝑌𝑀 → 𝐶𝑛 + 𝑣𝑒
−𝛽 → −𝑌𝑀 → 𝐶𝑛 − 𝑣𝑒
So what should be the correct thing if I draw this is as CN and this is as Beta then correct thing
should be this equilibrium at Beta equal to 0. Now you will see for positive Beta it should give CN
positive, so CN(𝐶𝑛 ) positive this is coming for negative Beta CN negative this is coming so what
is the meaning of this, its meaning is DCN slope of CN versus Beta should be greater than 0 for
directional static stability, clear. Please recall this sort of a slope negative was there for longitudinal
case.
𝜕𝐶𝑛
>0
𝜕𝛽
For which CM Alpha was supposed to be less than 0 but for directional case CN Beta (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) has
to be greater than 0 that keep back of your mind okay, So this is the condition for directional
stability as far as static part is concerned. Now see who are going to contribute towards this.
299
As all the time we do CN Beta (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) I can get from vertical tail primarily I can get from wing I
can get from fuselage, let us see first the contribution due to vertical tail okay. I make a simplify
diagram with center of gravity of the airplane and let say this is the vertical tail and this is the AC
of the vertical tail and I let me need write this distance as LV (𝑙𝑣 )that is distance between the AC
of the vertical tail and CG of the airplane.
For longitudinal case if we recall we use some term called LT (𝑙𝑡 ) and what was the LT, LT was
distance between AC of the horizontal tail and CG of the aircraft, but now I am using a different
nomenclature LV for vertical tail because it is not necessary that horizontal tail AC and vertical
tail AC will be a same point.
There are very configuration where you’ll find horizontal tail is like this and vertical tail is
somewhere here. So they can be laid out differently so in general I am using a term a notation LV
as length between CG of the aircraft and AC of the vertical tail right. And I also know as per the
sign convention and axis convention this is the X, this will be the Y and this is the Z. This is the
body fit axis what I want to see please come back here.
We want to check if there is a Beta disturbance given to this vertical tail whether it will generate a
positive CN or not if it generates positive CN that means CN Beta because of the vertical tail is
positive so I would say vertical tail is providing directional stability to the airplane right. So let us
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see let us give a positive Beta to the vertical tail and you know positive Beta means the wing if I
am moving like this the relative wind should come from the right hand side.
So this is the positive Beta what will happen if there positive Beta let us also see. Let us see this
is a vertical tail okay vertical tail I was moving like this now suddenly there is a crosswind coming
like this because of the relative velocity, relative air velocity has become like this. So this is the
positive Beta configuration, because relative towards my right. Now what this Beta will do? This
air will give a force on the vertical tail in this direction ideally it will be perpendicular to the
velocity vector but if this is small I can say it is something like this.
What the force will do? This force will, CG somewhere here this force will give a moment which
will take right wing back so indeed this will make yawing moment positive so vertical tail will
give adequate directional stability. Let me repeat if there a positive Beta this will give force here
and about CG it will give a yawing moment which will take right wing back so that CN is positive
and if we design properly vertical tail we can get adequate directional stability because of vertical
tail.
If that is the understanding let us formulate it okay. Let us see for a Beta what the force in the Y
direction okay. We are assuming small Beta so force will be half rho (𝜌) V square (𝑉 2 ) at the
vertical tail dynamic pressure at the vertical tail is vertical tail and CY because of vertical tail like
we have CL and here we have CY I put V to ensure that it goes to your mind because of vertical
tail. So you can see from CY is nothing but force.
1
𝐹𝑦 = ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑣 𝐶𝑌
2 𝑣
FY divided by dynamic pressure into area reference area it will come if we are doing it for overall
airplane but it for the tail so we are writing as V right. Now what happens this force will do what
this force will give force in this direction I have just demonstrated this will give a yawing moment
positive so yawing moment will be given this FY that is half rho V square vertical tail is vertical
tail CY into LV right. We have to ensure that in this the yawing moment whatever we are
calculating it should have appropriate sign.
1
𝑌𝑀 = ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑉 𝐶𝑌 𝑙𝑣
2 𝑣
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Now to ensure that sign we will have to do little more work because this sign convention etcetera
we have to defined so we should be very very careful. So what is CY let us see if I want to ask
what is CL we write CL Alpha into Alpha assuming CL0 is 0 so what is CY, CY I will write CY
Beta (𝐶𝑌𝛽 ) into Beta correct okay. That is if I making more elaborative DCY by D Beta into Beta
like this for DCL by D Alpha into Alpha for longitudinal case.
𝜕𝐶𝑌
𝐶𝑌 = 𝐶𝑌𝛽 𝛽 = ( )𝛽
𝜕𝛽
Now let us see what is the sign of DCY by D Beta that is important you could see that for a positive
Beta this force CY will be in the opposite direction of Y if this is the Y the force in the opposite
direction if I demonstrate here you see this is the X and this is the Y towards the you and this is Z
positive Beta is like this. This will give force in this direction which is opposite in relation of Y so
positive Beta will give you negative force.
As well as axis system is concerned because Y towards you and positive Beta the force in this
direction so I have to take care of the sign here. So what I do I say I can understand from here the
sign of CY Beta is less than 0 because for a positive Beta if FY is negative because why this is less
than 0 we know for a positive Beta FY is negative and this negative and CY is FY by half rho V
square S and of course CY Beta means just take one derivative so naturally if this is from here if
FY is negative then CY Beta automatically becomes negative correct.
𝐹𝑌
𝐶𝑌 = (𝐶𝑌𝛽 < 0) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 + 𝛽 → 𝐹𝑌 (−𝑣𝑒)
1 2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆
Which physically also you understand I repeat again I will take this a register for you to get more
clarified if this is the vertical tail and assume that this is the Y direction because this XY and Beta
is coming like this positive that will give a force in this direction so it will give a negative in
direction as far as force direction is concerned. So for the positive Beta the CY becomes negative
and we say CY Beta is negative okay.
Please not get confused with CN Beta this is CY Beta. So now if I want to see this yawing moment
here I further now go into little bit of detail to ensure the signs are consistent so then I write yawing
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moment is equal to half rho V square dynamic pressure vertical tail S vertical tail and for CY I
write CY Beta into Beta into LV which is the vertical tail arm. And if I write it like this since we
know CY Beta is negative by definition now that we have defined so then this tells you that if Beta
is positive the Yawing moment become negative but which is not correct.
For Beta positive although CY become negative but it is giving a positive yawing moment that is
please understand again and again I am repeating this if this is the vertical tail Beta is positive CY
is negative but this is give you a moment right wing going back yawing moment positive right?
So to ensure that you are getting yawing moment positive you have to put here minus sign now
see what happens if Beta positive.
1
𝑌𝑀 = − ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑣 𝐶𝑌𝛽 (𝑙𝑣 )
2 𝑣
CY Beta (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) is negative and this minus sign is there this gives yawing moment positive so from
here if I write CN, CN will be Yawing moment divided by half rho V square S referencing V, V
is a span so this will become you are now expert, eta the ratio of dynamic pressure at the vertical
tail and the half V square free stream then SV by S you will get then LV by b you will get then
CY Beta into Beta of course you have to put a minus sign here right.
𝑌𝑀 𝑆𝑣 𝑙𝑣
𝐶𝑛 = = −𝜂 ( ) ( ) 𝐶𝑌𝛽 𝛽
1 2 𝑆 𝑏
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑏
And then what is CN Beta? It is very clear so using this CN expression CN Beta is linear if we just
divide by Beta here or differentiate.
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So CN Beta will be equal to DCN by D Beta which will be equal to minus eta (𝜂) SV LV by S b
into CY Beta am I correct. SV LV right so what is the sign of CN Beta? Here the CN Beta is
because of what? It is because of vertical tail right.
So this is because of vertical tail or vertical stabilizer the sign will be what? Will be greater than 0
because I know this man is negative this is positive this is negative so this is positive so indeed
vertical tail or vertical stabilizer they are stabilizing directionally correct and you could do now
see what is this Sv (𝑆𝑣 ) Lv (𝑙𝑣 ) by S b let that help you in thinking something similar happen in
longitudinal case that was St (𝑆𝑡 ) Lt (𝑙𝑡 ) by S cbar (𝑐̅) so it is that time that was called horizontal
tail volume ratio and this is called Vv (𝑉𝑣 ) that is vertical tail volume ratio.
You could see that this Vv (𝑉𝑣 ) this whole expression is so important if I increase the value of Vv
I can increase the contribution of vertical tail towards directional static stability what is the
meaning of increasing this expression or this value. Is that you have to either increase the vertical
tail size or increase the length of its placement from the CG or doing both.
So this is another very important design parameter for designing an aircraft. So just now we
finished the expression for CN Beta vertical tail and we see that it is having stabilizing effect on
the airplane directional stability is it clear to everybody? Okay.
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Another important thing for longitudinal case another important thing you must take a note for a
longitudinal case if there is a wing here and here there is a tail horizontal tail because of downwash
the angle was whatever angle it is being seen minus Epsilon downwash angle (𝜖) right.
You know about this by now, but for the airplane having a Beta that means a relative wind is
coming like this okay that is why a Beta it is suppose this is a fuselage we’re moving in this
direction so that vortices will now be at an direction along the velocity vector relative velocity
vector. So this will give some sort of a side wash it is analogous to downwash we call side wash
and denoted by sigma (𝜎) and the angle of attack at the vertical tail which was Beta now it is
changes to Beta plus sigma okay.
𝛽 → (𝛽 + 𝜎)
What is sigma? Sigma is the side wash okay. There are empirical ways of finding sigma value
okay. So now what is happening so what is the force?
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So the FY will be equal to half rho V square at the vertical tail S vertical tail into CY Beta into
Beta plus sigma right. Because of the side wash this angle seen is Beta plus sigma so the force will
be half of the V square S b, CY Beta into Beta plus sigma but note down we have agreed that for
the positive. Beta the FY should be negative but I do not see any negative sign here, but you know
that CY Beta is less than 0. So that is taken care from the value of CY Beta so if I put CY Beta
values say -0.3, -0.6 the FY will be negative okay.
1
𝐹𝑌 = ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑣 𝐶𝑦𝛽 (𝛽 + 𝜎) ; 𝐶𝑦𝛽 < 0
2 𝑣
Now from here for your clarity yawing moment about CG will be half rho V square vertical tail S
vertical CY Beta into Beta plus sigma so from yawing moment how do I come to CN? You know
that I have to divide the yawing moment by half rho V square S b.
1
𝑌. 𝑀 = ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑣 𝐶𝑦𝛽 (𝛽 + 𝜎)𝑙𝑣
2 𝑣
So I divide it by CN is equal to yawing moment divided by half rho V square S b, this is the span
so this becomes half rho V square at vertical tail. This is the dynamic pressure at vertical tail
into Sv into CY Beta into Beta plus sigma before I write the yawing moment expression do not
know there is mistake? Half rho V square S CY Beta into Beta is the force but I am talking about
the yawing moment, so moment would be what? This is the force here FY into Lv this distance
should come Lv that so this term was wrong a little so we correct it we write it Lv. Lv is the vertical
surface tail moment arm okay.
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𝑌. 𝑀 1
𝐶𝑛 = = ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑣 𝐶𝑌𝛽 (𝛽 + 𝜎)
1 2 2 𝑣
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑣 𝑏
Now am I correct I will write LV and this is divided by half rho V square free stream you know
by now S and b is non-dimensional length has to come because its moment is the force into distance
moment and now if I write the expression I get CN equal to eta SV LV by S b into CY Beta into
Beta plus sigma right. See, I have taken Sv Lv , S and b so by this is by this is eta so its Sv Lv is
by S b this is here CY beta here, Beta plus sigma here what is our aim?
1
𝑌. 𝑀 (2 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑣 𝐶𝑌𝛽 (𝛽 + 𝜎). 𝑙𝑣 𝑆𝑣 𝑙𝑣
𝑣
𝐶𝑛 = = = 𝜂( ) 𝐶𝑌𝛽 (𝛽 + 𝜎)
1 2 1 𝑆𝑏
(2 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆. 𝑏
We want to find an expression for CN Beta because we want to ensure that CN Beta is greater than
zero and we are talking about only vertical tail contribution. So what will be CN Beta? So DCN
by D Beta will be eta let me write this CY Beta into 1 plus D sigma by D Beta (𝑑𝜎⁄𝑑𝛽 ) what is
the sign of CN Beta?
𝜕𝐶𝑛 𝑑𝜎
= 𝜂𝑉𝑣 𝐶𝑦𝛽 (1 + )
𝜕𝛽 𝑑𝛽
CN Beta (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) is positive, right. And now what is happening? If I go like this, I know CY Beta
sign is negative but this shows that I have done something wrong in the expression what is that
wrong? Let us go back and see so, this is extremely important for keeping the sign into mind. Let’s
see here this Beta is giving FY so FY is here half rho V square S b CY beta, Beta plus sigma we
have seen for a positive Beta FY should be negative so and we know that CY Beta is negative so
taken care FY is negative.
Now from here when I coming to moment please see for FY for whatever FY we are getting it
should give me a positive yawing moment right. If you see this is the vertical tail and CG
somewhere there if there is a Beta force is here that will give a moment so the right wing going
back now I have to see whether I have taken that into care or not. If you see YM is the Yawing
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moment and I know CY Beta is less than 0 so the whole expression is becoming negative which
is not correct.
Because I know from here if CG is ahead of vertical tail which is true this Beta will give me a
moment yawing moment where right wing going back so I have to take care of that so I have to
artificially put a minus sign here please note down this is extremely important right. So, that minus
sign will also continue here and this minus sign is also continue here and minus sign will continue
here is it clear to you or not? Please let’s go again we know that for a positive Beta this FY will
generate a positive yawing moment.
1
𝑌. 𝑀 (2 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑣 𝐶𝑌𝛽 (𝛽 + 𝜎). 𝑙𝑣 𝑆𝑣 𝑙𝑣
𝑣
𝐶𝑛 = =− = −𝜂 ( ) 𝐶𝑌𝛽 (𝛽 + 𝜎)
1 2 1 𝑆𝑏
(2 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆. 𝑏
𝜕𝐶𝑛 𝑑𝜎
= −𝜂𝑉𝑣 𝐶𝑦𝛽 (1 + )
𝜕𝛽 𝑑𝛽
And when I writing yawing moment expression like this without minus sign you know CY Beta
is already negative we have seen that without minus sign putting here this will give me a yawing
moment in negative which is not correct for a positive Beta I should get positive yawing moment
that is right wing going back. So I have to put a minus sign here and that minus sign should carry
and finally I get an expression DCN by D Beta at this and let us have closer look on this expression
what expression you have got?
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Is CN Beta is minus eta Vv into CY Beta into 1 plus D sigma by D Beta okay what is Vv? What
is this? Could you recall similarity of this expression with longitudinal case? This is S vertical tail
L vertical tail by S wing and b span. This is if I try to find a comfortable similarity for longitudinal
case we had VH which was St Lt by S C bar and this we used to refer to as horizontal tail volume
ratio right. Horizontal so what is this then?
𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑉𝐻 = (𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙)
𝑆 𝑐̅
𝑆𝑣 𝑙𝑣
𝑉𝑣 = (𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑙)
𝑆𝑏
This is also instead of St horizontal tail this is S of vertical tail instead of tail moment of the
horizontal tail it is vertical tail and S is the wing area and b is for convention everybody follow we
have taken span is instead of C bar. So, this becomes what this is again tail volume ratio but for
vertical tail or vertical tail very clear no doubt about it? Now what was the role of VH? VH was
we know that this was primarily giving the longitudinal stability through the horizontal tail if tail
volume ratio is higher than we will have more and more static stability.
Similarly, here you see we wanted CN Beta (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) to be greater than 0 and we have seen that
although minus sign is here as per our convention we know that CY Beta (𝐶𝑦𝛽 ) is negative so this
DCN by D Beta (𝜕𝐶𝑛 ⁄𝜕𝛽 ) is actually greater than zero. So, for the positive Beta it is CN Beta is
positive that means it is this vertical tail is giving directional stability okay. And who decides that?
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Not only CY Beta it also decided for a designer it is the vertical tail volume ratio so you can
appropriately select vertical tail area or vertical tail moment arm.
I can put the vertical tail forward and aft or I can in a combination I can increase Vv and as I
increase Vv that means it will add towards more and more directional stability okay.
So, let us go deep into this CN Beta is greater than 0 and shows directional stability we are talking
about static stability we are talking about static stability. Now what is the issue we see next
question comes to our mind how much directional stability we want okay, we know that if we
make it very high in terms of static stability then if you want to change from an equilibrium to
another equilibrium there is a problem there is a lot of effort is required.
We have clearly seen in the longitudinal case but see here what happens if CN Beta is very very
large if CN Beta is very large so far this you note we have only computed CN Beta because of
vertical tail and this because we know that primary contributor to directional stability is vertical
tail you will soon see that there will be contribution from wing and fuselage mostly fuselage will
be destabilizing CN Beta you will see for fuselage will mostly destabilizing we will do that CN
Beta from wing you will see if there is a sweep it is stabilizing marginally.
(𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) → 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑓𝑠
(𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) ⇒ 𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑝 → 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦

𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
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We will see these things we just to for continuity keep this back on mind if CN Beta is very large
what will happen? If CN Beta is very large physically you see if I am flying a machine and CN
Beta is very large is what the moment there is a Beta disturbance that means if there is a crosswind
coming it will have an initial tendency to nullify these crosswind effect okay.
So, that means if CN Beta is very very large the airplane will become highly sensitive to cross
wind if wind is coming like this it will turn like this if it is coming from right turn like this so the
airplane will become highly sensitive to crosswind that is not a good design right. So there will
be a debate on how much CN Beta or how much directional stability I need to have that will be
very important question before we try to understand.
What is the directional control how a rudder will control visa-vis the directional stability of the
airplane that is if CN Beta is very, very large then you have to put lot of effort on rudder to control
this airplane at a particular direction okay or particular equilibrium right. Thank you very much.
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 22
Directional Control
We are discussing the CN Beta (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) effect because of vertical tail for wing and then fuselage.
As I have told you for the fuselage we will be discussing all the longitudinal case or directional
case in one lecture only because it needs different approach mostly empirical formula we have to
use. So I will not be computing CN Beta because of fuselage here. I will not try to model it we
will do it in one lecture where longitudinal, lateral, directional all will be modelled. But vertical
tail we have seen, say CN Beta greater than zero (𝐶𝑛𝛽 > 0), we also know how to calculate CN
Beta.
Now we are thinking about wing, let us say wing contribution right. Wing contribution towards
CN Beta, let us understand first the physics, why there should be a CN Beta contribution from the
wing, meaning there by if the airplane is going like this if there is a side slip angle introduced
because of the disturbance why should wing try to generate the yawing movement either this way
or that way. We are talking about the wing not the vertical tail.
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We are talking about the wing right. Let us take a general wing.
And by now you understand, this is a relative V so, this is positive Beta because relative wind is
coming from the right hand side. Now we are flying like this, so now you could see 1 thing very
clearly, if you see this diagram if velocity was like this, it is going like this, then the normal
component to this leading edge okay because this is a sweep this is a swept wing, and in swept
wing you know, you will get the desired effect through installing the aerofoil contouring in a
particular fashion.
For example let me clarify what is the sweep so that you do not get confused between sweep and
taper ratio, and this is very, very important understanding, and you must understand.
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Suppose this is the planform of a wing and these are the way the aerofoil shape has been contoured.
And if there is relative air speed V then do I call that this airplane is having a sweep or not? Should
I tell this is having a sweep in a literal it says question is yes or no? Let us see what is the physics
is behind or philosophy behind the sweep. The understanding was suppose, this is the rectangular
wing and this is the free stream relative air speed okay. We understand one thing,
The most of the forces that is generated over an wing is because of the normal component of the
velocity, which is on the leading stuff or leading edge like this okay on the normal component to
the leading edge that decide the majority of the forces. So now if I give a shape like this, and still
the aerofoils are kept like this, and the normal component is same, and there is no change in normal
component right, so what advantage I am getting? What is our aim for a sweep?
We want to increase the critical mach number right, we want to increase I repeat we want to
increase critical mach, or M critical means critical mach number. What is the critical mach
number? It is that free stream mark number at which for the first time some point on the aircraft
that is mach is equal to 1 okay.
So that is why, if I give a sweep like this, with understanding now the aerofoil are stagged like this
okay. So what happens, even if the speed is like this, the normal component become V COS of
this sweep angle (𝑉 cos Λ), so now you could see free stream is V but the normal component to
leading edge provided the aerofoils are stagged like this, that becomes V COS Lambda so the local
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mach number will be less than the free stream mach number, and that is how increase M critical
okay.
So now if that is true, if you understand that this is very important and you should refer my first
course, introduction to airplane where I think I have clarified these things. Now let us see coming
back to this.
If this is the Lambda (Λ) now if I am going for a side slip that means you have seen this goes like
this okay it is going like this it was initially like this now like this okay. So what is happening?
How much it is turning? It is turning by Beta (𝛽) okay. So here the normal component will have
V COS of whatever Lambda, Lambda is a sweep angle because it has gone into so it has reduced
whereas the normal component here, that as increased V COS Lambda plus Beta (𝑉 cos(Λ + 𝛽))
is this clear.
If I do it like this is the airplane, and let us says this is the Lambda sweep angle. Now when am
trying to fly, such that there is a positive Beta, that means I will turn like this, so that relative vary
speed is this, so this is Beta. So it has turned into by angle Beta, so this effective angle becomes
Lambda minus Beta (Λ − 𝛽) whereas here it has increased by Beta so it becomes Lambda + Beta
(Λ + 𝛽) clear.
315
So the moment there is a difference in the normal component of V you could see easily that this
will give more compared to this because of COS function. So what will happen? The Drag
experienced by this part will be more compared to drag experience by this part because the velocity
here is more drag is half rho V square. What is drag? Drag is half rho V square SCD so V here is
more compared to V here because of COS factor.
1
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆 𝐶𝐷
2
So since there will be a larger drag here okay. So this will generate a positive Yawing moment
clear? Larger drag, so for the moment there is a Beta it will generate larger Yawing moment, so
Yawing moment positive, it will try to discourage this Beta, it would try to take it to Beta is equal
to zero. And for my definition for positive Beta, it will give positive Yawing moment, because of
drag here is more, so you say wing with a sweep, CN Beta (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) will be stabilizing or greater than
zero. Is it clear?
𝐶𝑛𝛽 > 0
I repeat here again, You have understood that if this is the light and the airplane is like this and
this is Lambda (Λ) we are discussing about whether the wing will generate CN Beta because of its
wing planform whether it will generate stabilizing or destabilizing. We see we have taken a swept
wing, and when it is going with the Beta that means configuration should be like this. This is
positive Beta and you could see here earlier this angle was COS angle was Lambda so normal
component was V COS Lambda (𝑉 cos Λ )so now what will happen, as it turned by Beta.
This angle has reduced by Beta, so this become normal component became V COS Lambda minus
Beta, whether it has increased, so this became V COS Lambda plus Beta right. Since you know
because of property of COS function this will be speed will be more this speed more means drag
on this wing will be more and then that drag will give a Yawing moment positive.
So it will generate Yawing moment positive for a positive Beta, so for a wing the CN Beta greater
than zero, which is typically for the swept wing. And if I give you the expression, I will not derive
it, or if you want I can write the expression. And you should do it yourself to get the final result.
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So net Yawing movement will be nothing but you see half rho V COS of lambda minus Beta. This
half rho V square now V and the right wing is V COS Lambda minus Beta so half rho V square
and then half of the wing SW by 2 I have to take, I am considering for right wing and I am assuming
that whole force is effective at a distance let us say, Y bar(𝑦̅) okay. That typical like centroid the
pressure distribution, this is this half rho V square S of course you have to multiply with CD of the
wing right.
1 𝑆𝑤 1 𝑆𝑤
𝑌𝑀 = 𝜌(𝑣 cos(Λ − 𝛽))2 𝑦̅𝐶𝐷 − 𝜌(𝑣 cos(Λ + 𝛽))2 𝑦̅𝐶𝐷
2 2 2 2
This is from the right wing, from the left wing it will be minus half rho V COS Lambda plus
Beta square SW by 2 Y bar CD so this is the net Yawing movement coming because of
differentiation drag between this wing and that wing and then I will find CN by dividing Yawing
moment by half rho V square S b.
𝑌𝑀 𝑦̅
𝐶𝑁 = = 𝐶𝐷 ( ) 𝛽 sin 2Λ
1 2 𝑏
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑏
As I told you, you have to derive it Y by b Beta sin two Lambda, what I have done? This V COS
square if I just to give a hint, please do yourself don’t expect everything will be , these are all
class 10th standard you have to expand it here by taking half rho or all this thing common SW by
2 so this can be generalized by using trigonometry relationship.
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And you will get an expression of CN like this. So from here you will get CN Beta equal to CD,
Y bar by b and say SIN of 2 Lambda. What is the message here? Message is for a rectangular
wing. Which is having wing like this you will not get any contribution towards directional static
stability because of wing however if you can introduce sweep to this wing sweep in the right sense
please understand sweep means right sense, we are talking about some aerofoils also will be
something like this staggered end then only this is the sweep if you introduce a sweep.
Then you can get stabilizing contribution, because of CD right and it will also depend upon how
much sweep angle you have given right. This is extremely important please realize there are now
concept goes on vertical tailless aircraft right because the moment there is a vertical tailless you
will think.
Who will provide directional of stability? But I say I do not require the vertical tail if I can give
sweep to the wing that itself will give me CN Beta stabilizing. So it is nothing very mystic about
this, very straight forward from the basic understanding of flight mechanics right.
So far you were talking about directional stability now we will talk about directional control. We
have seen our aircraft and have demonstrated you that for the directional control primarily we will
use a rudder right okay. To take a turn like this we primarily we will use rudder but please
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understand all this motion can be easily be generated using different combination of control
surfaces.
For example, I can use aileron and still it will turn all those thing complexity you will understand
but at present I am talking about primary directional control, which is nothing but rudder. What
was primary control surface for longitudinal control? It was elevator okay and how we found out
the control power remember what was the basis, if this is the horizontal tail, this is the elevator
will see first we will define.
What is Delta E positive, this is longitudinal correct and what was the understanding?
understanding was let us find out how much Alpha of the tail is changed because of elevator
deflection and which we denoted by tau and then we see how much Delta L will come because of
this deflection that will be half rho V square at the horizontal tail.
Or tail into S tail into CL Alpha tail and into whatever this is coming that is tau into Delta E. So
that was the change in the lift which was here. I repeat here for longitudinal case, we knew D
Alpha T by D Delta E is tau that is how much Alpha tail is changing per unit deflection of tau or
deflection of elevator and then what we did for a given elevator deflection Delta E tau into Delta
E is the change in the angle of attack at the tail.
So I know half rho V square St CL Alpha T into that change in angle of attack will me Delta L and
from there I can find out what is the control power or not.
𝑑𝛼𝑡
=𝜏
𝑑𝛿𝑒
1
Δ𝐿 = ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (𝜏𝛿𝑒 )
2 𝑡
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Similar thing we will do for rudder also okay. Similarly we will define tau for vertical tail as D
𝑑𝛽
Beta at the tail by D Delta R (𝜏𝑣 = 𝑑𝛿 ) okay. So, if I am deflecting say this is the I am looking
𝑟
from the top okay as per the convention this is looking from the top please understand. This is the
positive Delta R (𝛿𝑟 ) towards left and this is then negative Delta R let me explain this convention
wise if this is the vertical tail or let me more illustrative.
If this is the rudder part okay then towards left this is the positive Delta R and towards right, it is
the negative Delta R, is it clear? Towards left positive Delta R towards right it is negative Delta R
at the convention. Now see what happens, if I am a giving positive Delta R like this for the force
I am going forward of the force on this vertical tail will act which way? I am going like this so
force will be in this direction right.
Which is in the right Y direction of positive force will generate. However, the Yawing moment
will be which way? Force is here CG is there so yawing moment will be left wing going back it is
something like this. So, positive Delta R you could see here is generating a negative Yawing
moment, right? that you should remember. If this is Delta R positive, then what I will do I am
trying to calculate, we are trying to control rudder, control power we are now expert because we
know how we calculated here.
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So, what we’ll write is Yawing moment because of Delta R positive. What is Delta R positive,
Delta R positive means I have shown you that the rudder is going towards left as I am flying like
this, this will be equal to force, force means half rho V square at the tail S tail then Lv into what is
the Beta change because of Delta R we know TauV (𝜏𝑣 ) be D Beta by D Delta R that means per
unit change in the rudder deflection, how much Beta at the tail is changed so if I multiply Delta R
into tau V that will give me what is the change of Beta in the vertical tail.
𝛿𝑟 𝜏𝑣 = Δ𝛽
So I will multiply this tau into Delta R okay and Beta into CY Beta will be the force and force into
this length is moment is it clear or not? If I try to again explain you, I can write it like this half rho
V square at the vertical tail, S vertical tail. So I will take out Sv, Lv into I will not write LV here,
this is half rho V square S, this is into CY Beta okay into Beta is nothing but tau into Delta R so
this whole become the force into LV, that becomes the moment is it clear now. What I have done?
1 1
𝑌𝑀(𝛿𝑟 + 𝑣𝑒) = ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑣 𝑙𝑣 𝜏𝛿𝑟 𝐶𝑦𝛽 = {( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑣 𝐶𝑦𝛽 𝜏𝛿𝑟 } 𝑙𝑣
2 𝑡 2 𝑡
This tail I make it vertical tail dynamic pressure at the vertical tail no objections S vertical no
objection, CY Beta into Beta should be the force so like CL Alpha into Alpha tail so CY Beta into
Beta, Beta is what? Tau into Delta R was the additional Beta because of Delta deflection so this
becomes the force into Lv is the moment so this gives Yawing moment. What you have to check?
You have seen that if Delta R is positive it should give Yawing moment negative because of the
force is in the direction.
Yawing moment will be negative so I have to check whether it is giving Yawing moment negative
or not these are positive yes CY Beta is negative you know that, so it is indeed consistent in sign
from here the Yawing moment expression I go to CN (𝐶𝑛 ) how do I get go to CN I divide by
Yawing moment by.
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Half rho V square, so CN I write as Yawing moment divided by half rho V square S into b so CN
I will get as eta vertical tail then SV by S, Lv by V no problem then Tau CY Beta Delta R. Let me
check everything is there, half rho V square so divided by half rho V square free stream so it will
becomes eta SV by S, Lv by V, Tau okay. And I am again checking that if Delta R is positive this
Yawing moment should be negative.
𝑆𝑣 𝑙𝑣
𝐶𝑛 = 𝜂 ( ) ( ) 𝜏𝐶𝑌𝛽 𝛿𝑟
𝑆 𝑏
That we have seen physically and since CY Beta sign is negative so this is taken here we are talking
about control so what is CN Delta R that will be eta V, SV by S, Lv by b Tau into CY Beta, and
what is the sign of CN Delta R? This is less than because CY Beta is less than 0 now recall. Now
let us go back to longitudinal case, and directional case let us make one comparison.
𝑆𝑣 𝑙𝑣
𝐶𝑛𝛿𝑟 = 𝜂𝑣 ( ) ( ) 𝜏𝐶𝑌𝛽 < 0
𝑆 𝑏
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For static stability what was the condition? CM Alpha (𝐶𝑚𝛼 ) should be less than 0. So, what is the
condition for a static stability for directional? CN Beta (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) greater than 0. So, for trim what is
the condition? Some Alpha positive or we say CM0 (𝐶𝑚0 ) greater than 0. For most of the
directional case trim is Beta equal to 0, so CN zero (𝐶𝑛0 ) is zero right. What about the control CM
Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) was less than zero and here also CN Delta R (𝐶𝑛𝛿𝑟 ) is less than zero.
That sort of mapping you must have okay. Let us ask a question why you were getting involve into
so many expressions, directional stability, directional control, please understand when we are
discussing about the longitudinal stability, and longitudinal control we got this insight in a
exhausting manner that I may like to fly at different different CL, or different different speeds I
may take to turn, I may go for maneuver I have to go for takeoff and landing so all this things are
to be appropriately understood for that we did elaborate study on static stability.
Static margin, elevator control, power neutral point etc.,. Why we are doing all these directional
stability and directional control? Because primarily we understand, with our rudder the specific
role powerful enough to handle adverse yaw I will explain what is adverse yaw. Then it should be
able to Asymmetric power, I will explain what it is. Third is crosswind then fourth spinning and
many will come what is the adverse yaw? As I told you.
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If I want to go for a bank roll like this okay. let us say positive roll I have to roll like this. Roll
positive by convention is right wing going back, what is happening if it is going like this, we could
see that this person relative wind will come upward as it is going like this relative wind will come
upward. So, here the angle of attack will increase compared to this which is going up and angle of
attack means lift will increase lift increase means induce drag will increase.
As the induce drag increased here it will try to turn like this. So if you want to go for a roll, it will
automatically turn like this. So that is called adverse yaw, and we do not want to do that when you
are going for the banking. So this adverse yaw has to be controlled neutralize by using appropriate
rudder deflection.
Because rudder can give Yawing moment in either direction depending upon where you have
deflected. So this is one of the primary purpose of rudder. We will also see, what is purpose is on
asymmetric power, that is suppose for a twin engine airplane one engine here, one engine here and
one engine fails then what will happen? The moment one engine fails this will generate Yawing
moment because of this thrust being alive.
So I have to neutralize this, how do I do that? So, because this thrust will be generating yawing
moment in this direction I have to generate a yawing moment in this direction, who will generate
this yawing moment? This is through a rudder by appropriately deflecting it okay? Which way I
should deflect? I should deflect the rudder you know by now deflect like this.
This is rudder positive, if I deflect like this it will generate a force in this direction so that will give
this moment which is required to nullify this moment, so rudder is extremely important so rudder
control power should be assessed.
It should be enough control power, so that it will be handle this sort of asymmetric power if there
is a failure of engine right? Similarly, for cross wind, you know what happens in cross wind? And
I want to land like this and because of cross wind there is a Beta introduced so how do I land
holding this cross wind effect that also we will be explaining as we will be going forward.
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But you understand rudder is required here spinning, sometime the airplane during spinning may
go to stall, stall is as the angle of attack may increase very high, your aileron etc., may not be that
effective because the wing has stall but rudder can be very effective and that rudder can be used
to stop this rolling motion or it can help us in taking out the aircraft from stall. So, these are the
things that we will be discussing, but you should know that rudder has specific purpose.
For handling adverse yaw situation, asymmetric power, cross wind, spinning to bring out the
aircraft from stall and there are many such will come. So as I will be completing the lateral then
we address them in appropriate sense in a appropriate time okay. We are trying to give an example
of importance of rudder control. Why you should know this?
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Why should not only know how it works, but you should know how to design an appropriate
rudder, or a specific case, suppose this is a twin engine airplane, and one engine has failed, let us
say this engine has failed in flight what will happen? The moment this engine fails this thrust is
there so about CG it will give a yawing moment.
What sort of yawing moment sign will be positive or negative? You could see, it will turn like this
so this right wing going back so it will be positive yawing moment. So how much yawing moment
it will give? It will give T1 (𝑇1 ) into A this is the force into distance this is the yawing moment it
will give.
𝑌𝑀 = 𝑇1 × 𝑎
Now what is happening? I need to correct this yawing moment, otherwise the airplane will rotate,
so what I have to do? I have to give a rudder deflection to counter this to counter this I have to
apply rudder. So this is giving moment in this direction so I want a moment in the opposite
direction like this how can I get that moment? I get the moment if I deflect the rudder in a positive
sense Delta R positive.
The moment Delta R is positive I know this force this will get this moment and how much moment
rudder will give? Which is yawing moment rudder will give is will be given by this expression
half rho V square S, b into CN Delta R into Delta R right.
1 2
(𝑌𝑀)𝑟𝑢𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑏𝐶𝑛𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑟
2
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We know the expression of CN Delta R by now, so these two should be equal in magnitude right.
By equating this two I can easily find out, how much Delta R is required for a given T1 is it clear?
I will equate, this is the disturbing moment, this I equate with this so I can easily find out how
much Delta R is required for given T 1 and then I should also know the limitation of Delta R how
much Delta I can deflect for it to remain effective, right.
So, for a particular value of CN Delta R this Delta is very high so I will increase CN Delta R so
that the Delta value remains within the limit so this is a very simple but very interesting and very
useful approach to ensure that you can still control the airplane when one engine has failed as per
directional motion is concerned right. Thank you very much.
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture-23
Lateral Stability and Control
Dear Friends we will be talking about lateral stability and control so let us see what is the lateral
control we have and you know by now it is the aileron that is used for lateral control. Lateral
control means this is the wing, if I want to turn, bank towards right, the right wing going down.
This is by convention is positive roll or positive bank and if I am banking like this it is negative
bank.
How do I get that moment so that it can bank like this or bank like this that is the part or roll of it
lateral control for this airplane we have offer a conventional airplane we use a aileron mostly for
banking the airplane. Sometimes rudder, also we use we will talk later okay. Now see, we are now
to show you what is the aileron, you could see this an airplane Cessna 206 which has a high wing,
and you know the significance of high wing.
So note down this high wing airplane and the aileron is this if I deflect it down are you able to see
this Aileron this part of the wing is going down and going up okay. Are you able to see this or not
clear. Now let us see if I put this Aileron down what will happen? the moment I put it down the
cambered of this portion which is enclosing the Aileron part that increases positive cambered.
So, there will be a lift additional lift here and that will give a moment about CG and it will try to
take the right wing going down okay. Similarly, I can do one thing I can use one aileron down and
that aileron up so it will give a moment. So, that the wing will go right wing will go down so
positive rolling moment. If you define the CL Delta A (𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑎 ) that is DCL by D Delta A (𝑑𝐶𝐿 ⁄𝑑𝛿𝑎 )
is positive that means the positive Aileron deflection would be left Aileron going down and right
Aileron going up you will find.
This definition is being very nonstandard way reported in the different literature but we should
know that if I define Delta A positive as left Aileron down and right Aileron up and then the sign
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of CL Delta A and Delta A is Aileron deflection. So, if left aileron going down right aileron going
up, then than the CL Delta sign will be positive okay clear? So, far we have discussed about the
longitudinal static stability and what do you understand in that, if the airplane is moving like.
This let see like this airplane is moving like this, let say cruise as an equilibrium if there is an angle
of attack disturbance then it should generate a negative pitching moment so that comes back to
that trim condition. So, it should try to oppose right it should have initial tendency to oppose.
Similarly, for vertical stability we have seen, if I take this as a vertical tail and if start side slipping
because of the cross wing then the force of this vertical tail will be in this direction.
And that will give a positive Yawing moment, so for a positive Beta there is a positive yawing
moment, right wing going back then CN Beta (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) has to be greater than 0 to make a directional
stability and to get the CN beta (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) greater than 0 we are putting a vertical tail right and that is
why it is called vertical stabilizer.
Another question is the airplane has one motion this, one is directional another could be lateral
like this, if the airplane banks like this then it should automatically generate a moment we should
try to oppose this motion, that is it is going at a trim like this because of the disturbance it has
banked and if it is statically stable, then the airplane should generate a rolling moment opposite to
the disturbance and we define rolling moment as moment about.
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X axis that is, if this is the airplane, and I am moving like this a rolling moment is positive is right
wing going down clear. I am Moving like this right wing going down is the rolling moment
positive, so rolling moment positive is right wing going down, while I am moving with the airplane
right and say for all that examples which we are being discussing, we are discussing in terms, Non-
dimensional coefficient.
So, we will define non-dimensional rolling moment coefficient as roll moment or rolling moment
divided by half rho V square S and as we have discussed earlier. We will be using span as the
length to non-dimensionalize the moment right. So what do you understand, from static stability
or roll stability or sometimes or correctly if I say I should call it lateral stability right?
Δ𝑙
Δ𝐶𝑙 =
1 2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑏
So I will not use roll stability I will use the term lateral stability because many of the books they
talk about roll stability but actually correctly it is the lateral stability. So, what is lateral stability
that I need to know if this is the trim, I am flying like this and let’s say this is the wing, I am flying
like this and if there is a bank disturbance. The airplane should automatically have initial tendency
to generate a moment which will try to bring it back to the equilibrium.
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So, now if you see if I am flying like this and right wing is going down so what sort of the
rolling moment it is as per the convention right wing going down rolling moment will be positive
that is this is the airplane wing if it is banking like this I say rolling moment is positive but to
ensure that it has initial tendency what type of rolling moment it should generate it should generate
moment like this because it is going down which has to oppose it so it should generate a rolling
moment which is left wing going down that means it should generate a negative rolling moment.
So, from static stability point of view what we are seeing is Cl has to be negative as a initial
tendency the restoring moment for positive bank or roll okay? How does it happen? how one has
to do this, how you will ensure the aircraft as that sort of capability through its control or through
its stabilizers right not control stabilizers.
Unfortunately, we will see that for a longitudinal case there is a horizontal stabilizer for a
directional case there is a vertical stabilizer, but for lateral stability they are no special stabilizer
for that, but the question is then how does it happen. Let us understand what happens, if an airplane
is bank like this, say airplane was going like this and because of some disturbance airplane as gone
to a bank angle or roll angle like this.
The moment it banks what will happen? Because initially lift was like this, as it banks the lift
vector becomes like this so it will start side slipping is this clear? Again, initially when it is having
like this cruise because of some disturbance let’s say it has banked, bank means the lift vector will
also will change so, this one component of the lift vector we will try to side slip the airplane.
So, it will start side slipping like this. Now, the air will come from right hand side, but do not
forget you have vertical tail sitting on the top. So, because of that force which will be acting on
the vertical tail it will give a negative moment. So, you will get that Clbeta (𝐶𝑙𝛽 ) negative and that
is how you make the aircraft laterally stabilizing static case. Let me diagram wise explain this.
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This is the airplane this is the vertical tail and let’s say it has banked, it has banked means it is side
slipping okay. What type of moment I want if it has banked because of the disturbance I want the
moment should be generated which is negative Cl should be negative who will generate this
moment, this is through the vertical tail because as it banks, it will see starts side slipping so there
will be a force active on the vertical tail that is if this is the airplane.
If this is the vertical tail, if it as banked and starts side slipping so there will be force acting on the
vertical tail that will give a rolling moment okay and which direction the rolling moment will
come, it will be left wing going down so negative so, this will give negative rolling moment. So,
we will Cl for positive beta this sign should be negative then it will be statically stable in lateral
mode.
What is that? It has been disturbed by a positive bank angle start side slipping which is positive
and that should give a negative rolling moment so as to ensure the it has a tendency to come back
to its equilibrium so we will say DCl by D beta (𝑑𝐶𝑙 ⁄𝑑𝛽 ) should be less than zero for lateral
stability of course we are talking about static. I hope this part is clear right okay.
So, this is the physics behind the contribution of the vertical tail imagine this is the fuselage and
this is the vertical, suppose the vertical tail was not on the top on the underneath the fuselage. Now,
see what will be the sign of Cl beta and I’m flying like this and because of some disturbance it as
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gone like this and it starts side slipping as it side slip the force will be acting on this and this will
give further rolling moment positive.
So, will it have a tendency to bring it back to its equilibrium no so, that is why but if you put the
vertical tail up again you could see as it gets disturbed in bank angle and it starts slide slipping
because of force acting on the top and the moment of all the central line, it will try to give a Cl
negative. So, in this case it will have lateral static stability but if I put the vertical tail down like
this it will contribute to a destabilizing right it will never try to come back bring back the airplane,
after it has banked okay.
So, this is very, very important so, the sign is Cl beta should be less than 0. Now the question is
Cl beta or DCl by D beta we say Cl beta who are the contributors one is wing, one is vertical tail
primary contributor and then also you will see, some sort of a sweep on the wing or tail may help
right.
What do we want we want to ensure that the wing and the vertical tail they are placed in a such
way, designed in such a way that for any disturbance in positive roll angle, banking like this it
should automatically generate a negative rolling moment the mechanism for this is, please
understand again and again. if I bank the airplane due to some disturbance it starts side slipping
because of the lift vector being tilted as it side slips and since the vertical tail is here that will give
a force in this direction and that will try to take it opposite direction.
The left wing going back so that is Cl is negative so we say DCl by D beta will be less than 0 and
that is the condition for lateral stability that you understand right. Now, we will be seeing the
contribution because of wing vertical tail and sweep. Let us first take the case of vertical tail. Let
me explain this again with a help of an aircraft, you could see this is an aircraft, this is the vertical
tail.
This is the wing and this is the horizontal tail what I mean by lateral stability longitudinal stability
and a directional stability and let us understand. Now for longitudinal stability please understand
the airplane is cruising like this and suddenly there is a upward gust right? So, there is a increased
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angle of attack, it should immediately generate a restoring moment, opposing moment pitch down
to ensure that disturbance is zero so we say for a positive Alpha it should have a pitching moment
negative.
So CM Alpha is negative. See from here if am cruising like this if there is a positive angle of
disturbance it should generate a negative pitching moment right. So, that is called CM Alpha
negative or longitudinal static stability. For directional stability suppose the airplane is like this
and if it is going like this the beta is zero and if it goes like this could you see what I am saying
this is beta 0.
Now if it is going like this, see from here going like this, that means relative air is coming from in
this direction. So this will hit this vertical stabilizer, this is will give a force in this direction and
this force will give a moment in this direction that will try to reduce the beta or oppose the beta
disturbance so we say for a positive beta if there is a positive yawing moment It is directionally
stable that is CN beta is greater than zero.
For lateral stability what is the thing that you understand now. For lateral stability we have
understood one thing. There are no special surfaces design for that so what is done what is the way
mechanism work is suppose this is bank angle is zero, now it has banked because of some
disturbance as there is a disturbance, the lift vector what was here as it is banked like this the lift
vector now gets tilted, say it was initially like this as it gets banked, the lift vector is like this.
So, it as a component in this direction that will start side slipping the machine and there will be a
beta introduce this beta will generate the force on the vertical tail which will give a moment. Force
in this direction, and this force into this distance will give a rolling moment negative please
understand rolling moment positive is right wing going down, rolling moment negative is left wing
going down.
So, as it banks it sides slips beta angle is introduced at the vertical tail that gives a force in this
direction, and this into this vertical distance gives a moment negative. So for a positive beta, we
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have Cl negative, Cl beta negative that ensures that it has lateral static stability clear? Once this is
understood we will now try to see how do I model the contribution of vertical tail.
You could see here, this is the vertical tail as we have seen as it banks, it introduces a side slip so,
let's say this is the beta, because of beta there is a force Yv and that will be half rho V square Sv
CY beta into beta plus sigma. This is the force component into R bar, this distance is the rolling
moment and thus rolling moment I can non dimensionalize this by dividing it by half rho V square
free stream S reference area and b.
Δ𝑙 = 𝑌𝑣 𝑅̅
1
Δ𝑙 = ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑣 𝐶𝑦𝛽 (𝛽 + 𝜎)𝑅̅
2 𝑣
So then you get this expression etaV (𝜂𝑣 ), Vv (𝑉𝑣 ), CY beta (𝐶𝑌𝛽 ) into beta plus sigma, where
etaV will be Sv Rbar by S into V and you could easily see this is also something having a nature
of some sort of a volume tail, vertical tail volume ratio type okay. Now if I take Cl beta, I have to
just take a differentiation of this so I get Nv Vv CY beta plus 1 plus D sigma by D beta now we
have to ask this question what about the contribution what is the sign of this vertical tail? You
could see from here the sign will be negative, why it will be negative?
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This is positive, this is positive, what about CY beta? We have already seen CY beta sign is
negative, please refer earlier lecture, CY beta is less than 0, why CY beta is less than 0? Again I
will repeat you know that this is X and this side is Y and this is Z. So if there is a positive beta, the
force will be in the opposite of Y direction, because Y direction is this side that is why we say CY
beta is negative.
Δ𝑙 𝑆𝑣 𝑅̅
𝛥𝐶𝑙 = = 𝜂𝑣 𝑉𝑣 𝐶𝑌𝛽 (𝛽 + 𝜎); 𝜂𝑣 =
1 2 𝑆𝑏
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑏
𝑑𝜎
𝐶𝑙𝛽 = 𝜂𝑣 𝑉𝑣 𝐶𝑦𝛽 (1 + )
𝑑𝛽
In my last or last but one lecture I have explained that, what is important here to understand the
vertical tail will ensure that Clbeta is negative so it will be stabilizing right. Here also please note
that R bar is positive if I have taken R bar like this if the vertical tail was here then R bar will
become negative and that will make Clbeta positive. So it will be destabilizing, for example if it is
something like this, suppose vertical tail is like this, instead of up what will happen?
If there is a beta force will act here instead we want to see that it generates a negative rolling
moment, see what happens if there is a disturbance moving like this the vertical tail is now
downward so what will happen? This will give a force in this direction that will give a moment we
will further rotate the airplane. So if the vertical tail is like this Clbeta will be positive if vertical
tail is like this which is for conventional the Clbeta is negative.
So this is stabilizing configuration okay as for a lateral stability is concerned and we know the
expression now. Do not get mixed up, just understand the physics behind it we will be solving few
numerical to make you very handy about these expressions right. Now you want to come for wing.
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What is the wing contribution for lateral stability? You might be seeing a wing which are having
laid on the top of the fuselage, these are called high wing. We will have wing set at the middle
they are called mid wing configuration and there are wing could be like this these are called low
wing. Which one do you think will generate Clbeta less than 0? What is our aim?
To have lateral stability, I repeat to have lateral stability we have seen Clbeta should be negative
that is the airplane is moving like this, if there is a positive disturbance in the roll or bank it should
it will automatically generate beta, because it starts side slipping and it should generate a negative
Cl. So that is what Clbeta should be less than zero to ensure that it has a initial tendency to come
back to its equilibrium once it is disturbed from the equilibrium in bank.
Now from this diagram, you could see what will happen, I will just try to explain you through
some sort of a illustration what generally happen, let's assume the pen is the fuselage, okay it is
like this the high wing on the top of the fuselage you could see right? The high wing, now as it
banks and as it starts side slipping, this because it is high wing, the air will gust in here and that
will give a force which will try to bring it back to the bank angle zero clear.
Again I repeat, if it is flying like this as it banks it starts side slipping, but because this is a high
wing the air will gust in and will give a force here which will try to take it towards the equilibrium
or it will generate a negative rolling moment, So, this will give Clbeta less than 0 and this obviously
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you could see, if this is the low wing, this is low wing as it bank starts side slipping the force will
act on this wing if further rotate it.
So this is Clbeta greater than 0 or destabilizing and this is stabilizing right. So, typically for lateral
stability we put high wing so that we have adequate lateral stability but you could understand
whole combination of lateral stability will be appropriately designed because you know the vertical
stabilizer also gives Clbeta negative this gives Clbeta negative and you have to really
proportionately design
Your aircraft sometimes there are maintenance issues, sometimes there is maneuverability issues
so, one needs to choose between this, this and this right. Now if we have to choose a low wing,
then what happens? Low wing you know, it is having Clbeta greater than 0 or it is destabilizing,
But say for some reason you need to have a low wing.
Then what we can do is, instead of putting low wing like this we can give some sort of a dihedral,
this angle is called dihedral angle, you give a positive dihedral maybe 2 to 3 degrees, and you see
this immediately will generate Clbeta less than zero right. How that will happen? Let us try to
formulate that, we will do that formulation, so what is the understanding? Although the low wing
was giving Clbeta greater than 0 which is destabilizing, but if you give a dihedral, then that will
make Clbeta less than zero.
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If we appropriately give the dihedral angle, how that happens? Let us derive some formulation for
that, you could see this diagram I will just tell the mechanism we may not derive the expression
here. Mechanism is very simple, say this is say dihedral angle Gamma and let's say it is side
slipping like this. So, this is a relative wind side slip velocity, that is if the airplane is side slipping
like this, I can write relative speed of air is coming the opposite direction this is this.
So, this I can write as this is the side slip velocity. Now please understand as far the wing is
concerned, what is the angle of attack of the wing, it is the normal component divided by the
horizontal velocity that is the angle of attack remember? If I am saying this is the airplane and this
is the V so what was Alpha? Alpha was the normal component divided by this component. So
here I will try to see what is the normal component so normal component is Vn sin of Gamma into
V this is the term.
So, this component is V the side velocity in that side slip velocity into sin of Gamma which is a
dihedral angle okay. You could see that if dihedral angle is zero than, if the airplane side slip there
won’t be any normal component to the wind which is very clear, if it is, if the airplane is like this
and there are no dihedral, if it side slips there will not be any normal component you could see
from here also that if the airplane is just side slipping like this.
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉 sin Γ
It is going like this, there will not be any angle of attack induced, but if it has a dihedral, then from
this diagram. You could make out there will be a normal component V equal to SIN of gamma.
So, this means you know beta is nothing but V by U1, U1 is the horizontal velocity and V is the
side slip velocity. So, this if I use in this equation, I get V equal to beta U1 so Vn the normal
velocity will be beta U1 SIN of gamma, right okay.
𝑣
𝛽= 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = 𝛽𝑈1
𝑈1
𝑉𝑛 = 𝛽𝑈1 sin Γ
Which is given here, you see here so what is Delta Alpha (Δ𝛼)? How much Delta Alpha is change
in the angle of attack will happen or increase in the angle of attack will happen? That will be Vn
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divided by U1 so beta U1 SIN gamma by U1 or from here you could see is Delta Alpha which is
coming now if I say Delta Alpha will be equal to Vn by U1 this will be equal to beta U1 SIN of
gamma by U1.
𝑉𝑛 𝛽𝑈1 sin Γ
Δ𝛼 = = ≅ 𝛽Γ
𝑈1 𝑈1
So, this is approximately equal to because if gamma is small, I can write SIN gamma equal to
gamma so what we have seen? We have seen Delta Alpha is approximately equal to beta into
gamma the dihedral angle. What is the message? Message is if this airplane is side slipping and it
has a dihedral then there is an increase in the angle of attack by this much on the right wing which
is going into the wind and this Delta Alpha will give Delta lift (Δ𝐿) and that will give Delta rolling
moment (Δ𝑙).
So what is happening? If the airplane is side slipping because of this gamma dihedral angle it will
generate an additional angle which is given by beta into gamma. Please note if gamma is zero there
will not be any increase in the angle of attack it is only possible when there is a dihedral angle. So,
this increase in the angle of attack will give increase in lift which will give opposing moment in
terms of rolling moment.
So that will give negative Cl. So, we are seeing now for a positive beta again the dihedral will
give us a negative Cl so this will ensure Clbeta less than zero so by giving dihedral angle we have
seen that it helps in increasing the lateral stability or static stability okay. The derivation of exact
terms I am not covering in this lecture, you can refer in your book, the basic idea is that you should
understand the physics.
What is happening you can always find out what is the expression for Delta l (Δ𝑙) and all by taking
the total the lift and integrate using the strip theory, which are matter of details I will not be talking
about this, those are interested they can check for the assignments. We will give you assignments,
we will give you derivations and those things will be solved there okay?
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To conclude this part, we will now finish our lecture by talking about roll control. We know what
was pitch control, pitch control was using elevator. What was yaw control? Yaw control was
through rudder, Now we are talking about roll control, that is if you want to bank the airplane right
or left, which control surface I will be primarily using, Please understand rolling moment
convention is right wing going back is positive, left wing going down is negative right?
So, what are the roll control for an airplane? Primary control is aileron okay. What happens if I
deflect this aileron here downwards let's say this is like this, I deflect it downward so what will
happen? If I deflect it downward then locally what will happen? There will be change in the
cambered because this elevator has gone down correct. As it goes down it will increase there will
be increase in the lift, isn't it?
Because the camber has changed similarly if I put it down it will be in the opposite direction so
that this L and this L from, and if I take the moment about the center line we will generate a rolling
moment that means which we will try to bank the airplane. So, what is the understanding? That if
I put the aileron down here and aileron up here. Aileron down here means force will increase here,
lift will increase here so that will give a rolling moment negative right.
So, again CL I know because of aileron I can generate through Delta A, Delta A is the aileron
deflection and the derivative is ClDelta A (𝐶𝑙𝛿 ) and if I write Cl because of aileron deflection
𝐴
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after model it like this Cl Delta A into Delta A or DCl by D Delta A is what is Cl Delta A. The
sign of Cl Delta A will be decided by what sort of sign we have given for Delta A, For Cl the sign
is very clear, right wing going down is positive, left wing going down is negative.
𝐶𝑙 = 𝐶𝑙𝛿𝑎 𝛿𝑎
𝜕𝐶𝑙
= 𝐶𝑙𝛿𝑎
𝜕𝛿𝑎
So many people define Delta A differently so depending upon what sort of positive Delta A you
have define you can pick the sign of Delta A keeping in mind that right wing going down is
positive, left wing going down is negative. So, this is typically roll control derivative we will be
sending you some expressions for these derivatives in our blog but as an understanding.
You should know that when I am deflecting the aileron here this portion of the wing aerofoil is
getting or this portion of the wing is now having a different aerofoil, that is loosely saying they
have become more cambered, however nothing is happening here in a isolated manner. So, when
we try to find out what is the affect of differential lift here and here we have to take care of this
and I will give this expression in one of our blog right okay? But you understand this. Thank you
very much.
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Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Lecture - 24
Directional, Lateral Stability and control
Hello friends, I am Vijayashankar Dwivedi, TA in this course. In this week in previous lectures,
you have studied about the directional stability, direction control, lateral stability and the lateral
control. You have studied the stability derivatives, CL BETA (𝐶𝑙𝛽 ) and CN BETA (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) and the
control derivatives CN DELTA R (𝐶𝑛𝛿𝑟 ), CN DELTA A (𝐶𝑛𝛿𝑎 ) and CL DELTA R (𝐶𝑙𝛿𝑟 ) and
CL DELTA A (𝐶𝑙𝛿𝑎 ), we have seen for the stability, we need the positive value of CN BETA and
negative value of CL BETA, if we see in a conventional design.

This is our aircraft for the positive value of BETA, we can see this surface will feel a force outward
in this board and this will give a positive yawing moment so the CN BETA will be positive or the
contribution of this vertical tail is positive towards the CN BETA. And if you see for the Cl BETA
when we are the positive value of BETA, this there will be a force outward this board and suppose
is the aerodynamic center of this vertical stabilizer, and this the body X axis. So there will be a
rolling moment because of this arm.
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For the positive value of the BETA, this roll will be negative so we can say the contribution of this
vertical tail is negative towards CL BETA and for the control derivatives suppose this is our rudder
if we deflect this rudder with some positive value, there will be a force inward this board and this
will give a negative yawing moment. So CN DELTA R will be negative and for the positive
deflection of the rudder the roll generated due to this extra force will be positive.
So, the value of Cl DELTA R is greater than 0 and when we deflect the aileron with positive value
means right aileron up and left aileron down.
There will be a positive roll, so we can say the Cl DELTA A is greater than 0, and next control
derivative CN DELTA A for the positive deflection of aileron means right aileron up and left
aileron down if I see the front view, this is the front view right aileron up and left aileron down in
this case, this wing will feel more lift, and as you know the CD equal to CD0 plus KCL square and
here you can see the CD.
Is increasing with the square of value of the Cl means, if the lift increases on the right wing this
will significantly increase the value of drag, and this will give yawing moment. If I see the top
view of the aircraft, on this wing there is more drag and this will try to yaw the aircraft with some
negative magnitude and that is why for the positive deflection of aileron we are getting value of
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Yaw. So, CN DELTA A will be negative. Let us solve one problem for a closure look of these
derivatives.
𝐶𝑛𝛿𝑎 < 0
For a conventional design the vertical tail contribution for the Cl BETA is minus 0.0029 per degree
CN BETA is 0.0018 per degree CN DELTA R is minus 0.001 per degree and the Cl DELTA R is
0.0002 per degree and the wing and the fuselage contribution for the CN BETA, ring and fuselage
is minus 0.0008 per degree, and the contribution of wing and fuselage towards the Cl BETA is
zero. So what will be these variables for the aircraft?
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Let us find this is our design suppose, suppose this is the CG the aerodynamic center of the vertical
tail is somewhere here this is the body X axis now this is the rudder what will be the value of Cl
BETA for this design? We can see the contribution of the Cl BETA of the vertical tail is minus
0.0029 per degree and the wing and fuselage contribution to Cl BETA is zero.
So, the net value of for this aircraft for Cl BETA will be minus 0.0029 per degree. What will be
the value of CN BETA? The contribution of wing and fuselage to the CN BETA is minus 0.0008
per degree and don’t get confused with this minus sign because if our CG is located in such a
way, if we have only wing and fuselage and about this axis about Z axis this portion is creating
more moment.
Then this person in that case this will be negative because the positive BETA this will generate a
negative yawing movement that’s why this CN BETA wing and fuselage is this. But after installing
a vertical tail, our net value will become positive and that is our requirement for the stability means
the vertical tail is providing us the directional stability so what will be the value of CN BETA for
this configuration? We have to add it this simply wing and fuselage contribution is minus 0.008,
and the vertical tail contribution is 0.0018, so net will be 0.001 per degree.
Now coming to the CN DELTA R the contribution of the wing and fuselage is zero the CN DELTA
R is minus 0.001 and this will remain as it is so this will be minus 0.001 per degree coming to the
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Cl DELTA R the rolling coefficient derivative with respect to the rudder deflection. Cl DELTA R
is given to us is the 0.0002 so this will remain as it is 0.0002 per degree. Now the question is if the
designer installs one more vertical tail.
At this position these both vertical tails are identical and their moment arm from the CG the yawing
moment arm is same for both the tails and the rolling arm suppose the aerodynamic center of our
for this tail is somewhere here, and this one is somewhere here, these are also same so what will
be the derivatives for this design? Let us see the Cl BETA when we had only one tail for the
positive side slip angle it has a tendency to roll the aircraft with some negative value.
Now for the positive BETA this surface will try to roll with some positive value and both are
identical so both will nullify each other and the resultant value of the CL BETA of this aircraft
will be zero. Because there is no contribution of the wing and fuselage this is zero now what will
be the value of CN BETA for this configuration?
For the positive side slip angle this surface has a tendency to provide positive yaw this also feel a
force to outward this board, and that will also try to give a positive yaw and both are identical this
yawing arm is also same, so the contribution of this will be added to this aircraft into this the
vertical tail contribution of the CN BETA is 0.0018 and of this design its 0.001, so net will become
0.0028 per degree, now coming to the CN DELTA R, suppose this is the rudder in this surface also
there is a rudder.
And the sign convention is same for both the rudder, if you give a positive deflection into the
rudder this will try to give a negative yawing moment, this also will try to give a negative yawing
moment, because for the positive deflection this will also feel a force inward to this board and that
will give a negative yawing moment. So net will be doubled and this will become minus 0.002 per
degree.
Now coming to the Cl DELTA R for the positive deflection of the rudder, if this is the aerodynamic
center, we can assume the force to applied at this point and because of this moment arm, it will
have a tendency of the positive roll, and for this surface the force the direction of the force will be
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similar for the positive deflection of rudder but this will give a negative roll so net will be zero.
Now coming to the next part of this question the designer has installed.
This is our original design and now the designer has put one more vertical surface at this position.
The moment arm for this suppose this is the aerodynamic center of this one and for this
aerodynamic center is here, for the both the moment arm is same suppose the CG is somewhere
here. So what will be the values of these derivative?
Coming to the Cl BETA due to this surface, it was minus 0.0029 for the positive BETA, this
surface will also have a tendency of the negative roll, so both will be added up. Now this arm is
same for the both surfaces so the magnitude of moment will also be same and the net will be added
and this will become minus 0.0058 per degree. Now the CN BETA for the positive side slip, this
will have a tendency for a positive Yaw and this surface will have a tendency of the negative Yaw
with the similar magnitude because the arm length is same.
So the net will be wing and fuselage contribution and wing and fuselage contribution for the CN
BETA is minus 0.0008, so this will become minus 0.0008 per degree. Coming to the CN DELTA
R for the positive deflection of the rudder this surface had a tendency for a negative Yaw and this
surface will have the tendency for the positive Yaw and this moment arm is same for both the
surfaces, so their net will become zero so this derivative will become zero for this configuration.
Now what will be the Cl DELTA R? For the positive deflection this surface has a tendency for the
positive roll and this also will have a tendency of the positive roll for the positive deflection, the
force applied here will be inward this board, and this will try a positive roll, and this will become
0.0004 per degree and the last of this question is now the designer has installed one vertical surface
here.
And the moment arm for this and moment arm for this tail is similar and the rolling moment arm
is also the same. So, for this configuration Cl BETA due to this vertical tail it has a tendency of
the negative roll for the positive BETA and for the positive BETA for this surface it will have a
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tendency of the positive roll so net will become zero. Because both has the equal moment arm for
the roll, and the CN BETA this CN BETA for the conventional diagram.
We have 0.001 and for the positive BETA this will have a tendency of the negative Yaw, and the
magnitude will be minus 0.001 per degree, so the net will become minus 0.0008 per degree, and
the CN DELTA R for the positive deflection of the rudder this rudder it has a tendency of the
negative Yaw and for the positive deflection of this rudder it will have a tendency positive Yaw
and the net will become 0 because this moment arm is same now the Cl DELTA R.
For the positive deflection of the rudder this surface has the tendency of the positive roll this will
have a tendency of the negative roll. So, the net rolling moment coefficient will become 0.
Coming to the next problem, an aircraft has vertical tail having a symmetric aerofoil NACA 0010
with lift curve slope of aerofoil 0.09 per degree and the vertical stabilizer area 12-meter square and
the rudder area is 3-meter square. And the span of the vertical tail is 4 meter and this aerodynamic
center of the vertical tail from the CG of the aircraft is 6 meter and we are given the wing area is
50-meter square.
And the mean aerodynamic chord is 3 meter and the wing span is 15 meter and the dynamic
pressure at the tail is free stream dynamic pressure, and the span efficiency factor is 0.95. And we
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are given this plot this is SR by SV (𝑆𝑟 ⁄𝑆𝑣 ) and this is tau (𝜏) we have to find the rudder control
power. What is the rudder control power? It is nothing but the CN DELTA R.
We can write the yawing moment due to change in the rudder deflection, for the positive deflection
we will have a negative yawing moment, so we can write minus dYM, dYM because this is the
change in the deflection. And this will be the force, and this vertical tail multiplied by this moment
arm so this we can write area of tail that is Sv (𝑆𝑣 ) and we need the lift coefficient of this vertical
tail and we have the 2 D lift coefficient.
Now we will have to convert it into 3 D lift coefficient and we know this is given by ,suppose ‘a’
is the 3 D lift coefficient, then we can write it ‘a0’ by 1 plus ‘a0’ by PI AR aspect ratio into e, this
is ‘a0’ and here substitute these values this will be 0.09 divide by 1 plus 0.09 by pie, and aspect
ratio of this surface, span squared by area, span is 4.
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛2 42
𝐴𝑅 = = = 1.33
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 12
So we can write aspect ratio, span is 4 meter so 4 square by 12, and this will be 1.33 and ‘e’ is
equal to 0.95 and keep in the mind this we always write in radians and this is in per degree, we
have to write in per radian so we will have to multiply it by 57.3 the unit of this will be unit of this,
and this will be always in radian.
𝑎0 0.09
𝑎= 𝑎0 = = 0.04
1 + (𝜋𝐴𝑅𝑒 ) 1+( 0.09
)
𝜋 × 1.33 × 0.95
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And by solving this we will get the 3 D lift coefficient of the vertical tail, and this is 0.04. Now let
me erase this part, this is ‘a’ lift coefficient and now we need to multiply this with the angle also,
and as we know the tau is equal to dBETA by dDELTA R (𝑑𝛽 ⁄𝑑𝛿𝑟 ) the change angle of attack
absorbed at this vertical tail with per unit change in rudder deflection. For our vertical tail this SR
by SV, we can write it 3 by 12 and this is 0.25 and corresponding to 0.25 we have the value of tau
0.4 and from here we can find d BETA and this is tau into D DELTA R.
So, I can write it, the angle as tau d DELTA R and because this is the moment, so I need to multiply
it with this arm length and this is suppose we write it with Lt (𝑙𝑡 ) and this is 6 meters. Now to find
yawing moment coefficient, I need to divide this by half rho V square wing area and wing span,
and then I will get minus d CN half rho V square S into b this will be canceled, and now we are
left with minus dCN is equal to Sv into ‘a’ into tau d DELTA R Lt divided by S into b, and now if
I bring this d DELTA R the left side, so I have minus dCN by d DELTA R equal to Sv into ‘a’ into
tau into Lt divided by S into b.
1 2
−𝑑(𝑌𝑀) = 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑣 𝑎𝜏𝑑𝛿𝑟 × 𝑙𝑡
2
1 2
𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑣 𝑎𝜏𝑑𝛿𝑟 × 𝑙𝑡
−𝑑𝐶𝑛 = 2
1 2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆 × 𝑏
𝑆𝑣 𝑎𝜏𝑑𝛿𝑟 × 𝑙𝑡
−𝑑𝐶𝑛 =
𝑆×𝑏
𝑑𝐶𝑛 𝑆𝑣 𝑎𝜏 × 𝑙𝑡
− =
𝑑𝛿𝑟 𝑆×𝑏
And now I substitute these values Sv, the area vertical tail and it is 12 meter square, the 3 D lift
coefficient we calculate 0.04, the tau we got it 0.4, corresponding to 0.25, SR by SV and LT is 6
meters, they divided by wing area this is 50 meter square multiplied by the wing span, that is 15
meter and by solving this we will get the value of minus dCN by d DELTA R and this will be
0.001536 per degree, and dCN by d DELTA R is nothing but the CN DELTA R, this will be –
0.001536 per degree.
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𝑑𝐶𝑛 𝑆𝑣 𝑎𝜏 × 𝑙𝑡 12 × 0.04 × 0.4 × 6
− = = = 0.001536 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝑑𝛿𝑟 𝑆×𝑏 50 × 15
Coming to our next numerical an aircraft has directional stability, CN BETA is equal to 0.002 per
degree and the rudder control power CN DELTA R is minus 0.0015 per degree and the maximum
allowable rudder deflection is plus minus 30 degree we have to find the maximum cross wind
velocity, that can be handled during landing.
And we are given with the weight of the aircraft, 5,000 kg the wing area as 50-meter square, the
CL during the landing is 1.5 and at the sea level the density of air is 1.2 kg per meter cube now we
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have to find the maximum. Allowable cross wind that can be handle during landing, suppose this
is the top view of the aircraft, due to the cross wind here will be BETA, and due to BETA there
will be one force acting on this vertical stabilizer in this direction.
And for the landing we will have to balance this force by deflecting the rudder and now suppose
the BETA is positive in that case we will deflect the rudder in this direction, now we have to find
the maximum allowable cross wind speed. And for the maximum speed we will have to deflect
with their maximum amount, so we have to deflect this rudder with the thirty degree, this is the
maximum rudder deflection given to us.
Now during the equilibrium, due to the rudder deflection the force will be acting in this direction,
this force will be acting in this direction, and we have to balance the moment about CG, at the time
of landing so both moments must cancel each other, or we can say the algebraic sum of the both
moments will be 0. So we can write CN BETA into BETA plus CN DELTA R into DELTA R is
equal to 0 to do not get confused with this positive sign because this CN DELTA R is already
negative so this is taken care of.
𝐶𝑛𝛽 𝛽 + 𝐶𝑛𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑟 = 0
And from here I can write the BETA is equal to minus CN DELTA R into DELTA R divided by
CN BETA and if I substitute this value in this equation I will get BETA is BETA is equal to 22.5
degree. Now we have this BETA and as we know we are given with the CL, and weight of the
aircraft from here we can find this forward speed, suppose if I write.
𝐶𝑛𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑟
𝛽=− ⇒ 𝛽 = 22.5 𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝐶𝑛𝛽
If I write this with the U, I can find U from here if I have the BETA and U, I can find the crosswind
velocity the maximum crosswind velocity also, so now let me calculate the value of this forward,
speed U.
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And I can write U is equal to root over W by half rho S CL during the landing and if I substitute
these values, 5000 into 9.8 gravitational constant half rho is given to us 1.2 kg per meter cube, the
area is 50 meter square and the CL is 1.5 and from here I will get the value of U, is equal to 33
meter per second. So now I have this U, 33 meter per second and BETA 22 degree from this U
and this BETA I can find this velocity the resultant velocity.
2𝑊 2 ∗ 5000 ∗ 9.8
𝑈=√ =√ = 33 𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿 1.2 ∗ 50 ∗ 1.5
Of the cross wind and this forward speed and we know this U is if I write this with the V so U is
the V COS of BETA and from here V is U by COS BETA and the cross the maximum cross wind
speed will be V SIN BETA. So I can write and I write this with the ‘v’, I can write ‘v’ equal to V
SIN BETA, and this will be U by COS BETA into SIN BETA and this will be U Tan BETA and
if I substitute these values into this will be the U is 33 meter per second.
𝑈
𝑈 = 𝑉 cos 𝛽 ⇒ 𝑉 =
cos 𝛽
𝑈
𝑣 = 𝑉 sin 𝛽 = × sin 𝛽 = 𝑈 tan 𝛽 = 33 × tan 22 = 13.66 𝑚/𝑠
cos 𝛽
And BETA is 22, so TAN 22 degrees this will give as the value of maximum crosswind that can
be handled with the rudder and that will be 13.66 meter per second, so now we have the maximum
cross wind speed, that we can handle with the with this rudder. During landing that is 13.66 meter
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per second, now here you can absorb the BETA is minus CN DELTA R into DELTA R by CN
BETA, and you can see if I increase CN BETA means my aircraft becomes more stable.
In that case I will have to either I will have to improve this CN DELTA R, or you can say the
rudder control power or you will have to deflect the rudder with the more amount, so the message
if your aircraft is more stable means higher the value of CN BETA, the pilot will require more
effect to fly the aircraft. Thank you.
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 25
Revision
Yes, dear friends, this is the mann ki baat session for lateral directional case, you could see this is
Cessna 206 what type of wing it has it has we call it high wing right. And if you see the Hansa 3
air planes and this sort of an airplane is having wing which is called low wing, you see the contrast
of the low wing and there is a high wing okay. And if I see another air plane which is back of
Cessna 206 that is also low wing but having appreciable dihedral.
That is wing low wing with some dihedral is given, okay. These are important aspects for giving
lateral stability to the airplane right. Also, you should understand that vertical tail which is here
whole is the vertical tail this is extremely important for giving lateral stability and for lateral control
you have aileron, which is here this is aileron we are familiar with it this is aileron up aileron down
and also we have rudder if you see this rudder.
If I turn it like this, this will give a force in this direction that will take the airplane towards left.
Yaw the airplane towards left if I do it like this the airplane will yaw like this okay. So, these are
the control surfaces for lateral control primarily is the aileron which is here and rudder which is
there if I come back to the Cessna 206 you will see here the aileron is somewhere here which will
be always near a the wing tip this portion is the aileron up and down up and down.
And this is the rudder here it is rudder see it goes towards left, it goes towards right and you could
see very appreciable size of vertical tail. We could see this is rudder and please carefully see that
rudder is a rudder is this portion at. Total when I take total area is the vertical stabilizer and rudder
is almost 40% of a total area 35% to 40%. So rudder has to be very powerful because it does not
have the enough power.
Then the airplane has gone into a stall and if it is spinning then the aileron will not get effective
then the rudder will be used to counter the rolling you could hear background sound of airplane
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taking off so we always love it we want the sound to be there all the time so before I go to the
class.
Let us, revise again as per aileron is concerned it is supposed to give rolling moment and when
right wing is going down and left wing is going up that configuration we say rolling moment is
positive for the yawing moment right wing going back is yawing moment positive with this
understanding we now go to the black board and try to understand few things which we have
perhaps missed or not clear that is why this is a mann ki baat session.
Here we have come very long distance today we are having a mann ki baat session on directional
lateral static stability, okay.
You know that we have seen what do you mean by static stability, you know if there is a initial
tendency to come back to the equilibrium once it disturbed let me say it possesses static stability
for directional case for what was the understanding for directional case we said if I am flying the
machine like this is the relative wind V and this is beta.
We revising the directional case and in directional case what do you say if I use watch my hand if
I am flying like this right. Then, I say beta is zero beta means side slip angle that is if the airplane
is actually CG it is actually having motion like this and also going forward right. That is side slip
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that is if you see here this airplane if I put my if I am moving like this then beta is 0 but if I am
moving like this okay. Then that is the configuration air beta is positive what is beta positive.
Very common mistake we make beta positive the base way to understand is when I moving if the
relative wind is coming from a right side right then it is beta positive. Remember this okay. This
is beta positive. Now the point is some of the body was of the airplane was moving like this because
of some disturbance there is a beta introduced what should be in natural tendency if it is statically
stable it should immediately
Generate a moment like this right. That is right wing going back and then we should generate if
positive Yawing moment correct.
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Positive Yawing moment and you know by now yaw coefficient is CN right. In a totality what we
say this means CN beta should be greater than zero. This will ensure directional static stability this
is clear right. Please understand that this is very important derivative it has to be very well
controlled because if it is too high then the airplane will become too sensitive to crosswind.
You don’t want that because our wind is coming like this and the beta is positive it will turn like
this when it is coming from this side it turn like this that will become miserable. So you have to
have very clear understanding what is the magnitude of CN beta I am going to design the airplane
for.
Then we discuss about CN Delta R right. What was the CN Delta R? Very easy to understand,
remember for longitudinal case we have CM Alpha which is static stability then will have CM
Delta E so elevator control power what was the understanding, understanding was this man is static
stability parameters and this is a control parameter understanding was if this man is very high then
if keeping everything same.
I have to put larger control power to change from one trim to another trim because if CM Alpha is
highly negative statically stable it will not allow it to go for one trim to other trim or it will resist
change from one trim to another trim so that was the relationship come similarly CN Delta R you
have seen this is the rudder control similarly CN Delta R is the rudder control power okay.
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And it sign what is the sign check your lecture notes its very simple all discussed first we decide
what is the sign of Delta R, Delta R is positive if I am flying like this and rudder is deflected
towards left if it is deflected towards left and it is moving like this and the force will act in this
direction with the rudder and about the CG it will give moment like this if you look from the top
Isn't it.
So that means the airplane will turn like this and you know yawing moment positive is this right
wing going back but in this case this is left wing going back so this yawing moment is negative so
for a positive Delta R yawing moment is less than zero and hence CN Delta R sign is less than 0
correct. Please keep that back of your mind for longitudinal case.
CM Alpha less than zero CM Delta E less than zero for directional case CN beta is greater than
zero and CN Delta R is again less than zero right.
𝐶𝑚𝛼 < 0; 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 < 0
𝐶𝑛𝛽 > 0; 𝐶𝑛𝛿𝑟 < 0
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Now I ask you a question suppose we want to fly or trim the airplane at the given beta it is possible
I am going like this and there crosswind is coming like this say this is ‘v’ and this U and the beta
introduced will be how much will be ‘v’ by U roughly right. Suppose I want to fly at a given beta
so what will be my configuration such that my whole directional control is activated that is I will
fly such a way that CN will be zero trim at be ta equal to let us say ‘v’ by U right.
𝑣
𝛽≅
𝑈
Means at this beta CN should equal to zero like when I said trim at Alpha what we say CM must
be zero trim, no CM should be available there. Now, we know CN I can write as CN beta into beta
and CN Delta R into Delta R please understand what is CN beta into beta. It is coming from the
fact that this airplane is statically stable so if I am flying like this if there is a wind coming like this
which gives me beta and because of static stability nature it will turn, it will tend to turn I do not
want it to turn.
𝐶𝑛 = 𝐶𝑛𝛽 𝛽 + 𝐶𝑛𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑟
I have to hold it so what I will do I will give a moment CN Delta R into Delta R such that this is
nullified that means the moment given by Delta R and moment because of stability that sum should
be equal to zero here I can find out Delta R equal to minus CN beta into beta by CN Delta R okay.
Now interesting thing please understand if I want to trim the airplane at a positive beta what is the
sign of the CN beta
𝐶𝑛𝛽 𝛽
𝛿𝑟 = −
𝐶𝑛𝛿𝑟
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It is positive sign of CN Delta R, negative so what is the sign of whole of this term. For a beta
positive positive negative negative, negative positive so Delta R is positive meaning thereby if I
want to fly, by flying like this I want to fly like this, then I have to put the rudder towards left
solved and then I will get a configuration where I am flying like this, is this part clear? Now this
was I was talking about your rudder control and rudder if you remember the one of the important
thing which rudder should do is engine failure case okay.
let us also revisit that it is very important this is the wing and let us say this is fuselage and all.
Now, the important aspect in the directional case is basically for twin engine airplane right. You
know in tool engine airplane there are two engines let us say both are having same thrust but there
is a possibility that one of the engine can fail right.
I must have enough rudder power I must have enough single engine power so I can maintain the
altitude and I do not turn like this right. Further what is the way to handle it what will do is, if this
distance is ‘a’, this distance is ‘a’ suppose this has failed so then what is the moment given by one
of the engine above CG is T1 into ‘a’ in this direction correct. Then, how and in what direction I
have to generate a moment to counter it.
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It will be in this direction right. So I have to put the rudder in this direction if I put rudder in this
direction lets say Delta R then the force will be in this direction that will give the moment in this
direction about CG. As long as the moment given by the rudder and balance is the imbalance
moment because the engine failed my aircraft is still remain like this I have to increase the throttle
definitely to see the lift equal to weight okay.
But as far as, the yawing moment is concerned, I see that T 1 into A plus CN Delta R into Delta R
they should be equal to 0 but please note down the this statement philosophically is correct but
dimensionally they are wrong this is CN Delta non-dimensional this is dimensional so what I have
to do it will be divided by half rho V square S into b. So now this becomes non dimensional Cn
Delta into Delta is zero, so I know what is the Delta R required that is - T 1 into ‘a’ by half rho V
square S b, 1 by CN Delta R.
𝑇1 × 𝑎
+ 𝐶𝑛𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑟 = 0
1 2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑏
−𝑇1 𝑎 1
𝛿𝑟 =
1 2 𝐶𝑛𝛿
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑏 𝑟
So, this tells we that when I design an aircraft I know the crust this much of Delta R should be
available this Delta R should be less than the Delta R max because Delta R also has a limit, I
cannot go on deflecting the rudder like this at some time it will become brake so intermediate point
the flow may separate so there are some Delta R max.
Delta R max which is less than equal to 25 degrees plus minus (±25° ) okay or modern aircraft
they have increased to 40 degrees also but point is we should be very careful about designer that I
need to have sufficient Delta R or the rudder deflection, which can account for thrust symmetry
this is also one of important role of the rudder and you can understand easily what is the importance
of CN Delta R if my CN Delta R is high then Delta requirement will be less okay.
So that’s why you find that many airplanes have got huge rudder right. Once directional is over let
us revisit.
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Lateral stability please understand when you are talking about longitudinal stability then there is
the horizontal tail which give the restoring moment. When talking about directional we have seen
that vertical tail primarily. But for lateral there are no such surface so we have been telling this
what happens if the airplane is going like this.
And there is a disturbance in the roll that is about X axis as it rolls like this the lift vector get tilted
so it starts slide slipping as it side slips since the vertical tail is here that will generate a moment
negative like this is this clear. This we have explained which lot of you see this with lot of an effort
because see.
Suppose this is beta where from this beta has come this beta has actually got induced because there
is a roll disturbance like this and it starts side slipping the moment that beta comes here this will
give the force that coming out this plane and that will try to give a rolling moment negative that
exactly I want I moving like this you get disturbance I want it should generate a moment it should
do like this initial tendency should be like this so disturbance side slip vertical tail it.
Comes like this so will say for lateral stability Cl beta should be less than 0 (𝐶𝑙𝛽 < 0). It’s very,
very important and how to achieve this? We have seen, we achieve this through vertical tail number
one number two wing and what is that wing we talk about high wing, the mid wing the low wing
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which dihedral you can have some sweep effect also and typically you have seen for vertical
tailless airplane which are designed to have minimum RCS to avoid a radar inceptions.
Sweep is given you see sweep will generate some Cl beta negative because no vertical tail, sweep
give Cl beta less than zero and it is specially very important contribution when there are no vertical
tail. Now, let us see how high wing was giving Cl beta negative we have seen this is the high wing
and if a demonstrative.
You will understand suppose this is the fuselage and this is the high wing it has banked like this
starts slide slipping the air will gust in here it will push the wing and it will generate negative
rolling moment. So for a positive beta negative rolling moment so Cl beta is negative right. If Cl
beta is negative then the aircraft is statically laterally stable please understand.
We give a phi disturbance (𝜙) to check lateral stability and because of phi there is a beta introduce
and high wing we will give Cl beta negative like vertical tail okay. We have also seen that
something called dihedral that is if this is low wing, they are not giving much of lateral stability
but if you give a dihedral here right. Then you can get Cl beta less than 0. This is also extremely
important. Thank you very much.
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture – 26
Stick Free Stability
Yeah, this is Kanpur, and winter season we are recording in extreme cold in Hindi we say, Halat
Kharab hai right? We are talking about controlling an aircraft I wish I knew how to control this
temperature doesn’t matter, interacting with you gives me enough warmth and that makes me
continue with recording so let’s go back we have been discussing about controlling the aircraft and
if you recall.
In your previous lecture you have seen what do you mean by controlling an aircraft is suppose this
is CM and let say this is CL or Alpha whatever way you plot and you know that this slope is DCM
by DCL (𝜕𝐶𝑚 ⁄𝜕𝐶𝐿 ) or DCM by D Alpha (𝜕𝐶𝑚 ⁄𝜕𝛼) depending upon in X axis. You are putting
CL or Alpha what is our aim? Our aim is to trim the airplane at this point which is called trim point
what is the meaning of trim point suppose the airplane needs to be flown at a cruise the cruise
means the airplane is, if I draw the airplane here so it should generate enough lift to balance.
The weight and enough thrust to balance the drag so if this corresponds to a particular CL then I
must ensure half rho V square SCL equal to W so, that will give you for a given W given decided
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speed, given altitude is rho and given wing area that will tell you what is the CL I should fly that
means what is the CL? At which I will trim the airplane that further mean that what is that CL I
will be flying such that there is no pitching moment it is CM equal to zero okay?
It’s flying like this and this is the one of the equilibrium state and we have understood the slope is
negative DCM by DCL is negative or DCM by D Alpha is negative accordingly you have decided
to put CL or Alpha here and you know that if by some disturbance the angle of attack increases
here if I talk about angle of attack to be this axis if angle of attack increases here then it will
automatically generate negative pitching moment okay?
Because this CM, here is negative here is positive it will automatically generate negative pitching
moment which will try to take Alpha back to the Trim Alpha and that is why we say it has initial
tendency to come back to the equilibrium so, it is statically stable so two things one is DCM by
DCL should be negative or DCM or D Alpha should be negative and to Trim at positive angle of
attack generally you should ensure that CM at Alpha, equal to zero at or CM at CL equal to zero.
Since I am more discussing with Alpha CM at Alpha equal to zero which is denoted as CM0 it
should be positive generally that is the configuration with which you want to fly now what is
control? What we discussed was suppose, I want to trim the airplane at a different Alpha so, the
moment I try to take the airplane from this angle of attack to another higher angle of attack and
still maintain lift equal to weight and thrust equal to drag what will happen?
That this gentleman because it’s statically stable it will generate a negative moment, it will not
allow it to go that new CL or Alpha. So, you have to forcibly nullify that and that is where you
give a Delta E deflection in a manner that it generates a positive pitching moment and nullify this
negative pitching moment and you can draw the line to be something like this that is what is the
control part I am talking about elevator, only same thing will be true for the rudder and aileron we
will see when the lecture progresses and to formulate that we have seen.
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That what is that Delta E required to trim an airplane at a particular CL trim so we say it is Delta
E0 plus D Delta E by or here I write D Delta E by DCL into CL trim and where D Delta E by DCL
is nothing but minus DCM by DCL by CM Delta E with some approximations, when we put okay?
This is a neat and clean linear expression now what is the meaning of this? Meaning of this is that
when I decide I need to trim at a particular CL I need to know what is the value of D Delta E by
DCL.
𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝑑𝛿𝑒 𝑑𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿
(𝛿𝑒 )𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑑 = 𝛿𝑒0 + 𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ; =−
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
Who decides that it is decided by DCM by DCL and you know, DCM by DCL has a relationship
with static margin if static margin is large negative or static margin is large then DCM by DCL is
more negative okay? And also, you need to know how effective is CM Delta E what is the control
power? It is very obvious that if DCM by DCL is very, very large, that is highly stable then this
value will be very, very large so Delta E required very, very large which confirms to our
understanding that if an aircraft is highly stable.
So, it is very extremely difficult to take it from one trim to another trim for simple reason, because
highly statically stable, it will oppose it so that is why this DCM by DCL is a priori design in such
a manner that all these deflections are physically possible either through pilot direct through pilot
for all the older aircraft smaller aircraft, or through actuators and boosters right?
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This is the understanding but what, they in a nut shell what we understand is from this discussion
and previous lecture. That there is a unique value of Delta E required for a given CL Trim given
your Delta E0 (𝛿𝑒0 ) value and D Delta E by DCL (𝑑𝛿𝑒 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿 ) values right? And you by now know
that Delta E0 is also related to CM0 which is the characteristic of the airplane, how you’ve laid
the tail, how you laid the wing and D Delta E by DCL(𝑑𝛿𝑒 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿 ) is nothing but they are related
to static margin DCM by DCL (𝑑𝐶𝑚 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿 ).
And the control power so what is the understanding if I want to trim at a particular CL which is
CL trim I have a unique value given these things which will not change once the airplane is flying.
We assume that the derivatives are not changing with speed I am talking about low speed and also
CG variation are negligible so, all the things remain constant so I need to know a priori that Delta
E required which is unique value for a given CL trim okay?
So, what is the meaning of that? Suppose this is your elevator I start measuring from here for a
particular CL trim I need to go to let’s say 3 degrees for another CL trim I need to go to 5 degrees
like that these are fixed depending upon value of D Delta E by DCL (𝑑𝛿𝑒 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿 ), Delta E0 (𝛿𝑒0 )
and CL trim (𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ) correct? So, whatever we are talked in terms of stick fixed stability so far it
assumes that here I start from here and I put it here lock it nothing to move it will not be allowed
to float it will not be allowed to float.
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This is new word I am now adding because I want to come to a new topic now what is this meaning
of float let us see, but remember they are for a particular CL trim you need a unique value Delta E
required right? How do you go it? How do I achieve that Delta E that is the matter I am going to
discuss now in one case, where stick fixed case I am saying it was Delta is like this I need 5 degree
take into 5 hold it, I am not allowing any floating of the elevator, what is that floating of the
elevator.
That is exactly where we will be discussing now let us have a closer look on the tail.
this is a horizontal tail since I am talking about longitudinal stability I am mostly talking about
horizontal tail and let’s say this tail is seeing some angle Alpha T Alpha tail (𝛼𝑡 ) and as you know
these elevators are hinged through a hinge line and they are free to rotate about the hinge line
okay? You have become enough aerodynamicist to understand that the moment, there is a Alpha
T (𝛼𝑡 ) angle of attack it also sees Alpha T so there will be some pressure distribution across this
elevator also and that.
Also will have some sort of Center of pressure and if this Center of pressure is behind the hinge
line what will happen? the force will act like this and this will give a moment like this so the
elevator will try to float, you say elevator is floating that is for a particular Alpha T (𝛼𝑡 ) the
elevator by itself will float as long as the overall center of pressure of the elevator is behind the
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hinge line which is mostly the cases right? So if I want to model that how do I model and why do
I model.
Because I told you Delta E required is a fixed unique number in first case stick fixed case, what
we did we said okay, If it require 5 degree I don’t care whether it will float or not I will not allow
it to float. I’ll simply take elevator from zero to 5 then hold it I will not allow it to float because if
I allow it to float now it will get some other angle that is why stick fixed okay? So, this is very
important that elevator will have a tendency to float what is this float means?
Let us understand this I am focusing here. I call there’s something hinge moment HM which is
hinge moment. I model this is hinge moment as I am modeling pitching moment I write it as
half rho V square at tail into S elevator ‘c’ elevator into Ch which is the hinge moment coefficient
is this clear? I am defining hinge moment as half rho V square at tail S elevator ‘c’ elevator and
CH is the hinge moment coefficient like we have pitching moment coefficient as CM right? What
is ‘c’?
‘c’ we have defined it like this if this is the elevator and this is the hinge line then from hinge line
to the trailing edge this is defined as CE elevator chord, this is the elevator chord please note that
by convention we’re define it from the hinge line to trailing edge of the elevator and Se is obvious
the area of the elevator correct?
1
𝐻. 𝑀 = ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑒 𝐶𝑒 𝐶ℎ
2 𝑡
If this is true? Then what is happening let us see we need to know how Ch will vary Ch will be
function of Alpha tail obviously Ch will be also function of elevator deflection, because that will
generate different pressure distribution over the elevator and Ch also will be function of Delta T if
there are some tabs I will discuss about tabs if time permit if this is the elevator and there are some
tabs here also, which can float, can be set down or up and this is the this is for trimming final
trimming,
𝐶ℎ = 𝑓(𝛼𝑡 , 𝛿𝑒 , 𝛿𝑡 ): 𝑛𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑠
And also, that will see that that will reduce the hinge moment effort for the pilot we will discuss
about tabs but at present to understand the physics we’ll say there are no tabs note down this and
we’ll come back to tabs once you understand this simplistic formulation adding tab effect, will be
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just trivial okay? So this Ch is function of tail angle of attack and elevator this you must understand
and we’ll do a simplification which may not be true always we’ll assume that Ch can be expanded
as a linear combination of Alpha T and Delta E.
𝐶ℎ = 𝑓(𝛼𝑡 , 𝛿𝑒 )
Where we are actually essentially assuming that whole effect is linear in practice, you will find it
may not be linear but for our understanding we are doing this simplification and in fact lot of
efforts are put in the wind tunnel testing to get actual value of hinge moment coefficient okay?
Now, why all these before I go deep into it,
Let us understand there are two types of control you will find one is reversible another is
irreversible. what is the meaning of reversible control I write control here so that you remember
this is also control what is the reversible control? Suppose, this is the elevator, right and There is
a stick in the cockpit if I move the stick then the elevator will move up or down depending upon
how it is designed similarly if I move elevator up and down the stick also will move forward or
backward right? Generally, the one convention is followed if I am pushing the stick right?
So, I am try to accelerate the speed so I need lesser CL to trim for the same weight okay? So if I
am pushing the stick and I am increasing the speed so I need lesser CL so angle of attack has to be
reduced so you will see the elevator will go down and reverse it will go up but for a reversible if I
move the elevator the stick also will move so they are linked directly like that however, for an
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irreversible control there are boosters right? So, if I move the stick elevator will move but if we
move the elevator stick will not move right?
So next part of my lecture whatever we’ll be doing will be talking discussing mostly focused on
reversible control not irreversible control and that is how we will be developing a model. what is
the nature of stick force the pilot has to apply, for flying the machine one thing is very clear for a
particular CL trim he has to have a definite unique Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ) value Delta E required (𝛿𝑒 )𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑑
value that's no debate on that but when he is flying if he is flying with the stick for a reversible
control airplane like all small aircraft even nowadays that also is becoming irreversible.
We’re trying to model how much stick force he has to apply for a per unit deflection of elevator
or if you want to change the speed how much stick force he has to apply that is important to
understand, one thing the handling qualities of the airplane so you cannot design an airplane where
pilot has to put put all of his weight to pull the elevator or push the elevator okay? Right?
So, from that angle there is a concept mostly books are not mentioning that but we will be talking
about that in some perspective is called stick free stability. I repeat so far previous to this lecture
everything was focused with the concept of stick fixed we are not allowing the elevator to float,
whatever 5 degree, 5 degree then lock it so it cannot float but you know if I leave the elevator free
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then it will have natural tendency to float how much it should float how much it will float can I
model it or not that is what we are now attempting okay?
By simple common sense you understand that this elevator for a given Alpha T will float till that
time. When the hinge moment coefficient becomes zero naturally till there, there is a hinge moment
coefficient is there, it will go on floating so what is that Delta E float [(𝛿𝑒 )𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 ]? This Delta E
float corresponds to when the Ch becomes zero and what is Ch how do I model Ch as I told you
we’ll assume that it is behavior is linear then I write Ch as Ch0 plus Ch Alpha T into Alpha T plus
Ch Delta E into Delta E.
(𝛿𝑒 )𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 ≡ 𝐶ℎ = 0
𝐶ℎ = 𝐶ℎ0 + 𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 𝛼𝑡 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 ; 𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 = 𝜕𝐶ℎ ⁄𝜕𝛼𝑡
Let us not forget one thing what is Ch Alpha T these are the partial derivatives, that is Delta Ch
what is Ch Alpha T. Please understand this concept once for all nothing but Delta Ch by D Alpha
T that means it is the change in hinge moment coefficient for change in Alpha T keeping other
constant so these are partial derivative similarly Ch Delta E is Delta Ch by Delta Delta E
(𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 = 𝜕𝐶ℎ ⁄𝜕𝛿𝑒 ) keeping Alpha T constant so, it is typically a partial derivative in concept and
typically we are using that advantage of assumption that it is linear, okay?
Will further assume that Ch0 is zero let’s say the aerofoil is symmetric and the construction is very
symmetrically made but in practice you will find even if you push symmetric aerofoil the
construction will have some sort of asymmetric so Ch0 in fact will not be zero but a small number
but for our purpose Ch0 we are assuming zero because if there is Ch0 value we have to only add
the mathematics, which is as simple as that so nothing new physics we will get out of it.
So, to have the physics clear we are writing Ch equal to Ch Alpha T into Alpha T plus Ch Delta E
into Delta E. One of my request to all of you I will be writing this equation every time, I will try
to go physical meaning of those things. You should have your pen pencil and a notebook with you
and you should do it yourself okay?
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So now see Delta E float is what? How do I find out we have understood by applying our common
sense that Delta E elevator will flow till that time when Ch is zero so now I put Ch equal to zero
Here so zero equal to Ch Alpha T into Alpha T plus Ch Delta E into Delta E I write here float so,
what is Delta E float Delta E float is nothing but minus Ch Alpha T by Ch Delta E into Alpha T
very important relation how your mind getting excited now?
0 = 𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 𝛼𝑡 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 (𝛿𝑒 )𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡
𝐶ℎ𝛼
(𝛿𝑒 )𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 = − ( 𝑡 ) 𝛼𝑡
𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒
See whether Delta E float will be up or down who decides that let’s say Alpha T is positive for a
positive Alpha T whether Delta E that is the elevator will go up, float up or float down, who will
be deciding that that will be decided by the this sign, sign of Ch Alpha T, Ch Delta E along with
minus here if this number comes minus that means it will float up if this total number comes plus
it will go down for a positive Alpha T (𝛼𝑡 ) let us see what is Ch Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) and Ch Delta E
(𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 )as per their signs.
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Are concerned and initially I told you, if this is the elevator and this is the hinge line and because
of pressure distribution generally Center of pressure will be behind the hinge line or hinge line is
adjusted. Most of the airplanes it is ahead of the center of pressure over the elevator so naturally
you could see for any Alpha T it will give a moment in this direction so, Ch Alpha T will give a
nose down moment so, it is negative right?
Similar thing happens you could see because of Delta E also if there is Delta E deflection again
force will be like this which will again give nose down moment so we could see as long as hinge
line is ahead of the center of pressure of the elevator right? So, Ch Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) and Ch Delta
E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) are less than zero this is very important, okay? Now if they are less than zero.
Then this is negative, this is negative this is negative from here so for a positive Alpha T if it is
positive what do you get? It implies Delta E float will be negative that means it will float up is this
clear? And most of the airplane this is what the tendency So, what is the message you got? Most
of the airplane where the hinge line is far ahead the centre pressure of the elevator or let’s say
aerodynamic center of the elevator which are almost same for a symmetric aerofoil, for the positive
Alpha T the elevator will try to float upward okay?
This is first mathematically, second is what? Second is suppose you want to take the elevator 5
degree one is stick fixed case, you take 5 degree hold it but if you are talking about hands off that
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is I’ll leave the stick and it will really go to 5 degree then you have to be very careful you know
that at 5 degree if I leave it then because of Alpha T at 5 degree elevator will float further up So,
it will not be 5 degree it will be more than 5 degree okay?
This is one and the second thing, if the pilot has to put a stick and through that stick force the
elevator will turn like this so one should be smart enough to know that pilot should put that much
of effort to take it to that much of difference in angle because already by elevator by itself will
float by some degrees so pilot should put effort only for the remaining angle let’s say 5 degree is
the aiming angle for elevator and by float it is going to 3 degrees so pilot effort will be only for 2
degrees okay?
Because anyway it will float but only problem comes in modeling is this floating angle changes at
different different Alpha T so it becomes little complicated, okay? But in a nutshell you understand
that since it floating up we must know, how much it will float and you should try to use this concept
to define a mathematical model which will relate the stick force and CL trim for a reversible control
right?
That is the catch word reversible control because for irreversible control there are boosters in
between so, that the pilot force and actual deflection relationship is overridden by the actuators
and the boosters, so we cannot give a direct feel of course artificially they are simulated but that is
not our purpose, so these are Delta E float Thank you.
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 27
Stick Free Stability Continued
Let us also go back we have written this CLT will be what? CL Alpha tail (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) into Alpha tail
(𝛼𝑡 )plus CL Delta E (𝐶𝐿𝛿 )into Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ), we are assuming that CL0 is zero assuming things
𝑒
to be symmetric aerofoil is symmetric. Now, we are assuming CL0, let me write this is equal to
zero. Now see at trim when hands off or I don’t write at trim level, let’s say in a hands-off condition,
what will be the CL?
𝐶𝐿0 = 0
𝐶𝐿𝑡 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝛼𝑡 + 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
𝐶𝐿𝑡 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝛼𝑡 + 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 (𝛿𝑒 )𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 ∶ 𝐻𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑓
CL tail will be CL Alpha T (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) into Alpha T (𝛼𝑡 ) plus CL Delta E (𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 ) into Delta E float
(𝛿𝑒 )𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 , right? That is the final CL you required and that is why I will writing at trim that is the
CL trim, at that trim your CL will be CL Alpha tail into Alpha tail plus CL Delta E into whatever
Delta E has floated.
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Now how much Delta you will float? that I know CL tail equal to CL Alpha T into Alpha T plus
CL Delta E, into for Delta E float I write CH Alpha T by CH Delta E into Alpha T, let me repeat
let me repeat again, at Alpha T, Delta E also will float so, whatever lift or lift coefficient the tail is
seeing will be CL Alpha T into Alpha T, plus CL Delta E into Delta E float okay.
𝐶𝐿𝑡 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝛼𝑡 + 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 (𝛿𝑒 )𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡
𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡
𝐶𝐿𝑡 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝛼𝑡 + 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 (− ) 𝛼𝑡
𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒
And that I am writing here as CLT equal to CL Alpha T into Alpha T plus CL Delta E, instead of
Delta E float we are putting this term expression, right. So finally what is happening? Finally it is
interesting to see what is happening then.
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I can write CL tail equal to, let me write this CL Alpha T (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ), one minus CL Delta E (𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 ) by
CL Alpha T (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) into Ch Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) by CH Delta E into Alpha T, this is clear? From here
I have taken Alpha T common CL Alpha T, here, and I have taken CL Alpha T also common so,
that one CL Alpha T will come downward and rearrange this term, I could write it like this and
what is CL Delta E by CL Alpha T? And what is Ch Alpha T by Ch Delta E? We should not forget
that these are related to hinge moment properties, and these are with the elevator tail combination
that property okay.
𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡
𝐶𝐿𝑡 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 {1 − } 𝛼𝑡
𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒
So now you know that CL Delta E (𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 ) by CL Alpha T (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) is nothing, but D Alpha T by D
Delta E (𝑑𝛼𝑡 ⁄𝑑𝛿𝑒 ), and which is in notation wise we say tau (𝜏), what is the physical meaning of
this ratio? its comes mathematically as D Alpha T by D Delta E (𝑑𝛼𝑡 ⁄𝑑𝛿𝑒 ), that means per unit
change in elevator deflection, how much tail angle of a attack effectively is changing. This is very
important performance parameter in design in terms of tail performance parameter, and that is
denoted as tau (𝜏),
And you will see that when you solve an example, this tau can be estimated through some empirical
relation, which goes as I will give you a right figure this it varies with a Se by St (𝑆𝑒 ⁄𝑆𝑡 ), that is
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elevator area to tail area, and its typical value for most of the airplane lie between 0.4 to 0.6 that a
good enough a value, okay This exact numbers will be using it to do our numericals. Now let us
come back to this if this is the understanding, where we are approaching to.
So I can write CL tail (𝐶𝐿𝑡 )as CL Alpha T (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) into one minus Tau, CH Alpha T (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) by CH
Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) into Alpha T (𝛼𝑡 ), and I denote this as F so, I can write CLT equal to F into CL
Alpha tail (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) into Alpha T or further I can write, with the float it is CL Alpha T prime (𝐶𝐿′𝛼 )
𝑡
into Alpha T (𝛼𝑡 ), Note down this, If it was not floating, It was not floating then, it is CLT, CL
Alpha T into Alpha T, now because of the floating I have put prime, so that make distinction okay
and what is F?
𝐶𝐿𝑡 = 𝑓𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝛼𝑡 ∶ 𝑓 < 1
𝐶𝐿𝑡 = 𝐶𝐿′𝛼 𝛼𝑡 ∶ 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 > 𝐶𝐿′ 𝛼

𝑡 𝑡
You could see F will be less than one because, this is the negative this is negative this is positive
so F, will be always less than one so what we are getting is from this relationship, CL Alpha
T(𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) is greater than CL Alpha T prime (𝐶𝐿′𝛼 ) , because this part is nothing but, CL prime
𝑡
Alpha T (𝐶𝐿′𝛼 ) is nothing but CL prime Alpha is nothing, but F into CL Alpha T and F is less
𝑡
than one.
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𝐶𝐿′𝛼 = 𝑓𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡
𝑡
So, I can always see that the CL Alpha T (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 )is greater than CL Alpha T prime (𝐶𝐿′𝛼 ), when it
𝑡
has been permitted to float, the elevator to float what is the physical meaning of this? Let us
understand this okay, it is very simple and you will appreciate once you understand the
mathematical part of it, let us see what it does mean?
Let us say this is your elevator okay, and this is my equilibrium right, I am writing everything that
is stick fixed. I am not allowing any Alpha T, I am not allowing this to float but actually, if you
put hands off it will actually float and come to an equilibrium. So the new equilibrium will be
something like this, which is Delta E float so now actually if I try to find out, what will happen if
I try to move the airplane from this configuration to another configuration,
So, I take this as an equilibrium and this equilibrium, you could see that since it has floated up its
CL Alpha has to reduce, compared to the first case because you know if you do a camber, it will
further increase so that is why since it has floated up like this, its CL Alpha has to be less compared
to CL Alpha, when the stick was fixed, it was not allowed to float. So, what is the message?
Whatever you have developed especially, you have developed for a stick fixed case, you can use
those expression, but for change that CL Alpha tail, by CL Alpha prime tail, that’s all, is it clear?
I repeat again whatever expression you have developed, that remains same except where ever CL
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Alpha tail is coming, you change it by CL Alpha T prime you will get expression for its stick free
case okay,
(Refer Slide Tine: 08:23)
So let us do that, let’s see for this stick fixed case, CMCG was CM0 plus DCM by DCL into CL,
stick fixed for stick free what will happen? For stick free it will be CM CG will be equal to CM0
prime, plus DCM by DCL prime into CL. I will for time being I will not bother you with CM0,
focus on DCM by DCL prime, what is the meaning here? It is stick fixed and it is stick free okay,
𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝐶𝑚,𝑐𝑔 = 𝐶𝑚0 + ( ) 𝐶
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝐿
𝜕𝐶𝑚 ′
𝐶𝑚,𝑐𝑔 = 𝐶𝑚0 + ( ) 𝐶
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐿
How they are different? If CM VS CL let’s say this was for stick fixed, now for stick free what
has happened? For stick free the CL Alpha tail has reduced right, for the stick free now the aerofoil
is the elevator has moved up like this in the equilibrium right, it has floated at a given Alpha T
given Delta E float so, its configuration is like this. So, this will reduce CL Alpha T and as CL
Alpha T reduces the static margin also reduce right, so it will be for stick free case if I am modeling
through stick free case, it will be something like this and that is why I did not join them at CM0.
Because CM0 prime I have removed, it will unnecessarily create confusion, it does not make much
of the difference but yes, there will be slight difference but, at this point please understand we are
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not telling that pilot will be flying stick free or stick fixed this is for our modeling to stick free
we’re doing to ensure that I can model stick force with the speed or CL as far as pilot is concerned
there is fixed Delta E required.
Which is given by Delta E0 plus D Delta E by DCL into CL trim Okay. That is the Delta E required
I repeat in one case you take it to that 5 degree or 4 degree and fix it lock it stick fixed another
now we are doing one more thing because we want to develop a stick force relationship with such
deflections or speeds, so we are telling let us also see that since the elevator will float.
𝑑𝛿𝑒
(𝛿𝑒 )𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑑 = 𝛿𝑒0 + 𝐶
How much effort pilot has to put through his force to see that it again goes back to 5 degree okay?
But if it is 5 degree it is 5 degree, correct? I again repeat somebody ask me the question is the pilot
flying at stick free or a stick fixed or a stick fixed absolutely irrelevant question pilot needs to give
a fixed elevator deflection to trim the aircraft at particular CL trim as simple as that okay?
So this is one thing you understand that DCM by DCL is stick fixed will be more than DCM by
DCL stick free in a sense, it will be statically more stable compared to that as per the mathematical
term is concerned because we have changed the equilibrium now to allow it to float, okay.
CM0 is given as CM0 wing plus CM0 fuselage plus CL Alpha tail VH eta T (𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝑡 ) into IW all
these things you by now plus epsilon 0 (𝜖0 ) so CM0 for stick free case will be as you see now will
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be CM0 wing which has nothing to do with elevator floating CM0 fuselage nothing to do with this
plus CL Alpha tail now it will become prime and rest remains same you remember IW is the wing
setting angle IT is the tail setting angle.
𝐶𝑚0 = 𝐶𝑚0𝑤 + 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝑡 (𝑖𝑤 − 𝑖𝑡 + 𝜖0 )
𝑓𝑠
𝐶𝑚0 = 𝐶𝑚0𝑤 + 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝐿′𝛼 𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝑡 (𝑖𝑤 − 𝑖𝑡 + 𝜖0 ) ∶ 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒

𝑓𝑠 𝑡
And epsilon 0 is the downwash at Alpha equal to zero typically it is for cambered wing now what
about DCM by DCL, DCM by DCL for a stick fixed case it was XCG bar minus XAC wing. We
have all developed this plus DCM by DCL fuselage, ‘fs’ I means fuselage minus CL Alpha tail by
CL Alpha wing into VH into eta T into one minus d epsilon by D Alpha this was for stick fixed
case so from this expression you can easily write DCM by DCL free will be nothing but XCG that
is not going to change.
𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝜕𝜖
= 𝑋̅𝑐𝑔 − 𝑋̅𝑎𝑐,𝑤 + ( ) − 𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝑡 (1 − ) ∶ 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑠 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝜕𝛼
𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝐶𝐿′𝛼 𝜕𝜖

= 𝑋̅𝑐𝑔 − 𝑋̅𝑎𝑐,𝑤 + ( ) − 𝑡
𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝑡 (1 − ) ∶ 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑠 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝜕𝛼
Because of something has floated XAC wing minus DCM by DCL fuselage and then minus now
CL Alpha T prime will come here CL Alpha wing VH eta T, one minus D epsilon by D Alpha so
nothing new we are doing we have agreed. That because we are allowing the floating tendency the
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stick is not fixed so the elevator will go to a particular Delta E and it will set, Delta e float and set
so the curvature will change it will be going up like this so CL Alpha tail will change.
Once we allow elevator to float so this is this and then okay? This is stick free we want to know
the neutral point and for neutral point it let me erase this and write this expression and you go
home happily that you have now know how to handle stick free case. Most of the books are not a
giving you explicit thing because this concept is out of market as you understand most of the
controls are irreversible now right?
So, for neutral point again I take the stick fixed case that is XAC wing minus DCM by DCL fuselage
plus CL Alpha tail (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) by CL Alpha wing (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 ) VH eta T into one minus d epsilon by D
Alpha so what will happen? For Stick free neutral point XN0 prime, which is stick free neutral point
this will be again XAC wing minus DCM by DCL fuselage plus now CL prime Alpha T (𝐶𝐿′𝛼 ) by
𝑡
CL Alpha wing VH eta T, one minus D epsilon by D Alpha is it clear?

𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝜕𝜖
| = 𝑋̅𝑐𝑔 − 𝑋̅𝑎𝑐,𝑤 + ( ) − 𝑡
𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝑡 (1 − )
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑠 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝜕𝛼
So, what I told you? As long as you understand because we have allowed the floating of the
elevator the CL Alpha tail is changing so if I know the expression for stick fixed case, I can find
out the expression for stick free case correct? Just to conclude this part you may ask me a question
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that how did you find stick free neutral point or how did you define stick free neutral point so for
that again.
I am going back to stick fixed case in a stick fixed case how did you defined XN0 or neutral point
stick fixed What was the definition you know DCM by DCL is given by this expression now we
ask a question what is that CG location what is the CG location at which DCM by DCL is zero
that is the aircraft becomes neutrally stable and that is called stick fixed neutral point and there
what you do you put this equal to zero and then find out this XCG so all these terms will go to left
hand side that is how we got the expression for XN0 stick fixed.
Now similarly for the stick free case for the stick free case what will be your expression DCM by
DCL what will be the expression for stick free you are now expert it will be all same except here
CL Alpha T prime (𝐶𝐿′𝛼 ) and you know the CL Alpha T prime (𝐶𝐿′𝛼 ) is nothing but CL Alpha
𝑡 𝑡
tail (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) into F and F also you know what is how to expand it right? So, now if this is DCM by
DCL free given by this expression for stick free case what is the condition what is that CG location.
𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝐶𝐿′𝛼 𝜕𝜖
| ̅ ̅
= 𝑋𝑐𝑔 − 𝑋𝑎𝑐,𝑤 + ( ) − 𝑡
𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝑡 (1 − )
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑠 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝜕𝛼
At which DCM by DCL free is equal to zero simple as that so now we put zero here and then this
is your then it becomes X0 prime and you get this expression as you have written earlier clear?
But a word of caution I repeat again if you want to trim an airplane for a particular CL.
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This is governed by simply by this that if I have to trim it here then I need some Delta E required
and that angle if it is 5 degree it has to 5 degree only it has nothing to do is stick fixed or stick free.
stick fixed means I take that angle to 5 degree and lock it.
Because I know if I leave it like that then the elevator will float second thing is when a stick free
case what we are trying to do we are trying to do trying to model develop background to model
stick force how much stick force is required and the stick fixed case what we answering is how
much Delta E required. So, this is the subtle difference in the modeling. In the stick fixed case our
focus is on how much Delta E is required and that is the final that much Delta E is necessary to be
required to fly at a particular CL governed by that Delta E equal to Delta E0 plus D Delta E by
DCL into CL trim. In a stick free case why we are modeling this we understand if it is the reversible
control then can I relate stick force to the elevator required and can I fly hands off that is I put the
hands off and after certain point the elevator float itself will take here and pilot has to put that
much of force to give additional thing but totally automatically after floating it will go to 5 degree.
And I can fly hands off that’s the concept to give a concept to develop mathematical model to
relate stick force with the flying condition CL or speed right? So please keep this back of your
mind and this concept or stick free neutral point is only true for reversible control but unfortunately
most of the airplane now have gone to irreversible control just for completion I will be taking
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perhaps one more lecture on this. So let as again revisit when we are talking about floating
tendency or a stick free case what is the necessity to define a stick free case.
Please recall we know one thing that if an airplane is flying at this CL so this is the CL and you
want to fly at this another CL then you know that so much of negative pitching moment the aircraft
will generate by itself. If I want to really fly at this point, I must ensure that this negative moment
is neutralized by giving the elevator up from the reference elevator angle and I need to know how
much this Delta E which I call Delta trim or Delta E required.
If I know that then I can trim the airplane which was earlier trimmed at this CL from this CL to
this CL. I can do that by putting this much of Delta E trim who decides how to calculate the Delta
trim.
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Please understand this this Delta E trim or Delta E required whatever we say will be given by Delta
E0 plus D Delta E by DCL trim into CL trim and if I carefully see D Delta E by DCL trim it is
nothing but minus DCM by DCL by CM Delta E approximately we have seen that. D delta E by
DCL trim when I want to use minus DCM by DCL this is actually minus DCM by DCL the stick
fixed divided by CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ).

𝜕𝐶
( 𝑚)
𝑑𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑
≅ −
Stick fixed means control locked we are not allowing into float that is important so what is Delta
E required is decided by DCM by DCL fixed and that DCM by DCL fixed or DCM by DCL stick
fixed is nothing but you know that DCM by DCL fixed is minus static margin so minus XN0 by
XCG. I could bar I know you know bar means non dimensionalized with mean aerodynamic chord
so the important is here the N0 will be again stick fixed okay?
This is very important when I am going to trim how much Delta E required is decided by this DCM
by DCL is stick fixed as simple as that, that you should understand and you should not start
thinking of whether it is DCM by DCL free or not Delta E required is governed by this DCM by
DCL fixed by this through this expression. We need to also understand that what is the physical
meaning of D Delta E by DCL trim? Many times I write it as D Delta E by DCL.
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But you understand that is D Delta E by DCL trim meaning there by suppose at this point it has
the Delta E equal to Delta E1 to trim this here and at this it is Delta E equal to Delta E2 so D Delta
E by DCL trim is that gradient that is from Delta2 minus Delta1 (𝛿𝑒2 − 𝛿𝑒1 )by CL2 minus CL1
(𝐶𝐿2 − 𝐶𝐿1 ). CL2 is a trim CL1 is again a trim right? At different condition that is the meaning of
D Delta E by DCL trim okay? This is very important because many time students they get confused
please understand when
We talk about floating tendency we were telling that we are developing this concept to give a feel
for the pilot through stick force. which you will see how we build it up because if I am talking
about stick fixed like this which is very important to decide how much Delta E is required and how
the pilot will develop the feel he will say okay?
For a given CL this is the Delta E required this CL1, Delta E2 for CL2 so he will be seeing that
how much Delta E required for the particular CL or particular speed from that he develops the feel
for example for same CL. So, CL remaining same if one aircraft requires Delta E equal to minus
4 degree (−4°) and another aircraft or same CL for same condition it required Delta E equal to
minus 6 degrees (−6°) and the pilot understands that the aircraft number 2 is statically more stable.
Because it requires larger control effort okay? So that way you can give a feel which doesn’t have
a direct one to one contact because it’s the visual this much Delta E and this much CL or speed
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but if you want to really a give a feel to the pilot okay? Then you have to one way is to do is that
okay? what is the effort pilot takes to change the elevator from one angle to another angle what is
the amount of stick force he is applying so that is also another way of giving a feel to the pilot to
develop an expression.
So that we can quantify you can mathematical model to develop a feel for a pilot there we are
using the concept of stick free stability okay? I repeat again only to give, develop a mathematical
model to give a feel for a pilot we are talking about stick free stability or we are building the
concept of floating of the elevator so this is very, very important and you should not get mixed up
if you ask a question yourself finally.
If I am going to fly at a particular CL how much Delta E I required you have only use this where
you have very clear this is nothing but DCM by DCL stick fixed or controls locked or elevator is
not allowed to float clear? Right this should be very, very clear in your mind thank you!
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 28
Hinge Moment and Hinge Moment Derivative
We will now try to develop a mathematical expression to model stick force. What is this stick
force? It is the force applied by the pilot on the stick, to deflect the elevator at a particular angle
correct. To deflect the elevator in a particular angle. Now the question is all this stick force or stick
free stability these have a relevance, if I am talking about control system which are reversible.
Reversible means, let us understand what is, the meaning of reversible. Although I have already
explained you in some time, let me draw this diagram. To appreciate this stick force, let us see this
simplified diagram okay. This is the stick and through lever you could see, if I pull this stick if I
pull it, then this elevator will go up like this correct. Again if you see if I push this stick push it,
then if I am pushing it then this elevator will go down.
So if I pull you could see that elevator going up, and if I push elevator is going down, clear. And
you will see that as a matter of convention, for our lecture here, we have taken pull force to be
negative. So let us see what is the meaning of this pull and push in actual flight, which I will be
demonstrating you when we will be flying in an aircraft, but let us say I am cruising at a particular
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speed, or cruising at a particular CL, now suddenly I want okay, I want to reduce the speed, but
same time I will try to maintain lift equal to weight, so what will happen?
Reduce the speed, so psychologically it is like I am pulling the stick. As if I am trying to reduce
the speed, as I am trying to pull the stick, as I want to try to reduce the speed to maintain lift equal
to weight, CL has to increase. So what will happen, so as I pull CL has to increase means, the
elevator has to go up, you see if I pull the elevator goes up like this, as I pull then this gets stretched
like this and this is stretched like this and it rotate like this, so that is why when I want to reduce
the airplane.
I pull that stick, but still I want to maintain lift equal to weight so, My CL should increase so the
elevator will go up right. In a reversible control if I have the elevator here, and if I try to pull the
elevator up. we’ll find the stick will automatically go in a pull force, will experience a pull force,
it will try to move that side. That is why and if I want to put the elevator down like this, the stick
also will move this way, it will generate a push force.
That is why it is called reversible, that is why it is easy to give feel to a pilot, but in a irreversible
control which most aircraft are there are boosters, there are actuators and that sort of a direct
reversible relationship is not there, so the stick force relationship will not hold true strictly, and
one may ask for what is the relevance also okay. But we will do this we will see that there are
important things to learn.
So, this is what we are talking about, we are talking about a reversible control, and when you are
developing stick force required, we have this diagram or this picture in mind right. And when we
are talking about stick force, we also have relaxed one thing that now the elevator is no more fixed
right. Elevator is allowed to float okay. So, we will revise this what is this meaning of elevator
float.
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Already we have discussed something but we’ll further discuss, because now we need this
background to be reinforced before you write an expression for stick force okay. If the elevator is
mounted on a hinge and you all know that yes, it is indeed, yes, it is the elevator, there is a hinge
line right. And assume that it’s a frictionless, then what will happen, see that if there is a positive
Alpha tail seen by the tail then there is a pressure distribution over this.
And as you know if the resultant is behind the hinge line, then I get a moment which will try to
take the elevator float like this right okay. And nose down so it is negative in nature, and we said
this effect is due to whatever hinge moment is coming is due to Alpha tail.
But now see also one more thing, if I am trying to deflect the elevator down. So again, there will
be pressure distribution over it and there will be a resultant here, and if the hinge line is ahead of
this, this also will give a moment, which will try to oppose the deflection clear that is if I am trying
to take it down, then it will try to oppose it, if you are trying to take it up then again it will try to
oppose it, so what is happening?
There is a hinge moment generated because of the Alpha T, as there is a positive Alpha T it will
try to float, as it tries to float now this Delta E angle is being introduced this Delta E. Because of
that will give a force downward which will try to oppose it right. So we have hinge moment coming
not only because of Alpha T but also because but also because of Delta E, is this cleared. I repeat
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again if this is your elevator and because of pressure distribution, and if hinge line is a head of
resultant for a positive Alpha it will try to take the nose of the elevator down,
So it will have pitching moment negative but you also see that if elevator is taken up like this.
Because, it generates elevator angle Delta E and then that will generate a force downward, which
will try to take it for a negative Delta E it will generate a positive pitching moment, similarly for
a positive Delta E you could see here, positive Delta E force will be somewhere here so about the
hinge line, it will generate a nose down moment, so what is the message?
Message is with positive Alpha T, with positive Alpha T let us suppose this is the elevator tail is
here with positive Alpha T it tries to float like this as it floats like this because of the elevator angle
is changed, it generates the force downward its tries to discourage it right. So, there has to be an
equilibrium where the net hinge movement because of Alpha T and Delta E is 0 and that is that
angle we call it floating angle. Physically and fundamentally okay.
𝐻𝑀 = 𝑓(𝛼, 𝛿𝑒 )
Let us try to see little bit of nature of this hinge moment generated because of Alpha T (𝛼𝑡 ) and
Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ).
Typical variation of hinge moment at Alpha equal to 0 for Delta E, any way I am trying to see
what is the hinge moment that is coming nature wise we’ll see that typically. The nature will be
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something like this. This is your, for different Delta E of course Alpha equal to 0, so what we are
seeing that this linear to some extend and at larger Delta E is become little bit of non linear. What
is the meaning we are getting here? At Alpha equal to 0 right.
We are seeing that or near Alpha equal to 0, almost things are linear and if I write this is hinge
moment and Delta E, then I know that D Hinge Moment by D Delta E (𝜕𝐻𝑀⁄𝜕𝛿𝑒 )sign is less
than 0, correct. This is the nature of hinge moment generated by elevator deflection at Alpha equal
to 0. Which you can physically see if I am seeing the hinge moment, if I draw it like this and this
is your elevator.
I am keeping Alpha equal to 0. I am putting elevator deflection positive, the moment i put elevator
deflection positive I know hinge line is here, resultant forces here which will give me a nose down
moment, so indeed the slope should be negative right, similarly.
If I try to see hinge Moment versus Alpha at constant Delta E, that diagram also looks like this,
this is hinge moment and this is Alpha for Delta E equal to 0 let us say, there also you will find to
some part it is linear at higher Alpha, It tries to become nonlinear not that much but yes, but for
our interest will find that the variation of hinge moment with Alpha, at Delta equal to 0 so d HM
by d Alpha this is also less than 0, which physically we understand if this is the elevator.
So if there is a positive Alpha T we have seen the hinge line is here, and central pressure is here
this also gives a moment nose down, for a positive Alpha or we say the hinge moment with Alpha
the slope at equilibrium is around is negative, but at higher Alpha it changes it becomes little non
linear but we have more focused here. The catch what is linear right. We will be exploiting that in
expanding this hinge moment at Alpha T and Delta E.
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So now let us make assumption. Let’s not forget we are trying to develop model for stick force,
mathematical model for stick force and we have kept this schematic at back ground. where we
know the pull force we have taken negative, and push force we have taken it as positive okay.
Let’s say assumption we have seen hinge moment is function of Alpha we have also noted hinge
moment is function of Delta E right.
𝐻𝑀(𝛼) ; 𝐻𝑀(𝛿𝑒 ) ∶ 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
And if we assume them to be linear the whole variation of hinge moment with Alpha T and Delta
E is linear. Then I can write linear means please understand we have been doing it for long, suppose
I want to find out hinge moment at Alpha equal to 5 degree and Delta E equal to 5 degree. The
linearity will help me in expanding this problem as hinge moment calculate hinge moment, at
Alpha equal to 5 degree Delta E equal to 0, then add to it hinge moment at Delta E equal to 5
degree and Alpha equal to 0,
𝐻𝑀(𝛼 = 5°, 𝛿𝑒 = 5°) = 𝐻𝑀(𝛼 = 5°, 𝛿𝑒 = 0°) + 𝐻𝑀( 𝛿𝑒 = 5°, 𝛼 = 0°)
That is the beauty of assuming linearity okay, it makes life very simple if this is understood then
you are already you are smart enough, you know whenever there is a assumption then things are
linear.
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Then I can write Delta HM I can write as dHM by d Alpha into Alpha or strictly speaking D Alpha
plus DHM by D Delta E, into Delta Delta E or D Delta E is right. Or mathematicians will not allow
me to write so casually, so if that is true then I can write one thing clearly that all through my text
when we will be doing the stick force, I will be more focusing if I know the value of this derivative
and this derivative, then I will be able to find out what is the hinge moment coming at a given
Alpha and Delta E through this model, okay,
𝜕𝐻𝑀 𝜕𝐻𝑀
Δ𝐻𝑀 = ( ) 𝑑𝛼 + ( ) 𝑑𝛿𝑒
𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛿𝑒
This is the model we will be using it is simply like when you write CL, CL equal to CL Alpha into
Alpha plus CL Delta E into Delta E in a same linearity concept were also used. I have been
repeating it here because once you see hinge moment then there is every possibility that, because
of this diagram you may lose the insight. So again I want to repeat you that nothing new we are
doing, we are still focusing on the assumption, that whatever operation we are doing on the linear
domain.
So, you can always use this partial derivative concept okay, and because of linearity.
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Now also we can write this as any hinge moment at any Alpha. I can write as dHM by d Alpha
now I can write Alpha then dHM by d Delta E in Delta, this is also beauty of the fact that we are
all operating in a linear domain, when I write hinge moment here, I will try to take you back we
were also writing pitching moment write, but we never worked with pitching moment we worked
with a non-dimensional pitching moment that is CM. So here also you will be working with non-
dimensional hinge moment so how do I define that.
I define Ch as hinge moment divided by half rho V square into S elevator (𝑆𝑒 ) C elevator (𝐶𝑒 ),
remember C pitching moment how CM we define the pitching moment divided by half rho V
square S C bar right. So here we are defining hinge moment non dimensional coefficient as hinge
moment divided by half rho v square Se Ce, And for your information, we already have been told
that if this is the hinge line, the C is this from the hinge line and Se is the elevator area that you
know.
𝐻𝑀
𝐶ℎ =
1 2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑒 𝐶𝑒
So using this expression now I can write Ch equal to Ch Alpha Tail (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) into Alpha plus, Ch
Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 )into Delta E, and what is the sign of Ch Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 )? You know it is negative,
Ch Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) is negative. So, I know that if I am having a positive Alpha here because of Ch
Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ), the nose will go down so it will try to float up like this and because, now it has
introduced Delta E this will try to resist for a negative Delta E it will give a positive hinge moment.
400
That is why Ch Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) is negative so there will be a balance between these two moment,
one is trying to float, try to float one is trying to bring it back. So, there will be an equilibrium and
that equilibrium at which Ch is equal to 0, is basically Ch Alpha T into Alpha T plus Ch Delta E
into Delta E and from here we have calculated Delta E float, equal to minus Ch Alpha T by Ch
Delta E into Alpha T of course we have assumed that CH 0 equal to 0.
𝐶ℎ = 𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 𝛼𝑡 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
𝐶ℎ𝛼
(𝛿𝑒 )𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 = − ( 𝑡 ) 𝛼𝑡 ; 𝐶ℎ0 = 0
𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒
We already know that so this is the Delta E float okay, now there is an interesting thing you should
understand.
Now let us also carefully see this we could see that Delta E float (𝛿𝑒 )𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 , it will float up if Ch
Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 )and Ch Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) less than 0. So, it can float down depending upon this sign
also. But mostly you will find the airplanes are designed such that Ch Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) and Ch
Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) are less than 0, now suppose you want Delta E float should be 0, I don’t want any
Delta float suppose I want Delta E float to be 0, what I have to do?

(𝛿𝑒 )𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 ≡ 𝑈𝑃 ; 𝑖𝑓 𝐶ℎ𝛼 , 𝐶ℎ𝛿 < 0
𝑡 𝑒
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I could see that Delta E float will be 0, Ch Delta E cannot be 0, because it will become infinite this
derivative only way to ensure is that Ch Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) is made 0, that means if Ch Alpha T
(𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) is 0 then there is no float, this should be in your mind you will understand why I am
mentioning this thing at this point.
And how can you make Ch Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) zero? That is, one should have to also give a thought
to it, if the hinge line and the resultant to the center of pressure, are the same place same point then
theoretically Ch Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) should become 0 okay. But there are other many ways to reduce
Ch Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) because, you don’t want much of a floating tendency of an elevator, we will
talk about.
How it has been done okay but, before you go to that you also should understand this is also very
important this gradient that is D Delta E, float by D Alpha you could see that its nothing but ratio
of Ch Alpha T by Ch Delta E. So, this ratio will tell you at what rate the elevator will float per unit
deflection, or unit Alpha tail angle, This is also a very very important parameter, design parameter
when you are trying to link all these floating tendencies through a reversible control to the pilot
right.
So, this concept you should keep in back of your mind we will be using it, as we develop all those
forces. Since we are talking about how can you make Ch Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) low so that there is less
floating tendency, or Ch Alpha T theoretically possible to make it to 0, what is the meaning of Ch
Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) zero means? Whatever elevator deflection pilot is giving right, so it stays there
right no floating tendency. One of the very popular way of doing it and this concept is used, in
trimming the pilot force how much force he will apply. Is through a horn balance.
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We call it horn balance; it’s just a passing remark for you to get little bit of better feel, other than
only getting lost into suppose this is the hinge line. Okay and this is the fixed surface this is vertical
part of vertical stabilizer, and this is the elevator surface it can go up and down elevator right both
sides, now naturally here you will find the Ch Alpha T is non zero its most probably negative,
because of this thing, because hinge line will be ahead of the central pressure over the elevator, if
you want to see cross sectional view it is something like this okay.
Now suppose if I do like this, I make the elevator like this, this whole is elevator do you see? now
this whole portion moves up and down so as this portion sees an Alpha T, please note down
because of this portion of the elevator it will try to make for a positive Alpha T it will try to go
float, towards negative float up, but because of Alpha T on this surface , it will try to discourage it
, it will try to take the nose upward or come to the flight Lab , I will explain what is it there, we
are discussing about floating tendency of elevator you could see this is HANSA 3 aircraft.
And these are the elevator and this is the hinge line about which the elevator rotates up or down,
up or down now you see if there is an Alpha T (𝛼𝑡 ), Then you could see easily that the center
pressure on this elevator will be somewhere here, and hinge line is here so it will have a floating
tendency like this okay clear or not. This is clear now you see in normal aircraft this is only up to
this portion will be the elevator, but here see this is extension has been put here and that is part of
a horn balance, what happens you see?
403
As Alpha T is seen by the Tail this portion, will try to float it up okay because hinge line is ahead
of centre of pressure on this surface, however this frontal surface this surface, you could see this
surface, this is here, here the force will act in this direction so that will try to give nose up, so what
is happening? This portion floating tendency is trying to take it nose down, Or floating up and
because of this horn balance here it’s trying to take it nose up or floating down, so is actually
reducing the effect of Ch Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 )or reducing the magnitude of CH Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ).
Again listen for a positive Alpha T this will try to take float it up, but because this portion is there
horn balance this much portion, here the force will act upward so it will try to take a down so,
effectively Ch Alpha T is marginalized it is reduced, so that is one of advantage having this sort
of a horn balance that is, elevator plus some extra surface which is ahead of leading edge. This
surface ahead of leading edge will give a moment opposite to the moment generated by surface
behind leading edge, so if you want Ch Alpha T to be zero.
So ensure that they cancel each other, and Ch Alpha T become 0 okay, this is how we reduce the
value of Ch Alpha T or, that is how we reduce the floating tendency of an elevator through horn
balance. Okay come to class room so once you have understood this horn balance, how we
summarize we say because of this portion ahead of a hinge line, it will try to discourage floating
tendency by reducing the value of Ch Alpha T.
By reducing this value right, there are many mechanisms of handling Ch Alpha T(𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) but, at
present we are now going towards some definition and we will be discussing that, so that once you
develop the force expression all these preliminary concepts are clear, concepts which are physics
based, concepts which are convention based.
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If I now again right Delta E equal to Delta E0, plus D Delta by DCL trim into CL trim , so how
much Delta E required for a particular CL it comes from the stick fixed, stability longitudinal. We
are clear about it because, D Delta E by DCL trim has minus DCM by DCL so, that minus DCM
by DCL is stick fixed case no issues on that, now think of a situation if Delta E float is so happen
that Delta E float is equal to this value, for the particular CL what is right hand side ? It is the Delta
E required for a particular CL trim, to trim a particular aircraft to a particular CL.
𝑑𝛿𝑒
(𝛿𝑒 )𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 = 𝛿𝑒0 + ( )𝐶
So, it is basically CL trim, that comes from the longitudinal fixed stability, now say the way Ch
Alpha Ch Delta Etc has been designed, that you know Delta E float equal to minus Ch Alpha Tail
by Ch Delta E into Alpha tail and suppose, The way Ch Alpha T and Ch Delta E are designed that
Delta E float, when I compute through this that become exactly equal to what is the Delta E
required, by itself by floating that means the stick force applied will be zero correct.
𝐶ℎ𝛼
𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒
You don’t require any stick force so that is the case where we say stick force is zero, physically
that means if the airplane is designed that whenever it goes to a particular CL, automatically the
float is exactly equal to what is the Delta E required, so it do not require to apply any stick force.
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And that is the case, in our term through stick force we say that is a neutral stable case. That is FS
equal to zero okay, this is a again we are trying to build some convention, second case we will say
if this Delta E float is less than Delta E0, plus D Delta E by DCL trim into CL trim at a given CL
that means what happens? please understand suppose Delta E required was 5 degree, and by float
it has come to 3 degree that means, pilot has to increase the elevator up by 2 degrees so, how does
he do that? He has to put the elevator up, so he has to pull the stick okay.
So, he has to pull the stick. You could see here he has to pull the elevator up, so he has to pull the
stick and pull is negative so, you could see here if Delta E float is less than the Delta E required
which is Delta E equilibrium. Delta E trim then pilot has to pull to increase further angle so that it
is equal to this equilibrium, and Delta E required or trim Delta E required so, we have apply a pull
force in such cases where you have to apply a pull force, we will say this is stick free ‘stability as
far as, Stick force is concerned through stick force is concerned, and obviously.
If Delta E float is greater than Delta E 0 plus D Delta E by DCL trim, into CL trim that is whatever
Delta E has floated it has exceeded, the requirement of Delta E through this relationship, as I have
given you example if 5 degree was required, now it has by floating it has become 6 degrees, so the
pilot has to reduce that elevator so it he has to push it, so he has to push and this is stick free
unstable, please understand these are part of the convention and this convention has an
understanding, that from handling qualities point of view if pilot wants to increase the speed.
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𝑑𝛿𝑒
(𝛿𝑒 )𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 < 𝛿𝑒0 + ( )𝐶 ∶ 𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑑𝛿𝑒
(𝛿𝑒 )𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 > 𝛿𝑒0 + ( )𝐶 ∶ 𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
Then he will prefer psychologically to push the stick so, the speed is increasing if he wants to
reduce the speed, he will try to pull it okay, from that convention this if I translate into FS I come
back to this, stick free unstable or stick free stable this understanding has to be very very clear,
before you go for any development of stick force.
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Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Lecture – 29
Aircraft Handling Qualities
We are continuing our lecture on how to model stick force and try to understand the importance
of Hinge moment coefficients on designing a system, reversible control system for aircraft, so the
stick force is well within the capability of the pilot, the pilot can fly at ease, right. So, if you recall
before I come to stick force modeling let me write few statements.
We have already done N0 stick fixed was XCG or this is XAC wing minus DCM by DCL fuselage
plus CL Alpha tail by CL Alpha wing VH Eta T into one minus D Epsilon by D Alpha, similarly
this is stick fix or control fix. But we have also derived stick free, that is where we allowed the
elevator to float, here it is XAC wing, this is same DCM by DCL fuselage.
𝑑𝐶𝑚 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝜕𝜖
̅0
𝑁 = 𝑋̅𝑎𝑐,𝑤 − ( ) + 𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝑡 (1 − )
𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑢𝑠 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝜕𝛼
And what was the change we know because of floating and floating there will be equilibrium angle
of the elevator and CL Alpha tail will now be CL Alpha tail with prime CL Alpha wing VH Eta
T, one minus D Epsilon by D Alpha and we know how CL Alpha tail is related CL Alpha prime
tail is nothing but CL Alpha tail into one minus Tau Ch Alpha Tail by Ch Delta E elevator so, if I
know stick fixed CL Alpha tail?
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𝑑𝐶𝑚 𝐶𝐿′𝛼 𝜕𝜖
̅0′
𝑁 = 𝑋̅𝑎𝑐,𝑤 − ( ) + 𝑡
𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝑡 (1 − )
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑢𝑠 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝜕𝛼
𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡
𝐶𝐿′𝛼 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − 𝜏 )
𝑡 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒
And if I know this parameter, I can find CL Alpha prime tail which I need to substitute here to get
and N0 bar free where we use the notation N0 bar with dash.
We know also we know this we have done that N0 bar minus N0 bar prime is equal to CL Alpha
T by CL Alpha wing into VH Eta T, one minus D Epsilon by D Alpha Tau into Ch Alpha T by Ch
Delta E. Let me come back to this again. This is N0 fixed this is N0 prime free stick free and this
is CL prime Alpha T which is related like this CL prime Alpha T is CL Alpha T into one minus
Tau Ch Alpha T by Ch Delta E.
𝐶𝐿 𝜕𝜖 𝐶ℎ
̅0′ = ( 𝛼𝑡 ) 𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝑡 (1 − ) 𝜏 𝛼𝑡
̅0 − 𝑁
𝑁
𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝜕𝛼 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒
𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡
𝐶𝐿′𝛼 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 (1 − 𝜏 )
𝑡 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒
These are basically hinge moment coefficients related to elevator. Now you could to see another
interesting thing from here, if I now write simply if I take this and if I write N0 bar minus XCG
bar and then here I write plus XCG bar minus N0 prime, this will become what? What I have done?
In the left hand side I have added XCG and subtracted the XCG. So, this remains same, but you could
see carefully this is nothing but DCM by DCL fixed, is it correct?
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DCM by DCL fix this is N0 minus XCG static margin stability margin and you know DCM by
DCL is equal to minus static margin and this is minus of N0 bar minus XCG bar. So, this when I
write this term here if I say this is DCM by DCL fixed I am wrong this is minus DCM by DCL
fixed now here it could see this is N0 prime this XCG minus N0 prime so, this is DCM by DCL
free that is stick free or control free many books will use that term.
𝐶𝐿 𝜕𝜖 𝐶ℎ
̅0′ = ( 𝛼𝑡 ) 𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝑡 (1 − ) 𝜏 𝛼𝑡
̅0 − 𝑋̅𝑐𝑔 + 𝑋̅𝑐𝑔 − 𝑁
𝑁
𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝜕𝛼 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒
𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝜕𝜖 𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡

−( ) +( ) = ( 𝑡 ) 𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝑡 (1 − ) 𝜏
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝜕𝛼 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒
So, this is plus this is equal to this term Ch Alpha T (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) by CL Alpha wing (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 ) VH Eta T,
one minus D Epsilon by D Alpha Tau Ch Alpha T (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) by Ch Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) , what is Ch Alpha
T (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) ? Ch Alpha T is because of Alpha tail and since hinge line is ahead of the center of
pressure, pressure distribution over the elevator so, this will give a negative moment.
So, Ch Alpha T is negative and Ch Delta E as I put Delta E down which is positive it also generates
a negative pitching moment. So, Ch Delta E is negative so these are basically hinge moment
coefficient or derivatives right? What is important here? You could see from this what we see from
this?
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From this you get clearly see DCM by DCL free is equal to DCM by DCL fixed plus Ch Alpha T
by CL Alpha wing okay? VH Eta T, one minus D Epsilon by D Alpha into Tau into Ch Alpha T
by Ch Delta E I am getting from here okay? Now see the right hand side, what does it represent?
First let us take the sign, this is negative, this is negative, so this becomes positive, all are
positive, negative and this is positive. So, what is happening? This is not Ch Alpha T this is CL
Alpha T sorry this is CL Alpha T please correct this.
( ) =( ) + ( 𝑡 ) 𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝑡 (1 − ) 𝜏
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝜕𝛼 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒
Please do a correction, this term will be CL Alpha T where I have written here by mistake Ch
Alpha T which should be CL Alpha T as I have written it here okay? Right. So, now let as take the
sign, this is negative, this is negative so cancels this is positive this is positive so, what I have seen
here what is statically stable airplane I want DCM by DCL contribution should be negative right.
So, now it happening DCM by DCL free is whatever DCM by DCL fixed stabilizing was there
this is less than 0 so, this is stabilizing but this contribution is positive so, this is destabilizing right?
I repeat this sign, if the sign of this term if you see this is negative then negative this becomes
positive and everything is positive here so this contribution is positive so, destabilizing that is why
DCM by DCL free we say is less stable compared to DCM by DCL fixed.
𝑑𝐶𝑚 𝑑𝐶𝑚
( ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 ( )
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑
So, we say when we allow the elevator to float up actually your airplane DCM by DCL elevator
are control free it comes down to a lesser stability compared to DCM by DCL fixed. I repeat again
here DCM by DCL free we are trying to model to relate stick force with hinge moment coefficient
etc., and etc.
But as far as airplane is to be flown it has a single Delta E or Delta E required which is dictated by
DCM by DCL fixed only right. That is Delta E equal to Delta E0 minus DCM by DCL fixed
divided by CM Delta E into CL trim that you know okay. So, this is only we are trying to find out
or model FS stick force okay. This background is necessary that is why I thought I will revise it.
Now we will go for the derivation, okay?
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Please remember one thing you must use the open forum to ask questions about the derivation but
if you have any doubt? You must write and derivation does not look nice it was same when I was
also a student but the more important thing would be from this derivation once they are done, how
can I extract the juice in terms of the physical interpretation and I can talk to a pilot I can
communicate to an aircraft that is more important right. So, do not worry about much of derivation
any doubt to put in the open forum will be giving you those derivations right.
Another concept you need to revise before we go for stick force is the tab. We have shown you a
tab and now we should see this, suppose this is your tail plane and this is the elevator I have a tab
here, if I deflect this tab like this okay, then it will generate a hinge moment which will assist in
flying or trimming the airplane because this will give a hinge moment like this and this is the hinge
line, right.
So, once properly this is set by a trimmer, the pilot need not applying any stick force he can fly
hands off or the total hinge moment on the elevator hinge I can say that stick force required is zero
means its already at equilibrium hinge moment Ch equal to zero okay, but we talk about the stick
force than will say stick force is zero because now we are trying to relate stick force to stability,
stick force to the hinge moment floating tendencies okay, elevator floating tendencies.
So, this is you know that I have already done so, please remember if it is like this a tab this is the
tab that will be deflected like this and it will generate a hinge moment and you can finally through
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the tab you can set that stick force required is zero so, Fs equal to 0 and you fly hands off. So, this
is one of the use of trim tab, so this background is also required. Now with this background, we
will start developing the stick force right.
Typically, the topic which I will be talking is stick force gradient in unaccelerated flight. The stick
force gradient that is we may like to develop an expression dFs by dV that is what is that gradient
dFs by dV that is for stick force and speed that is very important and it has lot of implication on
the handling qualities of an airplane.
As far as handling qualities, or this is the requirement because when design an airplane there are
many handling requirements are there, so one of the requirements is that if I am flying at V trim
that is suppose I am flying here, this is the CL, this is the CL trim and it is correspondingly having
some V trim (𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ) because CL and speed are related if you are flying at V trim and if we want
to flight at a speed lower than V trim (𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ), then it should apply a pull force.
𝑉 < 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 : 𝑃𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑉 > 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 : 𝑃𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
And if V is greater than V trim then applied a push force. Please watch this carefully. It says that
if I am flying at a V trim if I want to trim the airplane at a V which is less than V trim the statement
is if I want to trim the airplane at a V less than V trim then I have to apply a pull force that is if I
am going speed say 100 meter per second now I want to trim it at 90 meter per second keeping
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unaccelerated flight remember. This is the catch statement keeping unaccelerated flight I still will
maintain lift equal to weight no acceleration right.
Then I should be able to do through pulling the stick I’m pulling the aircraft to reduce the speed.
If you want to fly and trim at V which is greater than the present V trim, let’s say at present it is
100 meter per second I want to trim the airplane at 120 meter per second so I need to push the
stick, because psychologically it goes well. I am pushing the aircraft so it is going to trim at higher
speed. So, this handling requirements we need to satisfy.
It is not only developing a model FS but also must take care of this requirement from handling
quality of the airplane this part is clear? Right? So, with this now let as develop stick force
expression it may look little involved lot of term will come do not get scare try to understand each
term and any doubt you have got simply post it in the blog.
Time has come to revisit this diagram this is the stick, lets say it is the schematic and you know
by now you know this is push and we will be taking a convention push will be taking as a
positive and this is the pull, pull will be taken as negative right. See what happens, if I push this
stick it rotates about this point okay. Rotates like this, pushes this rod, pushes this rod and this if
the elevator is coupled here this elevator will go down like this it will come down like this it is
clear.
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If I am pushing this stick this is going like this so, there will be a force in this direction that will
against, this will rotate about this, so this elevator will go down and which is true. Please
understand if I am flying at a particular and it is trimmed right. I want to go for another trim that
is lift equal to weight but the speed is higher because we want to push it, I want pushing it means
I want increase the trim speed now.
I am going to trim it at higher speed, if I am going to trim it at higher speed and still lift will be
equal to same weight so, CL has to reduce CL reduce means the angle of attack as to go down so,
that is possible only when the elevator goes down which gives a nose down moment so angle of
elevator reduced appropriately. So, this is consistent with whatever we have learned. I repeat here
again so that you do not get mixed up this is CM and CL right.
If I am going to speed up it means what? We want to speed up suppose I was trimmed at 100 meter
per second. I want to trim at 120 meter per second correct. Since weight is same and altitude is
same so this corresponded to some CL say one (𝐶𝐿1 ). This is CL2 (𝐶𝐿2 ) as they I have increase
the speed if lift is to be equal to the weight which as not change than speed as increased so CL2
has to be less than CL1 right.
To maintain lift is equal to same weight, CL2 less than CL1 how it can do you have to increase
the angle of attack if you want to make CL2 less than CL1 ensure CL2 less than CL1 that means
the Alpha at this point this less than Alpha here so Alpha here is less than Alpha here so how do I
reduce the Alpha by giving elevator down, which gives the nose down moment so, airplane does
like this correct. So, that is the consistency with which we will be designing expression for stick
force clear.
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If I say this diagram and I write something called hinge moment here and this is FS and you could
see that in a very preliminary analysis okay, if I take this distance to be ‘ls’ and I say during rotation
it has become Delta S (𝛿𝑠 ) so roughly the work done. On the stick is ‘ls’ into Delta S. let’s say
average divided by 2 (𝑙𝑠 𝛿𝑠 ⁄2) into of-course whatever stick force we have applied, and thus the
work done on the top of the stick, work done on the hinge moment are on the hinge roughly will
be hinge moment into Delta E, whatever deflection average by 2.
𝑙𝑠 𝛿𝑠 𝐻𝑀𝛿𝑒
𝐹𝑠 =
2 2
So you see without writing with this expression you could see this stick force and hinge moment
are related in a fashion that there is some sort of a gearing going on this I call gearing ratio. So, I
can write FS equal to gearing ratio into hinge moment.
𝛿𝑒
𝐹𝑠 = 𝐻𝑀 ( ) ; 𝐹𝑠 = 𝐺. 𝐻𝑀
𝑙𝑠 𝛿𝑠
Of course moment and forces are related you could see here some force we are generating here
applying here some moment is there to overcome this moment or to give a counter moment right?
Because as the elevator goes down it will have a resisting. CH Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) will try to oppose
it since delta E try to oppose it so, that's why this is the moment and this is the force and they the
gearing constant okay? G.
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Now the question is, question is simple question is FS required by pilot. Remember when we are
talking about the stick fixed case what was the question we were addressing, what is the Delta E
required for a particular CL trim, right. Here we are talking about what is the FS required so now
it is very straight forward and you will see we will write, go on writing expression so FS required
will be minus G gear ratio into hinge moment. you could understand the relationship between F
and the hinge moment and now we need to right what is hinge moment okay?
Hinge moment is already we know this is I can write half RHO V square at tail into S TAIL or S
elevator now please understand we should not commit mistake. We are not talking about elevator
I have just used the what tail but we should not forgot we are all focussed to elevator right? this is
again I repeat here this is the tail and this portion elevator is the hinge line this is from hinge line
to this is Ce well done and the SE is the elevator area right?
We are focusing only on the elevator so hinge moment I can write as half RHO V square at tail,
not tail. I use ‘e’ elevator of course for this case dynamic pressure at elevator and tail will be
approximately same, Se into Ce right into Ch. Ch is the hinge moment coefficient hinge moment
is given by half RHO V square Se Ce into Ch so Fs I can write as minus G into half RHO V square
on elevator or tail for this case Se Ce into Ch so this can I write as minus G Q is the dynamic
pressure, freestream dynamic pressure.
1
𝐻𝑀 = ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑒 𝐶𝑒 𝐶ℎ
2 𝑒
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1
𝐹𝑠 = −𝐺 ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑒 𝐶𝑒 𝐶ℎ
2 𝑒
𝐹𝑠 = −𝐺𝑞𝜂𝑒 𝑆𝑒 𝐶𝑒 𝐶ℎ
So I multiply it by nT (𝜂𝑡 )or it is the ratio of dynamic pressure at the tail or elevator with respect
to the free stream dynamic pressure then Se Ce into Ch let me clarify this.
We have to get half RHO V square at elevator or tail for this so this I can write as half RHO V
square free stream into half RHO V square elevator or tail divided by half RHO V square free
stream. This is equal to half RHO V square elevator or tail. So, this is now written as ‘q’ which is
the free stream dynamic pressure which is here and this is ‘nT’ the ratio of dynamic pressure at
tail so is it clear? From here how I Have come to this point and Se Ce Ch are simple so I put FS
please ask yourself what is the question?
1
1 2 1 2 (2 𝜌𝑉 2 )
𝑒,𝑡
( 𝜌𝑉 ) = ( 𝜌𝑉 ) .( )
2 𝑒,𝑡 2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 1 2
(2 𝜌𝑉 )
1
( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) = 𝑞𝜂𝑡
2 𝑒,𝑡
Question is FS is what? FS is the stick force required to be applied by a pilot okay? So, I write FS
is the stick force required right and What is FS positive FS positive is push and negative is pull. I
repeat here FS is minus G H M this is the FS required by the pilot than HM is hinge moment is half
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RHO V square dyanmic pressure at the tail or the elevator Se Ce into Ch and this I have written as
minus G q nT Se Ce Ch which I have explained.
Now let's go next step. what is Ch we are all expect now Ch0 plus Ch Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 )into Alpha
T (𝛼𝑡 ) plus Ch Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) into Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ). if there is a tab than I write CH Delta tab (𝐶ℎ𝛿 )
𝑡
into Delta T (𝛿𝑡 )of the tab okay? Let us understand? What was Ch Alpha T, Ch Alpha T was this
the tail plane and this is your elevator okay? If there is a angle of attack at the tail there will be a
pressure distribution over the elevator and if this is a hinge line and the center pressure is behind
then because of this Alpha T.
𝐶ℎ = 𝐶ℎ0 + 𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 𝛼𝑡 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝛿𝑡
𝑡
This elevator will generate a nose down moment about the hinge here and hence this will try to
float like this so we said Ch Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) is less than zero that is for a positive Alpha it is given
nose down moment right? That was Ch Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) what was Ch Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) you know
that Delta E positive is Delta E positive is like this here also see if this is the hinge line if this Delta
E is positive, it means there will be pressure distribution over here and here is the center of pressure
that will also try to give a nose down moment so it will discourage, resist.
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And that is Ch Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 )which is also less than zero right and what was Ch Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 )let
𝑡
us see this this is your tail plane and let say this will be your elevator and then somewhere here
right? To more consistent diagram already we have drawn you see that diagram.
You’ll get better fell. If I draw it like this elevator up like this and tab is here this tab is... this is
tab setting angle Delta T positive so Ch Delta T is also negative because as I deflect there’s a force
here that gives a moment nose down. So, this tab is used to ensure that this elevator whatever is
floated finally the angle is what exactly is dictated by Delta E equal to Delta E0 plus D Delta by
D CL into CL trim okay?
So this sign is also negative you could see that you can always fly an airplane by setting the Delta
T, (𝛿𝑡 ) that’s very important. Please understand after all Delta T is used to give appropriate
deflection to the elevator by creating a moment there. So, I can fly an airplane trim an airplane fly
means trim. I am talking about using Delta T using trim or trim tabs and you see this facility you
will utilize to calculate some interesting parameter of an airplane, right? Okay?
With this much of understanding, let us go forward finally we are planning to get stick force and
quickly we want to come out of all of this, because lot of expressions it demands. So, we will now
see Alpha T (𝛼𝑡 ) you remember we have developed this expression for Alpha T in longitudinal
case and you can refer that this is equal to minus Epsilon minus IW plus IT you can check when we
were writing the contribution of wing and tail on stability, second week lecture, this is this, so this
I can write as let me write fast Alpha T equal to Alpha W minus epsilon0 (𝜖0 ) minus d epsilon by
d Alpha (𝜕𝜖⁄𝜕𝛼 ) into Alpha W minus IW plus IT
𝜕𝜖
𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼𝑤 − 𝜖 − 𝑖𝑤 + 𝑖𝑡 ; 𝜖 = 𝜖0 + 𝛼
𝜕𝛼 𝑤
𝜕𝜖
𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼𝑤 − 𝜖0 − 𝛼 − 𝑖𝑤 + 𝑖𝑡
𝜕𝛼 𝑤
𝜕𝜖
𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼𝑤 (1 − ) − 𝜖0 − 𝑖𝑤 + 𝑖𝑡
𝜕𝛼
Nothing I have done; I have expanded epsilon which we have done earlier as epsilon0 plus D
epsilon by D Alpha into Alpha wing so now if I take common I get Alpha W one minus D epsilon
by D Alpha minus epsilon0 minus IW plus IT right?
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Now what will I do, there is one trick I will do that and for all of your information this material is
from Airplane Stability and Control or Airplane Performance by Perkinson and Hage. So I will
give you the exact detail by next lecture, Perkinson and Hage, very popular book, old book
Perkinson and Hage. So I will give the exact detail of the volume and edition and all in next lecture.
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 30
Aircraft Handling qualities Continued
Let us come back here. So Alpha T is this.

(Refer Slide Time: zerozero:2zero)
Now you know that Alpha W (𝛼𝑤 ). I can write as CL by CL Alpha wing plus Alpha0, how? Please
give a thought to this. It should not be so difficult, yes, or no? Well let’s see. CL is equal CL0 plus
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CL Alpha into Alpha, or I can write this as CL Alpha into Alpha minus Alpha0, that is if you see.
If this is the CL and this is the Alpha, so this is CL0, one way to write is this, another this is Alpha0,
what is Alpha0? If there is basically negative angle at Alpha0 CL is zero.
𝐶𝐿
𝛼𝑤 = + 𝛼0
𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑤
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝛼 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 (𝛼 − 𝛼0 )
So, I can write CL also in this fashion, you could see at Alpha equal to Alpha0 CL is zero, Alpha
equal to Alpha0 CL is zero and you could see from here that CL at any Alpha I can find out okay.
If at Alpha equal to Alpha0, you could see CL will become zero. And typically, Alpha0 value is
negative. That is very important if you understand Alpha0 is negative. So, I can use this expression
here and write here. Using this expression Alpha W, here I put Alpha W equal to CL by CL Alpha
wing plus Alpha0, is this clear?
Once I do that now I will substitute that expression here okay. So let me write it here, so then I get
Alpha T equal to Alpha0 (𝛼0 )plus CL by CL Alpha wing (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 ) into 1 minus D epsilon, by D
Alpha minus IW plus IT, what I have done, Alpha0, Alpha T equal to Alpha W, and Alpha W is CL
by CL Alpha wing plus Alpha0, so I have written it like this, because the expression was Alpha W
into 1 minus D epsilon by D Alpha, 1 minus D epsilon by D Alpha is here for Alpha wing I have
put this expression, CL by CL Alpha wing plus Alpha0, then I have got and then also I should not
forget about minus epsilon zero, now see whether we have taken care of everything or not.
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𝐶𝐿 𝜕𝜖
𝛼𝑡 = (𝛼0 + ) (1 − ) − 𝑖𝑤 + 𝑖𝑡 − 𝜖0
𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑤 𝜕𝛼
This part we have taken care, this part minus and plus this have been take care, and epsilon0 we
forgot to take, it is here right. Now if I expand you could see here, this Alpha0 into D epsilon by
D Alpha is nothing but epsilon0 (𝜖0 ), but Since Alpha0 is negative, so this and this will this term
will go after multiplication, so I get Alpha T equal to Alpha0 plus CL by CL Alpha wing 1 minus
D epsilon by D Alpha right, minus IW plus IT. This is the expression okay, this you see Alpha0 into
minus D epsilon by D Alpha, I see Alpha0 is negative and you know this into this is nothing but
epsilon0 (𝜖0 ).
𝐶𝐿 𝜕𝜖
𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼0 + (1 − ) − 𝑖𝑤 + 𝑖𝑡
𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑤 𝜕𝛼
So, this and this will get canceled. So, this term will disappear, so you will get a neat expression
of Alpha tail in this fashion okay, let we erase this because lot of expression are waiting, I repeat
again don’t get disturbed by this expression, anywhere if you have a doubt put in the blog in the
open forum, we are there to help you out right. We have a very straight forward things, looks
clumsy and I also personally feel very uncomfortable, if I tell you honestly speaking. Let me erase
everything now here.
So we are now here Fs equal to minus G Se Ce half rho V square Eta T, this is nothing but Q into
Ch, so for Ch will write Ch0 plus Ch Alpha into Alpha tail. Already Alpha T expression you have
derived, so let me write here it is Alpha0 plus CL by CL Alpha wing, into 1 minus D epsilon by D
Alpha minus IW plus IT this is this then you have Ch, Delta and what is the Delta required. You
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know Delta required will be always dictated by Delta E equal to Delta E0, plus D Delta E by DCL
in the CL trim and D Delta E by DCL will come from DCM by DCL fixed.
So will write it as Delta E0 minus DCM by DCL fixed into CL trim divided by CM Delta E , this
expression. you know that, Delta E equal to Delta E0 plus D Delta E by DCL trim into CL trim
you see, that same thing I have put here and now we have to put other term that is Ch Delta T into
Delta T because, of tab. this completes the huge expression which was waiting to come on the
black board, it has come it doesn’t look that ugly if you could see that. This is already we have
derived Alpha T just now; this we have been using for long and this tab we have also discussed
today.
1 𝐶𝐿 𝜕𝜖 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝐶𝐿
𝐹𝑠 = −𝐺𝑆𝑒 𝐶𝑒 ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝜂𝑡 [𝐶ℎ0 + 𝐶ℎ𝛼 (𝛼0 + (1 − ) − 𝑖𝑤 + 𝑖𝑡 ) + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 (𝛿𝑒0 − ( ) )
2 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑤 𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑖𝑥 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
+ 𝐶ℎ 𝛿 𝛿𝑡
𝑡
Now what? Make it simplified, so we write it as FS equal to K, wait a minute I will explain you
what is K, A also is coming here, CH Alpha (𝐶ℎ𝛼 ), CL by CL Alpha wing into 1 minus D epsilon
by D Alpha minus Ch Delta into DCM by DCL fix, into CL by CM Delta E plus Ch Delta T into
Delta T this is the expression. Then question comes what is K and what is A? This K is minus G
Se Ce Eta T and A is another big expression.
1 𝐶ℎ 𝐶𝐿 𝜕𝜖 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝐶𝐿
𝐹𝑠 = −𝐾 ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) [𝐴 + 𝛼 (1 − ) − 𝐶ℎ𝛿 ( ) + 𝐶ℎ 𝛿 𝛿𝑡 ]
2 𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑤 𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑖𝑥 𝐶𝑚𝛿
𝑒
𝑡
𝐾 = −𝐺𝑆𝑒 𝐶𝑒 𝜂𝑡 ; 𝐴 = 𝐶ℎ0 + 𝐶ℎ𝛼 (𝛼0 − 𝑖𝑤 + 𝑖𝑡 ) + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝛿𝑒0

This is all Ch0 plus Ch Alpha into Alpha0 minus IW plus IT plus Ch Delta into Delta E0, where
from these things are coming, we could see here that, Ch0 into Delta E0 that has been taken out
okay, Similarly, Ch Alpha into Alpha0 minus IW plus IT has been taken. This if you sit with a pen
and pencil, with a piece of paper you should be able to do this nothing, These are all big, big
expression, let us try to get feel out of this expression right, Now I leave an exercise to you, I am
sure you will be able to do it, I erase all these things now.
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We have already learned today, DCM by DCL free equal to DCM by DCL fix right, plus CL Alpha
T by CL Alpha wing VH Eta T, into 1 minus D epsilon by D Alpha, Tau into CH Alpha T by Ch
Delta E okay, this we have already you done it and we realize that this is destabilizing and many
books this will be saying DCM by DCL okay.
( ) =( ) + ( 𝑡 ) 𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝑡 (1 − ) 𝜏
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝜕𝛼 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒
Control free, which is destabilizing for a configuration where hinge line is ahead of the center of
pressure over the elevator. This also you need to use VH equal to or CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) equal to
minus VH Eta CL Alpha T (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) into tau. This also you know.
𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 = −𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝜏
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Use this into this to show that, now I can write FS is equal to K half rho V square this is like this,
then A plus Ch Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) into Delta T, minus DCM by DCL free, now it is coming free, into
𝑡
Ch Delta by Cm Delta into CL, I am sure you are smart enough to do this. Anyway we will be
giving this expressions or derivations in our open forum, but I am sure it doesn’t take much time
to use this and get that expression right, you are all engineering students. Let us forget about all
these things now, we have done enough with this expression.
1 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝐶ℎ𝛿
𝐹𝑠 = 𝐾 𝜌𝑉 2 [𝐴 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝛿𝑡 − ( ) 𝐶]
2 𝑡 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝑚𝛿 𝐿
And we are losing the physics out of it. So let us erase this, so you can write this Fs in a neater
form, write this same expression here, this K half rho V square right and then this A plus Ch Delta
T, into Delta T tab minus DCM by DCL free into Ch Delta by CM Delta into CL. This further I
can write as Fs equal to K half rho V square A plus Ch Delta T into Delta T minus K W by S Ch
Delta by CM Delta into DCM by DCL free, what has happened? What is the difference between
these two expressions? You see A plus A Ch Delta T into K half rho V square fine.
1 𝑊 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝐶ℎ𝛿
𝐹𝑠 = 𝐾 𝜌𝑉 2 (𝐴 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝛿𝑡 ) − 𝐾 ( )
2 𝑡 𝑆 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝑚𝛿
So again, K half rho V square has to multiply with this term, if I want to take it out but here this
CL was seating here so CL I can write as, 2 W by S by half rho V square, as simple as that right.
Put that CL here multiply with this term, you will get this term that is K W by S, Ch Delta by CM
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Delta (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ⁄𝐶𝑚𝛿 ) DCM by DCL free. So this is after lot of struggle, we got a neater expression
okay.
What does it tell you? See all those expression Alpha T epsilon0 (𝜖0 ) zero, what not? Finally what
we are seeing here is very surprising that stick force primarily depend upon this term, V square it
goes here, but here you see nowhere speed is there. This is only dependent upon the stick free
status of the airplane and what are the hinge moment characteristics, what is the wing loading?
But nowhere V is there, could you see and here V is there, V square, that’s not, isn't it very
interesting. So, we will try to exploit this, what does this mean? So then now if you see DFs by
DV, it will be K rho V A plus Ch Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) into Delta T. This is another big expression we
are getting, the DFs by DV in general, it has nothing to do with DCM by DCL free, which is given
by this and you could see from here that the second term has no influence on DFs by DV.
𝑑𝐹𝑠
= 𝐾𝜌𝑉 (𝐴 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝛿𝑡 )
𝑑𝑉 𝑡
But try to argue why it is happening like that, it is happening because please understand DCM by
DCL free is relevant about trim, all this stability we are talking about the slope at trim. So if you
want to really bring this DCM by DCL free in the DFs by DV or the stick force gradient at V trim
then you will find DCM by DCL free will again reappear okay, let us do that before you do that,
we will also try to give a more insight to this expression Fs, what is happening you see This is V
and this is Fs.
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There is a constant term which is Ch Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ), CM Delta (𝐶𝑚𝛿 ) DCM by DCL free W by S
𝑡
wing loading and K, this is a constant term, which is independent of V, what is the sign of DCM
by DCL free? It is minus, this is minus, this is minus , so minus mi nus plus this is minus and you
know K is also minus, do you remember the expression of K if you see that expression of K you
will find there is a minus sign sitting there, so this is also minus, So minus, minus plus and minus,
so this is a constant force Fs constant, will be there and what is the sign of that contribution, this
contribution is negative, so it is as for our convention it is a pull.
I repeat here again watch out for this term, second term okay; it is this. This is one, this is
independent of V. Second thing what we are seeing, it depends upon of course wing loading, if I
see the sign this is minus, this is minus this cancels out, this is minus and K is also minus, if you
see this expression of K, K is minus , this minus sign is sitting here so this whole contribution is
negative so a negative constant force will be there in this expression and that is negative means a
constant pull force will come.
So what you will do if I write on the top this is pull okay, which is negative so we will find a
constant pull force, because of stable CG which come from DCM by DCL free being Negative, if
it is unstable airplanes statically unstable that is DCM by DCL free was positive, then this sign
will become positive for that, should have been here for unstable CG, Let us focus about statically
stable airplane. This we know fine.
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Now what is happening, see the first term, this term, what is this term doing? This is K half rho V
square A plus Ch Delta T into Delta T, assume that A is not that significant, and you could see that
let me draw it and then I will explain. Let me write this, if I for time being, if I neglect this
contribution of A, which is very small then you could see that, if I put Delta T positive that is I
will put the tab like this if Delta T is positive, okay.
Then what is happening I know Ch Delta T is negative and this is positive, positive means nose
tab up, what is the meaning of that? That is this is the nose of the tab, it is up, so you know this is
as far as we understand that tab has gone down like this okay, so the nose has gone up. If it’s at
tailing edge and this is nose, nose is up position. That is Delta T is (𝛿𝑡 ) positive which is same as
elevator Delta E positive same convention. So if Delta T is positive this is negative that gives me
a negative, and K is negative here so that will give me a Fs positive.
Please see this. Fs because of tab will be how much? K half rho V square at into Ch Delta T into
Delta T, if I put this as a positive which is nose up and this is this is what you call nose tab up, then
it is positive so this is positive, this man is negative and K is also negative we know by definition,
so what is happening? Positive, positive, positive into negative okay.
So, negative into negative positive. So, Fs I am getting positive so this will give a push force, like
I mentioned, this is clear? This is positive, this is negative and this also negative so, total sign
become positive, so it will make this term as V is increasing, you will find it will contribute towards
opposite of a pull force, right.
So that is why If I go on giving Delta T positive, and as the V is increasing on a particular Delta T
being set, as V increases see this contribution more more of positive gives, it gives and finally it
nullifies here and if you see this difference is, I write it force due to tab, right. Okay which is you
could see very clearly if I put tab in this configuration, then that is giving a force, stick force Fs
which is positive right, and this stability term was giving a negative force because, like a Pull force,
so there will be a point where net Fs will become zero.
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So this is the point where how you can ensure that if it is goes to zero through tab, this is very
clear, that is how I was telling you can bring a equilibrium using a tab, by proper tab setting if you
understand this. Now we have also need to discuss about, why DCM by DCL free was not
explicitly seeing.
Now we will be focusing our attention will focus attention to trim, it’s very important because, we
need to know what is the force gradient I need to apply and that is I have to apply at that trim okay,
so let’s assume that suppose it is let’s say it is required, it’s required to ensure Fs equal to zero
using a tab. We have seen how can you make Fs zero using a tab, that is if I expand this statement,
I would say assume that trim is always deflected in such a fashion that automatically Fs equal to
zero comes right, the trim tab takes care of it and we say that airplane is trimmed using that tab,
okay, clear.
If I do that I need to know what is that Ch Delta T into Delta T contribution by tab, ensure Fs equal
to zero. That you can easily find out because I know Fs equal to K half rho V square into A plus
CS Delta T into Delta T minus K W by S, Ch Delta by CM Delta into DCM by DCL free. Question
is, what is Ch Delta T so that FS equal to zero? As we have been discussing here, let us assume
that the Tab is rolled appropriately all the time, to ensure it is at trim that is Fs equal to zero and
corresponding to Fs zero will be V trim okay, with that we are now trying to find out what will be
its contribution?
𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝛿𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑎𝑏 ≡ 𝐹𝑠 = 0
𝑡
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1 𝑊 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝐶ℎ𝛿
𝐹𝑠 = 𝐾 𝜌𝑉 2 (𝐴 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝛿𝑡 ) − 𝐾 ( )
2 𝑡 𝑆 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝑚𝛿
As you understand we want to deflect the tab such that it is at trim means Fs equal to zero, so I
will put zero here and I put this expression equate to this, so what we are looking for? We are
looking for what is this contribution of Ch Delta T into Delta T that is contribution from the tab.
So that it ensures that Fs equal to zero right, it has the trim. If I know do that I have to put FS equal
to zero, and this expression so from this we will get see yourself that you will get an expression.
Ch Delta T into Delta T equal to 2 W by S by rho V trim square, Ch Delta by CM Delta into DCM
by DCL free minus A okay. You could see here, this equal to zero so I take this here and then
divide by half of V square all these things you will get okay, please understand when I am putting
FS equal to zero, I am assuming that tab is rolled to ensure that it is at the trim that mean then V
will become V equal to V trim right okay. And that is why you find here this V trim clear, no
issues, okay.
2𝑊 ⁄𝑆 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝛿𝑡 = 2 ( ) −𝐴
𝑡 𝜌𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝐶𝑚𝛿 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
Now you see so, what will be the Fs now? Fs will be, Fs expression you know K half rho V square
into A plus Ch Delta T into Delta T minus K W by S Ch Delta by CM Delta into DCM by DCL
free okay, this already you have derived. What I have to put? I have to only put this Ch Delta T
into Delta T by this expression okay, this will come here and then you can easily write Fs equal to
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K W by S Ch Delta by CM Delta into DCM by DCL free V square by V trim square minus 1,
fantastic expression, what we have done? Ch Delta T(𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) into Delta T.

𝑡
𝑊 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝑉2
𝐹𝑠 = 𝐾 ( ) [ 2 − 1]
𝑆 𝐶𝑚𝛿 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
We have just substituted this expression, how you got this because, you made an assumption that,
the tab is rolled automatically so, that Fs is zero so that trim is achieved. So we found out how
much tab is required for different V trim, for different wing loading, that we put in the general
expression, so you got this expression okay.
Now you see if you differentiate you will get DFs by DV at V trim that is I’ll evaluate this V equal
to V trim and I will get it to 2 K W by S Ch Delta by CM Delta into DCM by DCL free. Now have
a closer look, here one thing I have seen DFs by DV, now you see DCM by DCL free is coming
right, and please understand fundamentally we are calculating DFs by DV at V trim at equilibrium,
so DCM by DCL immediately appeared here, which is correct slope right.
𝑑𝐹𝑠 𝑊 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝑉
| = 2𝐾 ( ) 2
𝑑𝑉 𝑎𝑡 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝑆 𝐶𝑚𝛿 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
If you see here this is the sign negative, this is negative, this is negative okay, this this become
positive this negative here K is negative so, actually. You say D FS by DV, by this expression it
becomes greater than zero, is it clear? Please understand that K is minus, this is minus, this is
minus, this and this, Now I will plot this in a different manner that is where you should be careful.
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We have taken push force as positive and pull as negative, but we will be plotting it now differently
we’ll put pull here that is negative and push here, so naturally we’ll find DFs by DV will become
now negative okay, this is clear, and this is the V trim. Please note down this pull has been put in
Y axis push below this X axis, so naturally slope will be different so this is the DFs by DV when
you are plotting like this.
Pull as negative and push as positive here right, so what does it say, it says this is Fs like you had
Delta E VS CL trim graph like this. What that graph was used through stick fixed stability
concepts? That if I want to fly at this CL, this was the Delta E required right, and now what is to
be inferred from this graph, that if I am flying at this V trim, if I want to go to this Vtrim2 (𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚2 )
I have to apply what type of force? Push force, for unaccelerated flight, what is the meaning?
That if I am flying at say 100 meter per second if I go to hundred twenty meters per second. So, it
says you have to apply push force, how much push force it will be dictated by this scale. So, it is
consistent, I want to increase so I am going giving push, if I want to reduce the speed then I have
to give a pull force, negative, okay.
This is positive push clear also it tells you that if you push the stick and take V trim to this point,
and now withdraw the stick, it’s a reversible control so again the speed will come to this V trim,
similarly true is here, one thing you can understand, if you could see the gradient DFs by DV for
one is more than the two if it is large gradient one thing is ensured that, if the pilot leave the stick
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it will not, it will always try to oppose any change from there Fs equal to zero, so you can fly
safely, you can fly in relaxed manner.
If the gradient is too low then for small disturbance, you know pilot has to control it right, but if it
is highly, this gradient is high, then it tells you it require larger DFs by DV to go from one V to
another V, so in a way it will be resisting right, so pilot can fly at ease, this is also extremely
important okay, okay I will end it here and I know there are lot of expression have come in one of
our Mann Ki Baat session we will take up one of the topics and again we revisit. Okay.
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 31
Reversible Control Stick Free and Trim Tabs
Good morning friends we are inside cockpit of Cessna 206 and we could see here this is the stick
and using this stick, we try to fly an airplane and we will be more focusing, on stick free concept
and you could understand this stick free concept is strictly true for reversible control, that is if I
pull this stick towards me, and I am trying to reduce the speed and the elevator will go up and if I
push this stick then and try to increase the speed so the elevator go down and that is the way we
understand.
When I am trying to maintain lift equal to weight if I am increasing the speed, then I need lesser
𝐶𝐿 so the elevator goes down and if I am decreasing the speed, then to maintain lift equal to weight
it needs more 𝐶𝐿 so, the elevator will go up because it needs more angle of attack. So, I repeat
again if I am trying to decrease the speed and still maintain lift equal to weight, I need more 𝐶𝐿 so,
the angle of attack has to increase or 𝐶𝐿 has to increase,
So the elevator goes up please try to understand this stick as you know that the convention wise
pull is negative and push is positive and this concept is true for reversible control what is the
meaning of reversible control that when I am pulling the stick as I am reducing the speed so, it
needs more 𝐶𝐿 to maintain lift equal to weight and hence more angle of attack so, the elevator go
up now if I want to increase the speed so I will push the stick so to maintain lift equal to weight it
need lesser 𝐶𝐿 so angle of attack has to go down so, the elevator will go down right?
So, that negative moment is there and you know the elevator going down like this is the positive
convention positive Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ) but then we are trying to talk about the stick free concept the
stick free concept means it is strictly valid for reversible control what is the reversible control that
if I pull the stick, if elevator goes up now what I will do I will see, that if I put the elevator up what
is happening to the stick, see elevator is put up and it is coming towards me that is as if I am
reducing the speed again elevator down.
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So elevator they are putting down and now the stick is going forward so, that is the concept of
reversible control right? So, what I do with the stick and same thing if I do from the elevator there
reversible okay? and whole stick free concept is valid for a reversible control only. Now you will
see basic question we asked was if I want to fly at a particular 𝐶𝐿 I need particular Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ) as
you know Delta E equal to Delta E 0 plus D Delta E by DCL into CL trim and to do that what the
message.
𝑑𝛿𝑒
𝑑𝐶
I get is from DCM by DCL fixed the stick fixed DCM by DCL stick fixed ( 𝑑𝐶𝑚 ) will
𝐿 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑
decide what sort of elevator is required right? When we talk about DCM by DCL free, only to
develop a model so, that I can give a feel to a pilot and design the control so, that the feel to the
pilot is given right? Okay? Let as again revisit MFD let is revise it this is true air speed this is the
air speed you get from this display and this is your artificial horizon okay?
You can see the attitude also on what is the status of the wing which way it is flying this is the alti-
this is the altitude recordings or you will be displaying what is the altitude you are flying and this
is the vertical speed okay? Which I can link to rate of climb or rate of descent this you can see this
will give you the direction which way you are going is related to north, south, east, west coordinate
system of earth so, this is typically important for navigation this you could see they’re standby
here magnetic compass why the word magnetic compass.
Because after all this direction are sensed by magneto meter which uses the fact that earth has its
own magnetic field okay? The statement which I am giving repeatedly is that there should be
redundancy with the advancement with the new, new technologies we need to keep standby this is
the radio compass and that gives you the direction which way you are going and it uses the
magnetic field characteristics of earth and the redundant for this is if we see this is this is magnetic
compass this is redundant to this magnetic compass display here.
And then you also have the air speed indicator here true air speed indicator, and you also have
redundant as SI or airspeed indicator analog here okay? And they you could see this is artificial
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horizon further redundant is here this is artificial horizon redundant as compare to the MFD then
you have got altimeter here altitude indicator and redundant for this is altimeter which is here and
then this is vertical speed indicator and like this all of this are designed with the two things in mind
one is it should comfort to the pilot after giving maximum information.
We should able to see a group of data information together which are extremely important it should
not happen, the oil temperature is given here and the cylinder head temperature is given here right?
Because they are not correlated right? So, they very difficult so they are correlated so, they are
very difficult so, that is the part of ergonomics so, they will bunch out all the relevant information
together because the together they make sense okay?
It’s extremely important to understand the ergonomics part of it you have to make the pilot
comfortable as we have decided that, yes, I need to know what is the stick force gradient for the
pilot and the roll of trimmer so, that pilot can fly hands off. But if there are no trimmers then if the
pilot is flying at some angle pulling some force as soon as he leave it goes out right? So, he will
be too tired so, that is the roll of a trimmer and here is the elevator trimmer here.
To see it can trim the elevator using this lever so, this is general description of the cockpit but we
will come back again here what we have done in stick free number one that how much stick force
I have to apply to deflect the elevator by certain amount and then also we know if I release it like
this it will again go back so that means if I am flying all the time I have to hold it like this that is
it will make the pilot totally tired of the whole exercise so, what is the remedy the remedy comes
from tabs.
I repeat if I have to give elevator deflection suppose some angle, I have given elevator up and I
have to fly but how much angle has to be given please remember that is given by DCM by DCL
fixed but now you see if I leave it again goes back so, I have to hold it but imagine the pilot holding
this for hours together what will happen to the pilot so, what has been invented an wonderful design
of tabs, we call elevator trim tab and you could see here this is the elevator trim tab lever okay?
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So, I can rotate it I can do like this and elevator will go up and down and at a point when this stick
force is zero, I will release it. And then I can hold the airplane the stick will remain here and it will
give desired Delta E required and that is what we call the hands off flying is it clear? I repeat if I
have to give five degree of elevator up I pull it but if I leave it automatically go back so, to ensure
that it does not go back I use a trimmer the trimmer will do the necessary deflection.
And give that much of hinge moment so, that elevator is kept there and then the pilot can fly hands
off and that is why it is called elevator trim tab okay? With this will go out so, and will try to see
few more things from outside and before we end this just for a completion please remember this
one is for throttle, this is for propeller and this is for setting the mixture that is fine mixture or
course mixture or lean mixture so, this is the pilot decide the along with engineer and the
manufacturing guidelines manufacturer’s guidelines so, these things are adjusted okay?
Sometime you fly the machine with a different propeller pitch and whether it is a coarse or fine
pitch that is decided by the operation okay? And we should not wonder what is this this is this is a
copilot can sit here you can come here and when do an experiment you can hold the stick and
actually fly okay? So, pilot is there will try to help you will get a feel of what is the stick force
imagine if stick force was too high how the pilot will fly so, it is extremely important that is stick
force per elevator right?
The sticks force per elevator angle or a stick force or stick force per acceleration, right? That is
dFs by dn (𝑑𝐹𝑠 ⁄𝑑𝑛), you’ll then understand the gradient is important right? if I want to change
the speed at trim speed from one V (𝑉) do another V trim (𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ) what is that gradient what is
that dFs by dV (𝑑𝐹𝑆 ⁄𝑑𝑛 ). So, that will give a comfort index for the pilot and you could understand
human being they learn more through the gradient, okay? The similar thing will find when the
pilot is banking and turning.
We talk about dFs by dn (𝑑𝐹𝑠 ⁄𝑑𝑛), that is stick force per ‘g’ there is a limitation beyond that I
cannot be able fly because of so, many constraints it comes from center of gravity location it comes
from physical limit of the pilot okay? With this we will go out again and see what is the true
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meaning of a reversible control and we will also discuss today about all movable control I will
show you that okay? All movable elevator surface okay let’s go out.
We are going to discuss are try to see what is the meaning of reversible control and you could see
this is basically the horizontal tail and part of this horizontal tail is elevator and this is elevator up
this is elevator down as we have discussed meaning of reversible control is if I pull the stick the
elevator has to move up and if I push the stick elevator has to go down reversible means if I do the
other way that is if I put this elevator up right? That means I need more 𝐶𝐿 so, I am going to fly at
a lower speed so, you will see the stick is coming towards you, okay?
If I put this elevator down that means I am trying to reduce CL so I am going to increase speed to
maintain some lift equal to weight you see the stick will go forward the sign conventions as per
we are following the pull is negative please understand that pull is towards the pull means I am
trying to reduce the speed and push means I am trying to increase the speed so, the concept of
reversible is as I pull the stick I am trying to reduce the speed the elevator will go up.
And I the push the stick the elevator will go down reversible means if I know put the elevator up
the stick also will move according to this definition. Similarly if I put the elevator down the stick
will follow same as per the definition so, that is the concept of reversible control, in modern aircraft
we will find they are not reversible because there are motors, actuators etcetera and so, there is no
direct reversible concept for modern aircraft okay? So, you have seen here horizontal tail and part
of horizontal tail behaving as an elevator okay?
Now we will see a case where complete horizontal tail is an elevator you have just seen the part of
the horizontal tail being used as an elevator for this is Piper Saratoga this is the horizontal tail and
this whole horizontal tail moves up and down this is to behave like an elevator okay? remember
we have seen you have put the elevator up and elevator down depending upon what sort of flying
mode you are there but here you could see interestingly there is a trimmer right?
And this trimmer is going to give you a moment so, that this whole horizontal tail which is all
movable tail works as a elevator as will a stabilizer and you have to hold it. So, this trimmer will
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produce enough moment so, that any position you can trim right after giving a deflection by that
stick okay? And that is extremely important for a trimmer and in this airplane, you could see the
trimmer very clearly.
But where I could not show there you could see as it going down the trimmer is going up like this
as it goes down like this so, this trimmer concept will we solving some problem try to understand
how to solve a problem but note down that part of horizontal tail can conveniently we use as a
trimmer and its location could vary depending up on what sort of design you have thank you very
much!
You have seen that so, far we have shown you the stick, we pull it we will push it and how does it
move the elevator right?
And we have been over stressing point that reversible control for simple reason that when you say
reversible control say for example if I push the stick forward to increase the speed then the elevator
will go down and similarly if I put the elevator down we have seen the stick goes forward so, that
sort of a reversible control we are talking about why we are talking about reversible control because
this is the revision session for stick force right?
And why did we spent so, much time on a stick force because we know that for reversible control
driven airplane, I can give a better feel to the pilot in command for flying the machine because he
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is the most important person for us because he going to be the pilot in command. And when you
say the stick force if we recall we have defined something called Delta E float (𝛿𝑒 )𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 right?
Before you come to this please understand if I am going to fly at a particular.
𝑑𝐶
𝐶𝐿 then this 𝐶𝐿 will be decided by dCM by dCL fixed ( 𝑑𝐶𝑚 | ) if we recall we have expression
𝐿 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑
Delta E equal to Delta E 0 + - DCM by DCL this is stick fixed divided by CM Delta E then into
CL trim so whatever Delta E required for a given 𝐶𝐿 trim is decided by this DCM by DCL fixed
there is nothing to do with DCM by DCL free please understand this concept whatever the Delta
E required to trim the airplane for a particular CL trim is decided by DCM by DCL fixed okay?
𝜕𝐶𝑚
− |
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑
𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
Through reversible control base airplane we are trying to develop a model for a stick force what
happens you have seen practically if I pull the stick and the and holding the stick so, the Delta E
will be deflected but moment I leave it then it has a natural tendency to go out so, during you flying
I have to constantly hold the stick so, that is also very dangerous you know very tiring for a pilot.
So, we wanted to know how to handle that hence that trim tab concept was introduced so, we will
see what is Delta E float, Delta E float ((𝛿𝑒 )𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 ) is very simple that we know that this the tail
plane right? And this is the elevator and you know if this is the Alpha t (𝛼𝑡 ) a tail angle of attack
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then because of pressure distribution over here the reaction force over the elevator if this reaction
R is behind the hinge line. Then this will give a moment the leading edge of the elevator will go
down and we say it has floated up you could understand very well that.
This floating will be strong function of tail angle of attack and you know that this is Delta E float
is nothing but CH Alpha tail by CH Delta E into Alpha tail and of course there is a minus sign
right?
𝐶ℎ𝛼
𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒
Which tells us for a positive Alpha T there is negative float so positive Alpha T so the elevator
will float like this okay? Now please try to understand very important thing what is the basic
different between CH Alpha T 𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 and CH Delta E 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ? Which one of them is restoring in nature?
And you could see that very clearly as I deflect Delta E this is a hinge line okay? So, there is a
reaction force here so, this will give a moment like this nose down CH Delta E negative so, you
could see the for a positive Alpha this man will be generate a negative so whenever I am trying to
deflect it by Delta E which is positive which actually means there is a change in the cambered so,
this will always try to ensure that it is opposing this right?
It tries to correct it so, it is a restoring type so we have to put effort to put the elevator down that
is why CH Delta E 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 is negative (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 < 0) the interpretation of CH Delta E is negative so, it
is restoring in nature is this part clear? I repeat see I am flying and I want to really deflect this
elevator down what will happen as soon as I deflect the elevator down there will be a pressure
distribution over it. This is the hinge line and let’s say the hinge line located such a way the
resultant of this pressure distribution via force that reaction R is behind this hinge line,
So when I am trying to pull it down this R will give a moment opposite direction. So, it will try to
resist that is why this CH Delta E hinge moment per unit elevator deflection have a sign negative
so, as we interpret this as restoring in nature.
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Now let as see what is trim tab is going to do let us say that you need to hold this elevator at an
angle of let say five (5) degree up which is negative to maintain so, lift equal to weight so our
correspondingly will have a CL trim (𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ) right? Now imagine if I have to throughout my flight
we have to keep this Delta E up by five degree so, I have to go on holding the stick but if I leave
it so, this will start going down, so that will make you tired so, what the trick has been done is take
some part of it which we call a trim tab.
So as I deflect the elevator like this trim tab deflect like this so this is the Delta T (𝛿𝑡 ) trim tab
angle and this is the tab this what is? elevator is going like this a tab trim tab is going down coming
down like this what happens if it comes like this then this generate a force here which gives a
moment and that moment is use to hold the elevator at particular position now the pilot need not
apply any stick okay?
I repeat here how the pilot turn this elevator from here this position to this position by giving,
giving a moment so, that it can turn like this okay? This is clear? but because of restoring tendency
of the elevator CH Delta E it will try to come down like this we have to hold it here please
understand this is very important thing the moment it is kept at as this Delta E new Delta E because
of CH Delta E this will try to come down like this as this tries to come down like this.
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What will happen is? as it tries to come down I need to have a mechanism to hold it at this position
one is I hold the stick, but that’s too tiring so, that is where this trim tab which will integral part of
this so, that gets deflected like this and this gives rise to a moment which tries to give the moment,
which the stick was giving through this stick force so, this is the moment, which down alone this
trim tab is handling the effect of the stick force than I need not bother I can leave the stick I say
stick force is zero.
And that is as far as stick free stability is concerned that is the equilibrium point is this part clear?
So, at this condition Fs stick force is zero (𝐹𝑆 = 0) that is the primary role of trim tab okay? This
one I thought I will share with you and of course you know what are the stick force is big
reformulation that’s the matter of detail we have to put those numbers conceptually let us revisit
from here we realized Delta E float which is I can calculate if there are no trimmer as CH Alpha
T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) by CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) into Alpha T (𝛼𝑡 ) and then I also try to understand what is the
meaning of CH Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ).
Because as long as hinge line is ahead then CH Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) and CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) both are
negative okay (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 , 𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 < 0) ? And negative means CH Alpha T negative means if this is your
tail and this is the elevator so, far a positive Alpha T if it is positive the CH Alpha T less than zero
means it will have a motion so that this floats like this try to give a hinge moment to negative that
is nose down it means positive is nose up okay?
This a meaning of that and for CH Delta E less than 0 means has I put the elevator down which is
positive it should generate a negative moment CH Delta E is less than 0 so, it will also generate a
nose down moment like this so, if we are try to take it Delta E down it will generate a moment
which try restore it right? And that is why CH Delta E is restoring in nature remember as long as
the hinge line is somewhere here and resultant if somewhere is behind the hinge line okay? So,
this the net force coming resultant this is extremely important.
So, because of Alpha T they an because of CH Alpha T present there is natural floating tendency
and but, who correct this CH Delta E try to restore it that is why we write CH equal to CH Alpha
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T into Alpha T + CH Delta E into Delta E if there are no trim no trim tab okay? No trim tab one is
restoring and one is floating okay?
𝐶ℎ = 𝐶⏟ℎ𝛼𝑡 𝛼𝑡 + 𝐶⏟ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 (𝑁𝑂 𝑇𝑅𝐼𝑀 𝑇𝐴𝐵)
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
So, when they cancel each other that is the time when that equilibrium has CH equal to 0 and that
is how you get this expression as simple as that not at all big, big things okay? I thought these
points must be clear to you before you solve some problem we will we solving two problems but
this is the understanding, please make sure you understand these things clearly if there is a
confusion use the forum ask questions okay?
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 32
Numericals: Stick Free
Good afternoon everybody, today will be solving one problem related to stick free, to be particular
is stick force, we have seen so many expression in stick force and then every possible reason to
get disinterested this expression do not look, best way to handle this sort of the situation is solving
problems right, so will be a solving problem primarily on stick force, before we come to stick force
let us revise few things so that we can conveniently use some problem numbers and get something
useful okay.
You could see that the problem is given. Let me read the problem first to consider the following
airplane tested in a wind tunnel, what is given is weight of the airplane is 700 kg, then aspect ratio
of the wing is 6 span of the wing is 6 meter, wing setting angle iw (𝑖𝑤 ) is 0, it (𝑖𝑡 ) is 2 degree tail
setting angle is + 2 degree right, note this, Then also some aero dynamic characteristics that is CL
Alpha (𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑤 ) of the wing 2 dimensional 2 D and CL Alpha tail is 2 D (𝐶𝐿𝛼,𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 ) is 0.1 per
2𝑑 2𝑑
degree.
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Please understand this is 2 D so you have to convert this into 3 D okay? Then tail moment arm ‘lt’
(𝑙𝑡 ) is given as 6.5 meter what was ‘lt’, ‘lt’ was a distance between AC of the tail and CG of the
air plane. And this Delta E0 (𝛿𝑒0 ) is 3-degree, tau (𝜏) is 0.4, and D Epsilon by D Alpha (𝑑𝜖 ⁄𝑑𝛼 )
is 0.5, ‘nt’ is 0.9 what was Delta E0 (𝛿𝑒0 )?
Please remember when I said Delta E0 (𝛿𝑒0 ) is 3 degree and Delta E = Delta E0 + D Delta E by
DCL into CL trim and you know Delta E0 was given as - Cm0 by Cm Delta E.
𝑑𝛿𝑒 −𝐶𝑚0
𝛿𝑒 = 𝛿𝑒0 + 𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ; 𝛿𝑒0 =
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
Right and if I know the value of CM Delta E. If I know the value of CM0 I know what is the value
of the Delta E0, In this problem Delta E0 is given as 3 degree you could see that sign will be
positive because CM Delta E is negative, CM0 is positive so positive negative, negative positive,
negative negative positive.
So this is 3 degree This also tells you that CM Delta E is also per degree, not per radian, per degree
that is why 3 degree here, this I must understand okay.
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So, that is on Delta E0 (𝛿𝑒0 ) and tau (𝜏) is 0.4, you understand what was tau, if I write tau is 0.4,
I understand tau means D Alpha T by D Delta E (𝑑𝛼𝑡 ⁄𝑑𝛿𝑒 ) what is the meaning of this D Alpha
T by D Delta E which is nothing but tau we interrupt this like per unit deflection of elevator how
much the tail angle is changing right and you know this can be evaluated or estimated by
empirically this is tau (𝜏).
This is Se by St (𝑆𝑒 ⁄𝑆𝑡 ) and it is a function like this maximum value will be 0.8 to 1, let’s say
practically 0.8 and typical value lies between 0.4 to 0.5 or 0.6 sometimes, so that one can find out
empirically if I know what is the elevator area and what is the tail area. For this problem this all
exercise has been done and you are, you are given tau as 0.4.
Now comes the D Epsilon by D Alpha (𝑑𝜖 ⁄𝑑𝛼 ) when you say D Epsilon by D Alpha (𝑑𝜖 ⁄𝑑𝛼) is
0.5 you know that Epsilon (𝜖) downwash at tail because of wing right, can be expressed as Epsilon
0 plus D Epsilon by D Alpha into Alpha wing and this D Epsilon by D Alpha which is 0.5 if this
value which is pretty high right?
𝜕𝜖 𝜕𝜖
𝜖(𝛼) = 𝜖0 + 𝛼𝑤 ; = 0.5
𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛼
You also see that D Epsilon by D Alpha is given as 0.5 and we know by now that there is a wing
because of the wing there is a downwash at tail that is important
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And that can be expressed as Epsilon equal to Epsilon 0 plus D Epsilon by D Alpha into Alpha
wing because this is the downwash of tail who has caused this downwash because of the wing
where from it has come because wing because of the pressure difference, there is a lift and those
vertices will cause the downward at tail and this D Epsilon by D Alpha is 0.5.
𝜕𝜖
𝜖 = 𝜖0 + 𝛼
⏟ 𝑤
𝜕𝛼
0.5
You know about Epsilon 0 (𝜖0 )if it is cambered aerofoil wing the Epsilon 0 will be non-zero, for
symmetric it will be zero okay, this things we understand you also would like to know what are
the other information given so that with get the correct feel of the problem. As I come here you
could see that the G so I am talking about I am coming towards the domain of stick force G was the
gearing constant and if you recall the expression of stick force which was given as if I difficult to
remember if see a stick force.
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We derive this question as K into half row V square A plus CN Delta T into Delta T minus K into
W by S CH Delta E by CM Delta E into DCM by DCL free, Please do not get bothered if I by
mistake I written some wrong expression somewhere error you are supposed to correct it, okay.
1 𝑊 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝑑𝐶𝑚
𝐹𝑆 = 𝐾. 𝜌𝑉 2 (𝐴 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝛿𝑡 ) − 𝐾. ( )
2 𝑡 𝑆 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
I am just telling how to handle and how to understand a problem okay, expressions already have
and you should cross check, Now see what was G here, G is hiding where in this expression if I
remember the K was given as minus G *Se* Ce* eta T (𝐾 = −𝐺𝑆𝑒 𝐶𝑒 𝜂𝑡 ) what was G, G is the
gearing constant and that is exactly the G we talking about 1.5 radian per meter, radian per meter
okay, so that is G, what was Se, Se is the elevator area, what is Ce, is the elevator chord and eta T
you know the ratio of dynamic pressure at tail to a free stream dynamic pressure.
So, we understand what is G, what is Ch Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) and CH Alpha (𝐶ℎ𝛼 ), CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 )
if I recall that you know we are assuming that the elevator is free to rotate because of Alpha T, this
is Alpha T and if this is the hinge line then there will be a pressure distribution over the elevator
and if center of pressure is behind the hinge line then this will try to float the elevator up that is
the effect of CH Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) right.
CH Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) , but what CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) will do as it goes up, It generate the force
towards down it tries to resist so CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) is restoring hinge moment CH Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 )
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is the floating which try to float floating hinge moment was trying to float the elevator so those
values are negative because hinge line is ahead of the resultant center of pressure so CH Alpha T
(𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) and CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) values are minus 0.007 per degree, this is minus 0.005 per degree,
suppose this is given and also off course.
I think somewhere CH Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) is also given, this is the TAB what is CH Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ),
𝑡 𝑡
let’s also understand CH Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ), it is also a good idea whenever the problem is given
𝑡
during the training period every parameter number in see you ask what is this okay. What should
be sign, what should be its magnitude? Why and what are the influence it could cause? Or how it
can influence the whole airplane? If you start doing like this, you’ll develop the feel for this number
and you will do justice to this subject.
So let us see what CH Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ), what is Delta T (𝛿𝑡 ), Delta T is the tab, it’s a trim tab
𝑡
longitudinal case so what is the trim tab? We’ll ask ourself, remember if this man elevator as to
deflected like this then, the pilot as to pull the stick and hold it so that will very tiring so there is
another portion which goes down as it goes up and this is the tab you can set this tab and this will
the moment to hold this whole elevator at this angle so that a stick force applied by the pilot will
be zero and that is in a stick free case we say neutrally stable okay.
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So, we understand CH Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑡 ) you also understand what should be its sign we define Delta
T (𝛿𝑡 ) positive like elevator this is Delta T positive so Delta T positive will give a force in this
direction.
That will give a nose down moment so it sign CH Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑡 ) signs will also negative because
for a positive Delta T(𝛿𝑡 ) it is giving nose down moment so CH Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑡 ) sign should be less
zero anything left here to understand okay, number wise is okay. Now come back to this diagram
this is also part of the problem, Okay? We keep this since we will be using so what is given in this
diagram, it is written Cm and CG y axis.
Why Cm and CG you all understand the pitching moment is all calculated above the center of
gravity because the airplane in free space will locate about an axis passing through center of gravity
since this is the longitudinal motion. So this is Cm about the CG of the airplane and what is here
this is the 𝐶𝐿 , 𝐶𝐿 now what are this two things two lines, one is fixed elevator that is stick fixed
case this line and another is free elevator.
Why their slope has changed you know that the nose of the air plane the elevator will float like
this right? So, in a way at equilibrium the shape is like this opposite of a camber so there is a
reduction in the tail lift so Cm Alpha (𝐶𝑚𝛼 ) or Stability added by the tail will reduce hence DCM
by DCL (𝑑𝐶𝑚 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿 ) for a free elevator the slope will be less compare to stick fixed case.
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Now they have given some number also if I we want to know what is DCM by DCL fixed
(𝑑𝐶𝑚 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿 )𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 from this diagram, Fixed means elevator fixed or stick fixed all are same thing,
so this is CM given, this is CL given this is the fixed elevator case, this one or which you call stick
fixed, DCM by DCL which slope this is Y, Y by X that is 0.05 by minus here I put 0.8 minus 0.3
so there will be minus 0.1 this slope of this line right.
This is physically 0.5 and this is 0.05, so 0.05 by 0.5 with a minus sign because more than it is the
slope of the line is negative so this is minus 0.1 so I get DCM by DCL fixed, (𝑑𝐶𝑚 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿 )𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑
elevator fixed or stick fixed is minus 0.1 so what is the interpretation for this. That means it as its
static stability margin of 10% because I know DCM by DCL I can approximately write as minus
static margin or minus of neutral point minus XCG correct.
𝑑𝐶𝑚
̅0 − 𝑋̅𝐶𝐺 )
≅ −𝑆𝑀 = −(𝑁
𝑑𝐶𝐿
So DCM by DCL fixed is minus 0.1 is DCM is DCL is nothing but minus static margin so static
margin is 10%, 10% of what 10% of the chord that means the distance between stick fixed neutral
point and CG is 10% of the mean aerodynamic chord as simple as that. Now if you do same
exercise say DCM by DCL free, if we were to find out and what is the value?
So, DCM by DCL free (𝑑𝐶𝑚 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿 )𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 so which graph I should see this is fixed this is free so
again you have to see the distance is 0.3 and 1 so it is 0.7 and this is 0.05 so this will minus 0.05
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by 0.7 and this value is typically minus 0.0714. Please you yourself should do this calculation do
not assume that I am doing it correct I will be telling you the process correctly numerical things
that you have to do yourself so that you get correct number now if I compare DCM by DCL free
(𝑑𝐶𝑚 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿 )𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 and DCM by DCL fixed (𝑑𝐶𝑚 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿 )𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 I find yes DCM by DCL fixed
(𝑑𝐶𝑚 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿 )𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 has a larger negative slope and that is why we say naturally DCM by DCL fixed
(𝑑𝐶𝑚 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿 )𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 should be more stable configuration than DCM by DCL free (𝑑𝐶𝑚 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿 )𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
why?.
Because in DCM by DCL free (𝑑𝐶𝑚 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿 )𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 calculation, we have allowed the elevated to float
and that become the equilibrium, okay? Correct? So, these are the interpretation of these numbers
now will do the problem next.
We will state the problem one by one and then calculate first question find stick fixed and stick
free neutral point. You see after studying the problem getting the interpretation of number how
simple is this problem you know that DCM by DCL is nothing but minus static margin which is
nothing but XCG bar (𝑋̅𝐶𝐺 ) minus N0 bar (𝑁
̅0 )because static moment means N0 bar (𝑁
̅0 )minus
XCG bar (𝑋̅𝐶𝐺 ) so minus sign will be absorbed like this what was DCM by DCL fixed we just
now calculated it was minus 0.1.
𝑑𝐶𝑚
( ) = −𝑆𝑀 = 𝑋̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑁
̅0
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑖𝑥
̅0 ⇒ 𝑁
−0.1 = 0.3 − 𝑁 ̅0 = 0.4
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This is equal to XCG is how much given yeah, XCG as to be given so XCG is given as, for this
problem you take XCG equal to 0.3 or XCG bar equal to 0.3 so this is 0.3 so I write 0.3 minus N0
bar so this tells me stick fixed neutral point is equal to 0.4 as simple as that. Now if I ask you what
̅0′ )how will you find out as simple as that you know DCM by DCL free will be
is N0 prime (𝑁
equal to XCG bar (𝑋̅𝐶𝐺 ) minus N0 prime (𝑁
̅0′ ) this is the stick free neutral point this value you
know as minus 0.07.
𝑑𝐶𝑚
( ) = 𝑋̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑁
̅0′
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
̅0′ ⇒ 𝑁
−0.07 = 0.3 − 𝑁 ̅0′ ≅ 0.3714
Something you just now did it XCG you know 0.3 so N0 prime will be simply solving this and
you have supposed to get N0 prime if I have not done. Any mistake and I should tell you that
repeatedly please do not blame me so I will write something approximately point 0.3714 something
like this you should yourself do it okay. So, this is the first question we solved on stick fixed and
stick free.
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 33
Numericals: Stick Free Continued
Second question is what is the air speed? We call it indicated airspeed, and you know indicated air
speed has its meaning but, basically equivalent airspeed, basically relative airspeed and this is the
airplane speed related to the medium. What is this airspeed? For stick fixed case. That means I
have to see this graph right. These are all graphs Cm (𝐶𝑚 ) versus CL (𝐶𝐿 ), for a cruise flight, Trim
is that CL equal to 0.8 first I identify it is a cruise flight right, And CL Trim (𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ) is how much?
CL trim (𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ) is given by for a stick fixed case is trimming at 0.8 CL, CL equal to 0.8. Now
this has been conducted test has been conducted in the wing tunnel, so, I can take Rho (𝜌) as 1.225
KG, per meter cube (1.225 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 ), S. S will be required to find out S, why I am doing all this
thing? I have to calculate airspeed.
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I know for a cruise V is equal to 2 W by S by Rho V square, W is given? Yes W is given 700 KG
so, I will write this equal to 2 and 700, Am I correct. Or I have to do something else? If I put 700
my problem will okay, No because this is in KG you have to put in Newton, you have to multiply
by 9.8. Then divide by S divide by Rho oh sorry V will be equal to this by CL sorry, V will be
equal to under root 2 W by S Rho CL okay. So, S is there Rho is here, and CL, CL I know is 0.8
how do I find ‘S’.
2𝑊 ⁄𝑆 2 ∗ 700 ∗ 9.8
𝑉=√ =√
𝜌𝐶𝐿 𝑆𝜌𝐶𝐿
That is I have to use aspect ratio and span, if you see now I am trying to find out S, S is what? I
have given aspect ratio in aspect ratio is b square by S, aspect ratio is given 6 span is given how
much. Span is given 6, so I can easily find out S okay, So, S is known Rho I know wind tunnel at
sea level 1.225, so I can easily calculate this is the V trim or what is the airspeed for stick fixed
case is this much whatever value comes here.
𝑏2 62
𝐴𝑅 = ⇒𝑆= =6
𝑆 6
2𝑊 ⁄𝑆 2 ∗ 700 ∗ 9.8
𝑉=√ =√ = 48.30
𝜌𝐶𝐿 6 ∗ 1.225 ∗ 0.8
In my calculation, this value comes out to be around 48.33 meter per second, but you please check
right. This is I have done in the hurry, my job is not to spoon feed you, you should able to calculate
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this, I repeat again this ‘S’ I calculate like this from aspect ratio and span rho I have taken 1.225
because the wind tunnel testing was done in a at sea level conditions, fair enough assumption and
CL (𝐶𝐿 ) is 0.8 because stick fixed case this right? Okay so second question is over.
Now let us go to third question this question, these questions are designed to see that you not only
understand whatever we are talking about, you should understand the relationship between stick
fixed and stick free. So what is the third question? Third question is, if the airplane or the aircraft
was to be trimmed at indicated airspeed IAS, you know of 200 kilometer per hour find the tab
setting, find the tab setting required and also calculate DFS by DV, tw o important question I have
asked okay.
Is this question clear? The third question is if the aircraft was to be trimmed at indicated air speed
of 200 kilometer per hour, Find the tab setting required and also calculating DFS by DV, when is
a tab setting required the meaning there by is after setting the tab, the pilot should fly hands off
pilot should fly hands off means, the question is what is the tab setting required? So that the stick
force become 0 both are equivalent question right.
So will do that we have to take help of this big big expressions, that will try to give a better feel I
will not erase this part, I will try to solve this problem within this, so that you can see the questions
when I am solving.
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First of all let us understand this 200 kilometer per hour, so we have to convert this V indicated or
VI is 200 kilometer per hour I convert it into meter per second, And in my calculation it comes
around 55.55 meter per second. So this is 55.55 meter per second, VI no problem, then XCG what
is the XCG given? Any XCG is given here in the problem, this will be extremely important
information yeah it has to be given this XCG bar given is 0.2 see why?
Suddenly I look for XCG because I know when you are developing expression for a stick force
remember, we are we have to generate a moment about the hinge right. And stick force and stability
are related, like elevator deflection and stability are related right. If the over stable then you have
to put lot of stick force turn the elevator for a trim, so I need to know what is the XCG bar location,
which by mistake I missed but the question I found yes it is there, yes XCG bar is 0.2 whenever
we solving a problem, please activate your mind on the physics of the problem okay.
Now what is the FS? FS is let me right this FS is K half rho V square, A plus CH Delta T into
Delta T, minus K I write here minus K W by S CH Delta E by CM Delta E, this Delta means
elevator into DCM by DCL free what is the question? Question is what is the value of Delta T
that is, what is the value of tab setting angle? So what is the question, question is what is Delta E
so that FS equal to zero right? That is question.
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1 𝑊 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝐹𝑆 = 𝐾 𝜌𝑉 2 (𝐴 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝛿𝑡 ) − 𝑘 ( )
2 𝑡 𝑆 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
So now if I put FS equal to 0 and this manipulate this expression, I will get Delta T expression as
2 W by S, one by RHO V square, one by CH Delta T, CH Delta T into CH Delta E by CM Delta
E into DCM by DCL free minus, A by CH Delta T. Please understand what we have done we have
done nothing, we have to calculate Delta T and for Delta T, FS has to become zero so I put zero
here, and then do this algebraic manipulation to get this expression.
𝑊 1 1 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝐴
𝛿𝑡 = 2 ( ) 2 ( ) −
𝑆 𝜌𝑉 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐶ℎ𝛿
𝑡 𝑡
Which you can yourself find out, and if there is any mistake should be able to correct it okay, for
example now I see a mistake here, this will be 2 W by S 1 by RHO V square into 1 by CH Delta
T, CH Delta E by CM Delta E DCM by DCL free minus enough apparently there is no mistake,
but it should be very careful okay. So, now what is required? Do you know W by S let us see, I
will not erase this because you will be requiring this do some trick.
Or you can use here, what is W by S? W by S W you know 700 divided by S yes you can find out
aspect ratio is b square by S equal to 6, and b is 6 that mean 36 by S equal to 6 this implies S equal
to 36 by 6, so it is 6 meter square okay? So I write W by S equal to this by 6 it's correct. No it's not
correct because W should be a Newton so you have to multiply, this by 9.8 do not forgot that okay.
So this is W by S that will come here RHO (𝜌), what is the RHO?
RHO will be 1.225 because, we are talking about sea level condition, next CH Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) CH
𝑡
Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) is given minus 0.003. That value comes here CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) minus 0.007 per
𝑡
degree comes here, CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) is CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) given anywhere? can you check if
it is not given, either you have to find out or this should have been given. So let us see where is in
the question whether CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) is given or not CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) is not given so we
cannot solve this problem is it correct. We cannot surrender right?

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Let us see how to calculate CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) okay, We need to calculate CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 )
given that data there, CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) is given as minus ‘at’ or CL Alpha tail (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) , into
3𝑑
VH eta T into Tau what was ‘at’? ‘at’ was CL Alpha tail (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) ; of course, we have to have 3
3𝑑
dimensional value.
What is given here CL Alpha wing (𝐶𝐿𝛼 ) and CL Alpha tail 2 D (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) is given, that is 0.1
𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 2𝑑
per degree but this formula want CL Alpha tail at three dimensional, so what I have to do CL
Alpha tail three dimensional can easily calculated, by CL Alpha 2 D (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) tail by one plus CL
2𝑑
Alpha 2 D (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) by PI aspect ratio, I am taking ‘e’ equal to 1, as simple as that just mechanical
2𝑑
job, u put that 2 D value here put the aspect ratio value PI here you get CL Alpha 3 D.
(𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 )
2𝑑
(𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) 3𝑑 = ;𝑒 = 1
(𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 )
2𝑑
1 + 𝜋 ∗ 𝐴𝑅
What is VH? What is VH? VH is St lt by S Cbar, but let’s see St is given or not, lt is given 6.5 meter
so, St was missed so St is that it let me write the value of St, so there are other information also
given which are required. So let us see I am writing here for example.
𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡
𝑉𝐻 =
𝑆𝑐̅
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What is given is aspect ratio of the tail, as 4 tail span b of tail has 2 meter, Alpha 0 (𝛼0 ) equal to
minus 2 degree of the wing, this is of course of the wing right. And also, things are given like
elevator area, S elevator (𝑆𝑒 ) as point 5-meter square and ‘lt’ is already 6 point at elevator chord,
that is Ce chord is 0.25 meter and Delta E 0 (𝛿𝑒0 ) is given somewhere or not? Delta E 0 (𝛿𝑒0 ) let
us also write here Delta E 0 (𝛿𝑒0 ) is given as 3 degree and other values are given of course.
So it’s not a problem as you solve the problem you understand these data are required and you
need to look for those data right. So what we are looking for was what is the trim tab setting
required for FS equal to 0, and we are calculating at a speed V because, we are trimming at that
speed V so, we are trying to calculate this is 2 W by S, W need a precaution 700 into 9.8, and S
whatever S of the wing is there.
RHO (𝜌) value you know V value you know CH Delta (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) you know CH Delta (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) you
know CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) you know DCM by DCL free. Where from you get from that graph
which we have given, is minus 0.07 minus A by CH Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) what is A? What is A?
𝑡
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If you check your notes A is nothing but, A is nothing but Ch0 (𝐶ℎ0 ) plus CH Alpha (𝐶ℎ𝛼 ) into
Alpha 0 (𝛼0 ) minus iw (𝑖𝑤 ) plus it (𝑖𝑡 ) okay, plus CH Delta (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) into Delta E 0 (𝛿𝑒0 ) and all this
values are given, trivial thing you have to check the data set and put those values but from a
problem solving view if somebody ask you what is the trim tab setting required.
𝐴 = 𝐶ℎ0 + 𝐶ℎ𝛼 ∗ (𝛼0 − 𝑖𝑤 + 𝑖𝑡 ) + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 ∗ 𝛿𝑒0
To trim at speed V so, that FS is 0 you need to ask for all this information so this exercise is done,
you give a that feel but we have to look for all this information small small information, what
remember this are not straight forward information, how to get CH Alpha tail (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) how to get
CH 0 (𝐶ℎ0 ) this are herculean task, you need to do exhaustive wind tunnel testing, specially hinge
moment coefficients or hinge moment derivatives.
All those black board looks very simple to solve a problem, but to generate this data this herculean
task and a good airplane is designed provided this data's sets are reliable okay? Now second
problem we want to calculate dFS by dV at XCG equal to 0.2, so let as erase this all so we get some
space,
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Let me write the problem we want to calculate dFS by dV at XCG equal to 0.2, please understand it
is extremely important if someone to ask you a question. What is dFS by dV meaningless question,
because you know this has to be specific for other conditions also, but CG is extremely important
right? If it is over stable then dFS by dV will give a large gradient, so how do I calculate that? that
is the question is again very mechanical as them when you understand things is just question of
putting some number so, what is dFS by dV?
If we see the expression so, let us see dFS by dV and before that if we see my notes will find FS.
Given as KW by S CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) by CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) into dCm by dCL free
(𝑑𝐶𝑚 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿 )𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 into V square by Vtrim square minus 1, and then we took dFS by dV but that
derivative was at V equal to Vtrim, and that expression was just to take derivative the expression
was ,let me write it is 2 K W by S CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) by CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ), CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 )
also same thing dCm by dCL free into 1 by V trim, that if I take the derivative then put V equal to
V trim so, there is only 1 by V trim will remain.
𝑊 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝑑𝐶𝑚 𝑉2
𝐹𝑆 = 𝐾 ( ) ( 2 − 1)
𝑆 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
𝑑𝐹𝑆 𝑊 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝑑𝐶𝑚 1

| ≡ 2𝐾 ( )
𝑑𝑉 𝑉=𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝑆 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
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So this is the expression what is so great to calculate this, what I should know I always know, I am
expert now, what is W by S and I know that when I put W have to put in Newton, so, I will multiply
by 9.8, if the weight is given in kg, CH Delta (𝐶𝐻𝛿 ) value is known CM Delta (𝐶𝑚𝛿 ) value is
known, dCm by dCL free (𝑑𝐶𝑚 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿 )𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 is also given, V trim I know what is the V trim because,
I am cruising at that point what is remaining only value of K what is K?.
So simple it is a so straight forward, it is that if we will get bored solving that problem, all though
expressions are big big and very nasty looking expression, but once you solve you’ll find it very
very trivial.
So what is K? K is minus G Se Ce eta T that’s all, but look for, what is the value G? if we are doing
a real aircraft, you have to find out the value of the through experiment Se (𝑆𝑒 ) is the elevator area,
Ce (𝐶𝑒 ) is the elevator chord eta T (𝜂𝑡 ) is the ratio dynamic pressure. At the tail which respect to
free stream dynamic pressure, some numbers are given here right.
𝐾 = −𝐺 𝑆𝑒 𝐶𝑒 𝜂𝑡
And this is simply K you know here, you put the value of K so you will get the value of dFS by dV
at V trim V equal to V trim, but understand one thing solving this problem is very simple, but
when you try to generate let us say value of G you have lot of experiments right. And you get the
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value equivalent value of G, similarly when you want to do use the CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) CM Delta
E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) all those derivatives, don't think these are just from an look-up table you get exact values.
We have to do wind tunnel testing, we have go for flight testing and multiple flight testing, and
then finally you get these values accurately. The whole art and sweat lies in generating this number,
not applying this numbers for some equation getting some number, So equations gives a feel and
you can extend your design correct your design, but validation comes from actual flight test or
some part through wind tunnel, and whole task become how do I generate this number.
Which mathematical model expects to simulator real situation, that is the real challenge okay? I
hope this example will give you some feel, and you will enjoy doing this problem, and enjoy the
subject stability and control. Thank you very much!
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 34
Handling Qualities: Maneuvering Flight
We are continuing with stick force and if you see.

So far, we have derived expression FS equal to K half RHO V square, into A plus CH Delta T
(𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) into Delta T (𝛿𝑡 ) so, and then minus KW by S CH Delta by CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ), this is
𝑡
also CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) DCM by DCL free (𝑑𝐶𝑚 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿 )𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 right, please understand one thing
whatever derivation we have done, you should do once and you need to focus on something very
important after you do all those juggleries we got stick force expression like this. So, you focus
here many times you might have seen.
𝐹𝑆 = 𝐾 ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) [𝐴 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝛿𝑡 ] − 𝐾 ( ) ( )
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I write CH Delta, I may write Ch Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) so, this are similar thing same thing's, actually
some time I forgot to write Delta E or some time may be write in deliquiate Delta This are all this
this is what is CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) or CH Delta (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) , this is the hinge elevator hinge moment
derivative right. You know that CH Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ), CH Delta or CH Delta E are same thing now
come back to this expression.
What does this expression tells you? It tells you the stick force applied or pilot require to apply the
stick force will vary with dynamic pressure, and the first term we will only, we bothered about the
speed, that is the stick force will be depending on the speed or dynamic pressure, and that
contribution comes only from the first term, if you see interestingly the second term it is
independent of V right.
So, stick force contribution towards changing with V comes from the first term, from the first term
and not from the stability characteristics. This is something surprising right. So, we meet to again
ask our self a question whenever we talking about stick force, what we are doing actually we
should know this very clearly, I am applying the stick force to change the trim of the airplane from
one equilibrium to another equilibrium, or one trim to another trim.
That is if I have Cm and CL here, I was flying here I want to go from one trim to another trim 2
okay. So, for me the force requirement, or the slope of force with speed or the gradient of the
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respective speed, as far as force is concerned I should be more bothered about the trim only, And
common sense says, if airplane his highly stable, highly statically stable then this gradient will be
large, right because it will always resist. So, now to get that understanding explicit, we need to
study the case at trim right, Okay.
That is why we will now go for dFS by dV, will try to find out at V trim how does it function, how
does it vary it clear? If you take dFS by dV here we will get only this term, this 2 will come here,
for example if I do it here, I will get dFS by dV, as K RHO V into A plus CH Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) into
𝑡
Delta T. that's all this term will not contribute.
So what is that I will get? Let we write clean dFS by dV will be equal to K RHO V A plus CH
Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) into Delta T (𝛿𝑡 ) right? that's why I was telling if this gradient does not bring the
𝑡
insight it terms of stability, which comes through dCm by dCL free, it does not come directly, you
cannot see immediately of something is happening here. So we will do a trick, since we know that
all this dFS by dV we talking about a trim, so we will analyze DFS by DV at V trim okay. Let us
see what happens.
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So, I write the statement like this suppose, it is required that let me write this, that the trim tab
always be deflected to trim, trim out the airplane this is the language pilot will be using, remember
he is the most important person for us right. And this are language you see the pilot will say I have
trim out the airplane, that means it's hands off, FS equal to zero no stick force is required, you can
fly like this and this job is done by Delta T all the time okay? and you know how it is done?
The mechanism we have already discussed suppose the elevator has to be kept at this angle for
trimming at the particular CL, and you want doing it by pulling the stick, you are trimming at lower
speed. The lower speed so the elevator go up, but then has long as you hold the stick okay? This
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gentleman will be like this, the moment will release the stick because a reversible system, then
elevator will also try to go back, so how to hold it without applying the stick force?
Let’s put a trim at this tab and this tab will generate a hinge moment, and which will. Ensure that
this is kept at this position so, in a language we say assume that, Delta T (𝛿𝑡 ) is rolled so, that trim
is achieved okay, Correct. So, that is what language is trim tab, so that FS is zero which is trim or
in pilot's language it is trim out the airplane. It’s I have trim out the airplane okay, now with this
understanding let us see how to formulate so, using these equations will try to find out what is CH
Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) into Delta T (𝛿𝑡 ), to ensure that FS equal to zero.

𝑡
Take this is the statement that always be deflected to trim right? So always Delta T is deflected
such that FS is zero, I want to know what is this contribution. so from here if I put FS equal to zero
then I get K half RHO V square into A plus CH Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) into Delta T (𝛿𝑡 ) minus K W by
𝑡
S CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) by CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) into DCM by DCL free. If I do this I get CH Delta
T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) into Delta T (𝛿𝑡 ) you should do this simple derivation will be 2 W by S okay? By RHO
𝑡
V trim square right.

0 = 𝐾 ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) [𝐴 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝛿𝑡 ] − 𝐾 ( ) ( )
Now all is happening this V is becoming once FS is zero V is nothing but V trim. So this will be
RHO V trim square CH Delta by CM or Delta E CM Delta E DCM by DCL free right minus A is
here okay? And know the expression for A so what is this? Let us have interpretation what is the
interpretation of this.
2𝑊⁄𝑆 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝛿𝑡 = 2 ( ) −𝐴
𝑡 𝜌𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
For a given stick free stability, given hinge moment coefficient given elevator control power for a
given wing loading, and at a V trim I need to deflect Delta T such that CH Delta T into Delta T is
equal to this. Then it will be trim FS will be zero, no stick force is required so we are flying using
a trim tab okay. Now what I do this CH Delta T into Delta T I substitute here correct. Then what I
will get? If I substitute in this expression then I will get FS equal to so please derive yourself.
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FS will be equal to KW by S CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) by CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) into DCM by DCL free
into V square by V trim square minus 1. You may get a confusion that, we have put FS equal to
zero from there we have got CH Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) into Delta T (𝛿𝑡 ) so, if I put it here then it should
𝑡
be become zero, no if I put it here this FS will become zero only 1 V equal to V trim is it clear? I
repeat you may get a confusion that FS equal to zero, I have put here from there I have got CH
Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) into Delta T.

𝑡
𝑊 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝑉2
𝐹𝑆 = 𝐾 ( ) ( ) [ 2 − 1]
𝑆 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
Now this gentleman I am putting it here, so FS should become equal to zero answer is no, this I
have got at V trim but I am talking about in general V, that is why once you substitute that you get
expression like this is it clear? Everybody okay, or should I do it, no I will not do it, you can do
Yourself just put this expression here, and you will get this expression and if you are finding it
difficult, which you should not write in the forum will give the detail derivations but,
I will be disappointed if you cannot do one or two such derivation, right? I am sure you are smarter
than me we will be able to do it. So this is FS now what is dFS by dV at V trim that is our question
we are looking for, so you could see first if I find dFS by dV, so that's KW by S CH Delta E by
CM Delta E DCM by DCL free, and here I will get 2 V by V trim square, I know that I am
evaluating dFS by dV at V trim.
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𝑑𝐹𝑆 𝑊 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝑚 2𝑉
| =𝐾 ( ) ( ) [ 2 ]
𝑑𝑉 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝑆 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
So I will put here also V equal to V trim (𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ), so if I put here V equal to V Trim then V trim
and V trim square 1 V trim will be there, and you will get the expression dFS by dV at V trim equal
to which I am going to write now.
So, at V equal to V trim we will get dFS by dV at V trim will be equal to K W by S, CH Delta E
(𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) by CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) DCM by DCL free into 1 by V trim or I put 2 here, this is the
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expression so, what is the physical interpretation of this. If I want to find out this gradient, then I
know that for a lightly loaded airplane that is whose wing loading is less like gliders and all, dFS
by dV also will go down okay. Also you know that.
𝑑𝐹𝑆 𝑊 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝑚 1
| = 2𝐾 ( ) ( ) [ ]
𝑑𝑉 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝑆 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
It varies for other constant it varies inversely with V trim, if you are trying at to trim lowest speed
dFS by dV will be larger okay. Also you could see if we make so, I let me write down this dFS by
dV at V trim okay. Will be proportional to W by S very important parameter wing loading, also I
see dFS by dV at V trim is proportional to or inversely proportional to V trim, that is if I am trying
to lower speed DFS by DV will be more.
𝑑𝐹𝑆 𝑊 𝑑𝐹𝑆 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝑑𝐹𝑆 1
| ~ ; | ~( ) ; | ~
𝑑𝑉 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝑆 𝑑𝑉 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑉 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
Of course, inversely and also another see which we are looking for dFS by dV at V trim is
proportional to DCM by DCL free, so you could see that, if I take CG forward then dFS by dV it
slope will gradient will increase. More stick free stable more the dFS by dV okay. So this are the
understanding from this expression, now if I just plot it the FS required by the pilot so if I see
before I plot K I know is negative, this is positive this is negative this is negative so this becomes
positive. This is negative so total this dFS by dV at V trim, sign is positive.
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But we have seen that we have taken push force as positive, while plotting we are putting it here
pull, which is negative and push here positive, so you see this will be something like this, V trim
speed. And at trim this is V trim what is this say, if you want to increase V trim from here to here,
we have to apply a push force so consistent, so push force i am increasing the V from V trim, V
trim 1 to V trim 2 or V trim 2 is more than V trim 1, I am increasing the speed for trim.
I am talking only about trim not transients please understand, similarly if I try to trim the airplane
at the speed lower than this V trim, let’s say here it says i have to pull it. Which is also consistent
and to reduce pull, you got to increase push, now what is happening here? if I come back here, if
I want to increase the trim speed or trim at a higher speed, remember these are all unaccelerated
flight this you should not forget, that is lift equal to weight.
What we are trying to do? And lift you know what, lift equal to half rho v square SCL that is equal
to weight.
1
𝐿= 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆 𝐶𝐿
2
Now if you want to trim at a higher speed, you are pushing it, you are pushing here that means you
need a push force, as per this diagram and the push force will do what? As I push elevator should
go up or go down? Check from here if I am increasing the speed, to maintain the lift to ensure it is
equal to weight CL has to go down, so if I push,
Elevator should go down, so that angle of attack is reduced, if I want to pull say it elevator should
go up, so these are all linked, okay that is why I say when I am pushing elevator goes down, when
I am pulling elevator goes up, all these things get connected, one thing you understand suppose
you are at a V trim here, and you have applied a pull force now you have Trimmed the airplane at
this V trim, and now release the stick, because it is reversible you will find it will try to come to
back to this trim.
That is where your stability and respective speed comes, and you could see that if the slope is very
large, larger the slope then external disturbance will not be able to alter the V trim; it will take
larger dFS by dV whether pull or push okay. But there is a limit how much gradient a pilot can
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handle, so that decides the handling qualities of an airplane okay. This part is extremely important
and you must understand this carefully okay thank you.
Let us now thing think what we have done, we have calculated FS, we have calculated dFS by dV
at V trim, and sometime back we also calculated what is the Delta E required for particular CL
trim, right okay, and from here we realize one thing, from this concept that there is a CG location
at which aircraft become statically neutrally stable okay, so from there we have defined neutral
̅0 ), then we have done maneuvering flight and there we have defined.
point (𝑁
̅𝑚 ) these are all stick fixed, right these are all stick fixed, that is we have
NM maneuvering point (𝑁
not allowed the elevator to float, then we have also calculated what is Delta E required, for
maneuver, from there only we got maneuvering point, we have also computed some expression
like, dDelta E by dn (𝑑𝛿𝑒 ⁄𝑑𝑛 ) and we try to interpret this as elevator per G okay, elevator angle
per G requirement right, which comes that is exactly we used.
We told that the CG location at which D Delta by DN zero is allowing maneuvering point stick
fixed, if you see in similar way we want to find out dFS by dn (𝑑𝐹𝑆 ⁄𝑑𝑛 ) , this gradient this is
extremely important gradient, this is what pilot will be feeling right, and also we like to know what
about stick free neutral point, which we have already derived expression to find out, what is the
stick free neutral point, so our aim now will be to develop an expression for dFS by dn (𝑑𝐹𝑆 ⁄𝑑𝑛 ).
477
We have already developed expression for D Delta E by DN (𝑑𝛿𝑒 ⁄𝑑𝑛 ), through which we define
something called maneuvering point, and which is what is the maneuvering point? it is that CG
location, at which D Delta E by DN (𝑑𝛿𝑒 ⁄𝑑𝑛 ) equal to zero. That is beyond that you won’t be able
to really accelerate the airplane, G then it is its going to have a structural failure okay, so what we
have Calculated there is maneuvering point, using D Delta E by DN (𝑑𝛿𝑒 ⁄𝑑𝑛 ) expression we put
D Delta E by DN (𝑑𝛿𝑒 ⁄𝑑𝑛 )equal to zero.
And found out what is that XCG location at which D Delta E by DN (𝑑𝛿𝑒 ⁄𝑑𝑛 )was zero, and that
is the maneuvering point. Similarly we will now try to find out dFS by dn (𝑑𝐹𝑆 ⁄𝑑𝑛 ), and we will
try to find out stick free maneuvering point, which is called a stick free maneuvering point. Like
this was called a stick free neutral point. And what was this? Its stick fixed neutral point and this
is stick fixed maneuvering point, when you talk about stick fixed, we are talking about Delta E.
And N Delta E and CL, when you are talking about stick free, we are talking about stick force, N
and stick force and CL we will see it how we build it out. Then also we will try to have a lecture
on, how to find various neutral point through flight test okay.
Let us focus on dFS by dn (𝑑𝐹𝑆 ⁄𝑑𝑛 ), so the title will be stick force per G, for stick fixed case it
was elevator deflection per ‘g’ okay, so now let us write first this big expression, FS is minus G Se
Ce half rho V square into eta T. And you are expert now CH0 (𝐶ℎ0 ) plus CH Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) into
478
Alpha T (𝛼𝑡 ) plus CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) into Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ) , plus CH Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) into Delta T (𝛿𝑡 )
𝑡
that this is general expression where CH Alpha T(𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) and CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) are the hinge
moment coefficient which are negative for most of the cases because hinge line is ahead of the
center pressure over the elevator and CH Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) is also negative and Delta T (𝛿𝑡 ) is the
tab deflection okay.

1
𝐹𝑠 = −𝐺 𝑆𝑒 𝐶𝑒 ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝜂𝑡 [𝐶ℎ0 + 𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 𝛼𝑡 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝛿𝑡 ]
2 𝑡
This all we know by now what is our aim? Our aim is stick force per G that we are talking about
maneuver what sort of Maneuver we have discussed one was pull up and another was turn okay.
And we know that
if I see this diagram if this is airplane is going for a pitch up ‘q’ or pitch rate ‘q’ radians per second
and if this is the AC of the tail and this length is ‘lt’ (𝑙𝑡 ) by convention we all agree this is the tail
moment arm horizontal tail moment arm then you know that because of this there will be a relative
air velocity at AC.
Which is resultant type let see at AC we are taking this this will be qlt and that angle of attack at
tail additional because of q as it is going down if this airplane going down it is tail it's going down
so, this is the qlt relative air velocity and moving forward should Delta Alpha T (Δ𝛼𝑡 ) will be qlt
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by V approximate and then you need to understand one thing that means the tail plane because of
a pitch rate maneuver we will see additional angle qlt by V which will give and nose down moment
right.
𝑞𝑙𝑡
Δ𝛼𝑡 ≅ ( )
𝑉
And that is why we have to give a different elevator deflect that we have done already in stick
fixed case but there is a difference please understand what I am trying to tell you this tail plane
angle of attack is increased by this only tail plane we are not multiplying 1.1 here when we are
doing correcting for Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ) they are we have multiplied 1.1 I will explain that has we
progress as okay.
So, what is happening now? Alpha T (𝛼𝑡 ) I will write has Alpha0 (𝛼0 ) remember this was CL by
CL Alpha wing into one minus D epsilon by D Alpha (𝑑𝜖 ⁄𝑑𝛼 ) minus Iw (𝑖𝑤 ) plus It (𝑖𝑡 ) right?
This was for level acceleration that is level flight okay? Now we are talking about maneuvering
flight so, let me write here maneuvering flight during maneuver what you know L equal to nW so,
CL equal to nW by half RHO V square S when it was level flight that term, we replace CL by W
by half RHO V square S.
𝐶𝐿 𝜕𝜖
𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼0 + (1 − ) − 𝑖𝑤 + 𝑖𝑡
𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝜕𝛼
𝑛𝑊
𝐶𝐿 =
1 2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆
But it's maneuvering flight so, load factor is more than 1 so, I have to replace CL by nW by half
RHO V square S so, what this expression will turn out to be now Alpha T 𝛼𝑡 equal to Alpha0 𝛼0
plus nW by half RHO V square is divided by CL Alpha wing (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 ) into 1 minus D epsilon by D
Alpha (𝑑𝜖 ⁄𝑑𝛼) minus Iw plus It if you listen to my explanation you should be able to do all this
steps at ease okay?
𝑛𝑊
1 2
𝜌𝑉 𝑆 𝜕𝜖
𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼0 + 2 (1 − ) − 𝑖𝑤 + 𝑖𝑡
𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝜕𝛼
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What we are discussing here we are discussing here maneuvering flight we are trying to find out
our model FS for a maneuvering flight and we have this expression okay. Here Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ) is
sitting here what is Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ) for maneuvering flight what is that maneuver I am talking about
we have already done.
For a pull up we know ‘q’ is nothing but g by V, ‘n’ minus 1 okay. I will take the case of pull up
and I will write the general solution for turn which you are supposed to do, either you do it yourself
or we’ll do it through assignments. We will consider pull up case where q is g by V, n minus 1
what is the meaning of that if I want to generate at this much of load factor ‘n’ at a speed V then
the ‘q’ the pitch rate should be given by this relationship and then what we said because of this ‘q’
I have to be careful I have to ensure that elevator is corrected dCM by dCL fixed and minus 1.1 g
Lt by tau V square into n minus 1.
2𝑛𝑊 ⁄𝑆 𝜕𝐶𝑚 1.1𝑔𝑙𝑡
𝛿𝑒 = 𝛿𝑒0 − ( ) − (𝑛 − 1)
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐶𝑚𝛿 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝐹𝑖𝑥 𝜏𝑉 2
We have already developed this in earlier lecturer you have seen this a Delta E require for a pull
up value maneuver okay. I was mentioning please take here when I am trying to see what is the
Alpha T(𝛼𝑡 ) seen here I am very very clear that when I am talking about Alpha T and this is the
Alpha0 (𝛼0 ) plus this is this is this, CL is nW this but because of ‘q’ there is in increment in Alpha
T and that Alpha T, Delta Alpha T was q Lt by V no 1.1 factor is put here as per as tail angle of
attack is concerned.
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𝑞𝑙𝑡
Δ𝛼 =
𝑉
This 1.1 came here because we are taking about the damping effect because of the portion ahead
of the wing quarter chord right. What actually happen you see as I am going like this there is an
increment in angle of attack here so, it gives stability, so as it portion goes up, this front portion
so, there is a relative air like this so, they also try to discourage, give nose down moment so, they
also add to some sort of stability and we have to take care, take care of that reflected by elevator.
That is the ten percent increment was there to counter the fuselage effect right. From Delta E
perspective but as per Alpha tail is concerned it is only increased by this much value where ‘q’ has
to be put equivalent to ‘q’ pull up or ‘q’ turn we are considering a case ‘q’ pull up, so what is the
understanding this Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ) which is there with ten percent increase because of fuselage effect
this Delta E will come here but when you come to Alpha T (𝛼𝑡 ) what’s should be the Alpha T
expression let us write it.
𝐶𝐿 𝜕𝜖
𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼0 + (1 − ) − 𝑖𝑤 − 𝑖𝑡
𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑊 𝜕𝛼
This was Alpha T (𝛼𝑡 ) for ‘n’ equal to 1 it was like this so for with load factor ‘n’ CL replace by
this this minus IW by IT what will happen what I have to add I have to add this Delta Alpha right.
Because that is the amount by which tail angle of attack is changing so, I will add this is as ‘q’ Lt
by V so please be careful we should be very very clear what we are doing here at this point I need
to know what is the Delta E for maneuver.
1
𝑛𝑊 ⁄(2 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆) 𝜕𝜖 𝑞𝑙𝑡
𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼0 + (1 − ) − 𝑖𝑤 + 𝑖𝑡 +
𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑤 𝜕𝛼 𝑉
We have already done if it is doing a maneuver with load factor ‘n’ let’s say for a pull up case
Delta E required is this we have already done in your earlier classes now because of this ‘q’ there
is a change in the tail angle of attack by an amount this so, I have to put the value of ‘q’ also so,
that Alpha T (𝛼𝑡 ) I will put substitute here so, what I will do let me clarify we trying to find out
what will be the Alpha T (𝛼𝑡 ) we know for ‘n’ equal to 1, Alpha T is given by this we have
already derived this.
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What is happening if airplane is doing a pull up with ‘q’ and you know ‘q’ for pull up is given by
g by V, ‘n’ minus 1 so, what will be the Delta Alpha here Delta Alpha tail will be ‘q’ Lt by V
where from here to here this is Lt that is from AC of the tail to CG is Lt ‘q’ Lt by V typically, this
is already we have done that so, now tail angle of attack has to be modified by this factor so I will
add one is ‘q’ Lt by V this is coming from pull up what more?
𝐶𝐿 𝜕𝜖 𝑞𝑙𝑡
𝛼𝑡 = 𝛼0 + (1 − ) − 𝑖𝑤 − 𝑖𝑡 +
𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑊 𝜕𝛼 𝑉
See here it is CL what will be CL now for maneuver you know L equal to nW so, CL will be equal
to nW by half RHO V square S so, this change is will come in Alpha tail notice that we have not
multiplied by 1.1, 1.1 multiplication are required for Delta E expression because there some
damping was coming from fuselage also but here, we only solely talking about change in angle of
attack at tail okay.
If this is the expression for Alpha T Delta E zero already Delta E expression already, we have
understood Alpha T have to put it here put this whole expression here but remember what we have
to do I have to replace this ‘q’ by what ‘q’ you have to write as ‘g’ by V, n minus 1 so, what are
the steps you take this value of Q put it here L for L you put nW by half RHO V square S take this
whole.
𝑛𝑊 𝑔
𝐿 = 𝑛𝑊 ∶ 𝐶𝐿 = ;𝑞 = (𝑛 − 1)
1 2 𝑉
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆
Alpha T put in this expression so, two things we have done we have put elaborate expression
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For Delta E which takes care of the pull up and Alpha T which also takes care of pull up these two
things we have to put in the FS expression clear. So, now once you put that what happens.
Once you put that what happens once you put you will get the expression like this FS equal to
minus ‘G’ etaT CE SE half RHO V square CH0 plus CH Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) into Alpha0 plus Ch Delta
𝑡
T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) into IT minus CH Alpha (𝐶ℎ𝛼 ) into IW plus Ch Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) into Delta E0 (𝛿𝑒0 ) plus
𝑡
CH Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) into Delta T minus 2 nW by S RHO V square Cm Delta (𝐶𝑚𝛿 ) into CH Delta
𝑡
(𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) dCM by dCL free (𝜕𝐶𝑚 ⁄𝜕𝐶𝐿 ) plus 1.1 g LT by V square Into n minus 1 in bracket it is CH
Alpha (𝐶ℎ𝛼 ) minus 1.1, minus CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) by Tau this will be the expression. This is very
mechanical
1
𝐹𝑆 = −𝐺𝜂𝑡 𝐶𝑒 𝑆𝑒 ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) [𝐶ℎ0 + 𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 𝛼0 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝑖𝑡 − 𝐶ℎ𝛼 𝑖𝑤 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒0 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝛿𝑡
2 𝑡 𝑡
2𝑛𝑊 ⁄𝑆 𝜕𝐶𝑚 1.1𝑔𝑙𝑡 1.1𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒

− 𝐶ℎ ( ) + (𝑛 − 1) {𝐶ℎ − }]
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐶𝑚𝛿 𝛿 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑉2 𝛼
𝜏
As I told you if you put those expression for Delta E and Alpha T, here then you can manage this
nothing to really get worried about it, so once we have this expression now we do a trick. We are
again trying to come back to a trim condition, which I call trim means when the FS in zero. Now
we want to use the definition of Trim at ‘n’ equal to 1, when lift equal to weight, so what we do
we say.
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If trim tab is set for zero stick force, that is FS equal to zero V trim at ‘n’ equal to 1 why this is
important, how do I do pull up? I am at trim lift equal to weight now I am doing a pull up okay so
I am assuming that, when I have trimmed the airplane. At level flight the stick force is zero, and
which corresponds to ‘n’ equal to one, from there I am going for ‘n’ greater than 1 or ‘n’ other
than 1, and we are trying to find out what is the dFS by dn.
It also says we want to find out dFS by dn about the trim, and trim for this case is lift equal to
weight clear. Now if you put this condition if trim tab is set for zero stick force, that is trim at ‘n’
equal to one, I repeat because how we are doing the pull up. Your trim is at lift equal to weight ‘n’
equal to one, right? And from there you are doing the pull up. I am trying to find out dFS by dn
which is at the trim at ‘n’ equal to one. Trim means lift equal to weight from there I am doing the
pull up, so I am trying to find out dFS by dn about the trim, we are not changing from the trim
okay.
485
So, I can always write to find that condition FS equal to zero, and ‘n’ equal to one that is at trim I
will put zero equal to minus G. etaT CE let me write this because it is very lengthy term, you do
not get mixed up Alpha0, plus CH Alpha into IT minus CH Alpha into IW Alpha tail then plus CH
Delta E into Delta E0 plus CH Delta T into delta T minus 2 W by S Rho V trim square okay? This
is important CM Delta dCM by dCL free plus G Lt by V trim square ‘n’ minus 1 into CH Alpha
minus 1.1 CH Delta by tau bracket to be closed okay.
𝐹𝑆 = 0; 𝑛 = 1
1
0 = −𝐺𝜂𝑡 𝐶𝑒 𝑆𝑒 ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) [𝐶ℎ0 + 𝐶ℎ𝛼 𝛼0 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝑖𝑡 − 𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 𝑖𝑤 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒0 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝛿𝑡
2 𝑡 𝑡
2𝑊 ⁄𝑆 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝑔𝑙𝑡 1.1𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒

− 𝐶ℎ ( ) + 2
(𝑛 − 1) {𝐶ℎ − }]
𝜌𝑉 2 𝐶𝑚𝛿 𝛿 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝛼
𝜏
Now see here if I put ‘n’ equal to one then you will see that this whole will correspond to a case
where at level acceleration same term will come here right? That is that shows that we are in right
direction that is stick force for level unaccelerated slide when I put ‘n’ equal to one those term
goes to zero and if you check that, exactly that FS expression will develop for level flight
unaccelerated which is cruise flight you can check yourself.
Okay if I put this equal to zero now what I have to do from here I can find out this plus this plus
this plus this plus this all of these right? That will be equal to this term right? Divided by this term
because as zero so, I take this term towards right hand side and I divide the right-hand side term
486
by this then I will get this whole expression and the whole expression in actual stick force
expression will replace them by this expression okay. That is what I am try to do please see if this
equal to zero.
Then I can write CH0 plus CH Alpha (𝐶ℎ𝛼 ) Alpha0 plus dot, dot, dot CH Delta T(𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) into Delta
𝑡
T this term whole this term will be equal to 2 W by S by Rho V trim square CM Delta (𝐶𝑚𝛿 ) right.
This whole divided by this term okay, Clear. So, by doing this manipulation let us see finally after
all this thing what do we get, there are too many expressions let us see what do we get and what
sort of physics we are going to attribute to that.
487
We will get interesting expression FS equal to minus G eta T SE CE W by S CM Delta E CH Delta
E and dCM by dCL free into V square by V trim square minus ‘n’ of course it is not end of story
minus G NT SE CE G Lt Rho by 2, ‘n’ minus 1 into CH Alpha minus1.1 CH Delta by tau huge
expression will get now what do so if I try to find out dFS by dn I have to differentiate this.
𝐺𝜂𝑡 𝑆𝑒 𝐶𝑒 (𝑊 ⁄𝑆) 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝑉2 𝐺𝜂𝑡 𝑆𝑒 𝐶𝑒 𝑔𝑙𝑡 𝜌 1.1𝐶ℎ𝛿
𝐹𝑆 = − 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ( ) [ 2 − 𝑛] − (𝑛 − 1) [𝐶ℎ𝛼 − ]
𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 2 𝜏
So, I will get an expression dFS by dn for a pull up will be equal to G eta T SE CE W by S CH Delta
E by CM Delta E and dCM by dCL free then minus G NT SE CE G LT Rho by 2 CH Alpha minus
1.1, CH Delta E by tau this will be the expression for dFS by dn and this is dCM by dCL free what
̅𝑚
is our aim? Our aim is to find NM prime (𝑁 ′ )
that is what is that CG location.
𝑑𝐹𝑆 𝐺𝑛𝑡 𝑆𝑒 𝐶𝑒 (𝑊 ⁄𝑆)𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝜌 1.1𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒
( ) = ( ) − 𝐺𝑛𝑡 𝑆𝑒 𝐶𝑒 𝑔𝑙𝑡 (𝐶ℎ𝛼 − )
𝑑𝑛 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑝 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 2 𝜏
What is that CG location? At which dFS by dn is zero so, I put zero here and I know dCM by dCL
is XCG bar minus N0 prime so, dFS by dn if I put it zero this XCG becomes NM prime is this clear.
dFS by dn now focus on this expression, okay? dFS by dn is coming like this for dCM by dCL free
is here and dCM by dCL free you know XCG minus N0 prime.
𝜕𝐶𝑚
( ) = 𝑋̅𝐶𝐺 − 𝑁
̅0′
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
And if I want to find stick free maneuvering point which is NM prime what I have to do is put dFS
by dn equal to zero and whatever expression for XCG you get that is nothing but NM prime because
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that is the CG location at which dFS by dn is zero so, if I put that zero so I put dFS by dn equal to
zero then I Get expression for maneuvering point stick free as N0 prime plus CM Delta by W by
S CH Delta into Rho by 2 G Lt CH Alpha minus 1.1CH Delta by tau erase this.
𝐶𝑚𝛿 𝜌 1.1𝐶ℎ𝛿
̅𝑚
𝑁 ′ ̅0′ +
=𝑁 [ 𝑔𝑙𝑡 (𝐶ℎ𝛼 − )]
(𝑊 ⁄𝑆)𝐶ℎ𝛿 2 𝜏
Or in a neater form if you want this expression further write in a neater form this is equal to N0
prime plus CM Delta by W by S into CH Delta Rho by 2 G Lt CH Alpha minus 1.1CS Delta by
tau now if I ask you a question. If this is stick free neutral point so NM prime will be here or NM
prime will be here if I am measuring from this case one obvious way of answering this question is
during maneuver this aircraft become more stable so NM prime should be somewhere here more
stable so, you can travel CG more and now if check on this expression you see this is negative this
is negative so negative negative positive.
If I ask which way N0, NM prime would be with respect to N0 prime you know, this is a
maneuvering stick free neutral point so, by our own understanding should be aft of N0 prime if
you see the expression this is negative this is negative and here between CH Alpha and this term
this will dominate and there will be minus sign here so overall this term will become greater than
zero so NM will be more than N0 prime and this should be somewhere here again see this by
understanding since it is maneuvering.
So it will be more stable so, whatever stick free neutral point was here because of maneuvering
the stick free maneuvering point will be aft of stick free neutral point and that you could see from
here this is negative this sign is negative this become positive and the sign is decided by this sign
of sign of this generally this factor is more than this factor and this minus sign dominates here that
becomes that makes it positive so most cases you’ll find NM prime will be aft of N0 prime.
One advise to all of you all these expressions you go through once or get the final expression
understand what I am telling you that's more than important right? You should not get lost into big
big expressions, they are simple expression to derive and you derive once derive once only
remember the final thing I would not expect any memory I do not want you to remember this
formula all these big big thing no no question as a flight mechanics man these are available to you.
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You need to know physical interpretation for these so that you can utilize it for design purposes
right. I do not want to waste your time in memorizing all those big big expressions so feel relaxed
only my request is sit with a pen and pencil and derive this expression the way I told you okay.
Thank you very much will finally conclude this section by telling you how to calculate neutral
point maneuvering point using flight data or through flight test okay.
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Prof: A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 35
Determination of Neutral point and Maneuvering Point
Yeah, dear friend, by now you must be tried of writing so many expressions, let us come back do
some experiment and try to prepare our self for some experiment. And what you will discuss in
this lecture is.
How to determine number 1 stick fixed neutral point, number 2 it is stick fixed neutral point, stick
free neutral point, then stick fixed maneuvering point and 4th is stick free. It is important because
so many expressions, so many assumptions were there right. Is fine, this expressions tells you so
or give you some physical interpretation, sometime you have to put lot of effort in getting all those
expression managed right?
CH Alpha (𝐶ℎ𝛼 ), CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) Tau (𝜏) so many varieties of symbols, but best way to see
what is simple in life is do an experiment, and try to find out.

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Experimently can I find out, stick fixed neutral point, stick free neutral point, stick fixed
maneuvering point and a stick free maneuvering point if you do that whole world will be assured.
That whatever, you have generated or whatever physics of the situation if they collaborate
everybody is happy right. All those pain of writing big big expression goes, so I am working in
flight laboratory, I have an aircraft so whatever expression you give me my patience will be to that
point, till that time.
I can write on the black board but my satisfaction would be, when I fly the machine conduct an
experiment, find out those parameters and check what theory is telling. How closed they are, right,
If you plan their experiment correctly we’ll find this theory and experiment they go hand in and
together. If you not able to plan it properly lot of confusion come, and then somebody will say
what is in theory doesn’t work in practice, and all those logic are put, these are all rubbish.
Theory gives you the basis and you should smartly design that experiment, knowing the limitation
and then always most of the time will get good result right. So we will now plan for how to find
out stick fixed neutral point, how do I develop the physics behind it? Remember we know that
Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ) equal to Delta E0 (𝛿𝑒0 ), plus D Delta E by DCL (𝑑𝛿𝑒 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿 ) into CL trim (𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 )
and we know D Delta E by DCL trim is given by minus static margin DCM by DCL by CM Delta
E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) approximately.
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𝑑𝛿𝑒
𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝑑𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿
=−
So, what is neutral point stick fixed? It is that CG location at which DCM by DCL is zero, that is
neutral point stick fixed. So if I now translate this understanding here, since at neutral point DCM
by DCL will be zero, DCM by DCL will be zero, So I can say neutral point is that CG location at
which approximately D Delta E by DCL trim equal to zero. Why we say approximately because
this expression is approximate, remember we neglect a few terms, so now from experimental point
of view it is extremely important.
So, what are the approximations you are doing right. So, what is the message now? if I want to
estimate neutral point, I know neutral point is the CG location at which DCM by DCL is zero, so
I also know D Delta E by DCL trim is given by this, so I translate that definition approximately
here, when I say neutral point is that CG location at which because this man is zero DCM by DCL
is zero. So, I say CG location at which D Delta E by DCL trim (𝑑𝛿𝑒 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ) is zero, this concept
I use for measuring neutral point stick fixed.
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So, let me write that now I have to conduct an experiment what I do, I take an airplane I take 3
passengers, and I take the weight, in weighing balance in the hanger, and I estimate calculate the
CG of the airplane with passenger on, Let say that is CG 1, So what is CG 1? If this is the airplane
passenger are sitting here, and Pilot is here so this is the CG 1. Then I go for a cruise, cruise means
I go to an altitude and I maintain unaccelerated flight.
So, I note down what is the altitude, and note down what is the outside air temperature, and I note
down what is the V, I am cruising with, I am cruising at V right, Immediately I should able to
measure what is the elevator deflection given. How do I measure elevator deflection? A aircraft
are instrumented like that experimental aircraft. So, this is the elevator part and as it rotates it
rotates a potential meter okay, so this is the potential meter shaft, as this elevator rotates.
Potential meter also rotates this gives you voltage, and that you can calibrate and get the deflections
right, so we assume that Delta E is also measured, and I do this experiment for different different
trim, what is this V, at is V, I am maintaining lift equal to weight. So 1 trim, at this speed I am
maintaining lift equal to weight, another trim so 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 trim, I get. And for that I get different,
different Delta E.
Then what I do, I convert V to CL, which should be equal to 2 W by S by rho V square, I can
measure the weight of the airplane I take the weight of the airplane and the ground, passenger and
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then I know what is the fuel consumption. I take a stopwatch how much time is consumed, I
subtract that much of fuel, I get the weight, average weight, so I can easily calculate the CL so
what I do, I plug Delta E VS CL trim.
2𝑊 ⁄𝑆
𝐶𝐿 = √
𝜌𝑉 2
So, I will be getting some graph like this, so 5 points I have taken why should be negative slope?
you know that D Delta E by DCL sign will be this is negative this is negative, so positive and this
is minus sign is negative so you will get 5 points say 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 point join them and mark it, this
is for CG 1 now, what you do you come back and take different passengers now what you do, you
put some passenger two here, one here, or may be one here.
Like different weight so that you have a different CG, and again you go to altitude measure the
altitude take outside temperature, and when you are cruising at different different V, You measure
the Delta E and elevator deflection, calculate CL again you plot this, like that this CG 2, you will
get CG 3, you will get CG 4, you can go on doing this experiment with different different people,
different different CG location, so this data i have generated now what we have to do. You have
to find the CG location for which D Delta E by DCL trim is zero,
So what is the way? you take each graph, take their slope, what is the slope will give you, this is
nothing but D Delta E by DCL trim for CG 1, similarly will have D Delta E by DCL trim for CG
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2, like this you will have D Delta E by DCL trim for CG 3, So you can have for many points say
CG 5, Clear? We are taking slope of this line that is D Delta E by DCL trim corresponding to this
CG 1.
Second graph you come D Delta E by DCL, the slope of this line and for CG 2 line this you
generate, and obviously this only all negative now you cross plot, here you put XCG, here you put
D Delta E by DCL trim, which we have extracted from this graph, and now start plotting for this
CG location, CG 1 what is the value somewhere here, somewhere here, somewhere here and draw
them by a straight line.
And this is the point is what? this is the CG location I am plotting XCG So this is the CG location
at which this is the CG location at which, D Delta E by DCL trim (𝑑𝛿𝑒 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 )is becoming
zero, CG location at which, D Delta E by DCL trim becoming zero, So this is, this CG location is
neutral point stick fixed clear so by definition, so you know how to find neutral point stick fixed
through flight data.
You have to go to an altitude, measure the altitude and outside air temperature. These are important
to get the density of air, then you cruise a different trim speed V all V2, V3, V4, V5 measure the
elevator deflection required for trimming it, convert V it to CL because for CL you need rho this
outside air temperature altitude will help, also V indicated air speed. So all this shift have done
plot Delta E VS CL trim (𝑑𝛿𝑒 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ) it come like this for different different CG location.
Take their slope cross plot D Delta E by DCL trim VS XCG okay, XCG and we extrapolate it will
get a point on the XCG axis at which D Delta E by DCL trim will be zero, and that is by definition
is the stick fixed neutral point. So, by doing this experiment you can easily find out the stick fixed
neutral point, clear.
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Now we want to find out N0 prime that is stick free neutral point. How do I find it out and what is
the physics behind it. What is my strategy behind it, I need to understand the physics then will
conduct an experiment okay, Let us see that physics part, if we recall the stick force expression
was K half rho V square, A plus CH Delta T into Delta T, minus K W by S CH Delta E by CM
Delta E into DCM by DCL free. You are familiar with the FS expression.
𝐹𝑆 = 𝐾 ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) (𝐴 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝛿𝑡 ) − 𝐾 ( )
Now we divide both side by ‘q’ so here it is FS by ‘q’, here it will become K A plus CH Delta T
(𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) into Delta T (𝛿𝑡 ), and here with K W by S by half rho V square CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) by CM
𝑡
Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) into DCM by DCL free (𝑑𝐶𝑚 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿 )𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 right. And you could see here, W by S
by half rho V square is nothing but, CL I am sure you have in touch with me, I have divided this
term also by half rho V square so, K W by S divided by half of V square CH Delta CM Delta or
bla bla are there.
𝐹𝑆 𝐾𝑊 ⁄𝑆 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝑚
= 𝐾 (𝐴 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝛿𝑡 ) − ( )
𝑞 𝑡 1 2 𝐶𝑚𝛿 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝜌𝑉 𝑒
2
This I can write as FS by Q equal to K A plus CH Delta T (𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) into Delta T, minus K CL into
𝑡
CH Delta E (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) by CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) into DCM by DCL free no issue because, for W by S
divide by half rho V square nothing but CL, now you see the trick. Trick is here, what is our aim?
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We try to find out the stick free neutral point that is what is that CG location, at which DCM by
DCL free is zero.
𝐹𝑆 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝑚
= 𝐾 (𝐴 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝛿𝑡 ) − 𝐾𝐶𝐿 ( )
𝑞 𝑡 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
What is N0 prime (𝑁0′ )? N0 prime is that CG location at which DCM by DCL free is zero, with
this and why we’re trying to do like this, if I can somehow manipulate this expression, and find an
equivalent meaning of that then I should be able to conduct an experiment which parameters which
are measurable right.
Let see what do I mean, if I now write it like dFS by q by dCL what this will become, this will
simply become minus K CH Delta E by CM Delta E into DCM by DCL free. So what is the
meaning now will see, carefully see this expression, what is our aim? We have to find out CG
location at which DCM by DCL free is zero, that means if this is zero, that means at that CG,
where DCM by DCL free is zero DFS by Q by DCL is also zero this is clear. I repeat the CG which
is stick free neutral point at which DCM by DCL is zero; this relationship tells you that mean DFS
by Q by DCL is also zero.
𝜕𝐹𝑆 ⁄𝑞 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝑚
= −𝐾 ( )
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒
498
Why we were operating with this term is please understand this FS stick force I can measure using
a strain gauge on the stick, ‘q’ I can calculate by half rho V square, CL always I can find 2 W by S
rho V square right. These are all easy to measure, I cannot measure DCM by DCL, I cannot
measure Cm at trim Cm will be zero right, so we do not use this directly but, we use the interpretation
and convert into a feasible way.
Which is equivalent and which are having terms or parameters which can be measured like here
for N0 prime, it is a CG location at DCM by DCL free zero, Which means N0 is the CG location
at which DFS by Q by DCL is zero as per the experiment is concern.
So I can write to find N0 prime, I can write it is the CG location, this is for experimental purpose
at which DFS by Q by DCL is zero, how do I do the experiment? When I am going for neutral
point experiment, I go to an altitude again note down altitude, I note down outside air temperature
because this are required measuring the density. I trim my airplane for say V1, V2 up to V5 I get I
measure FS, for every trim I measure the what is the stick force.
I have applying because my stick will be having strain gauges, which can measure the forces
through deflection, and now I convert V to CL I calculate FS by ‘q’ , What ‘q’ is what you know
that ‘q’ is half rho V square, that is why we taking outside the temperature and altitude so that I
can get density ‘V’ we are getting from air speed indicator, you need to correct it because that’s
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indicated air speed, all those things are finite detail but conceptually this is relevant to you CL also
you can calculate.
Because CL you know equal to 2 W by S by rho V square okay, so this information is given to you
now you plot, what you do you are smart now you plot, FS by ‘q’ VS CL trim, for CG you want,
that is with one configuration, may be two students we are taking and flying away, next, you take
three student and another CG that is for different different points you are getting FS by ‘q’ from
here, for V1 this is FS by q, V2 this will be like this.
Those I am plotting for the given CG location, like that three, four & five I generate okay, So I
have CG 2, CG 3, CG 4, CG 5 now simple what is our aim? What is that CG location at which dFS
by ‘q’ by dCL is zero. So what will I do? I will take slope of this line what this slope will tell me?
this is dFS by q by dCL that is the slope of which line.
So now I will plot dFS by ‘q’ by dCL and XCG location here, So for one CG location I am getting
value here second here, third here, 4th here, fifth here join them what is this point, This point is
the XCG location at which dFS by ‘q’ by dCL is zero. So this is the CG location which we are
talking about stick free neutral point, clear. dFS by q by dCL which is the slope of each of this line,
I am cross plotting them with CG.
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And then I am extrapolating it and when it comes to CG axis, this is the point where it is the CG
location at which dFS by q by dCL is zero, which is nothing but stick free neutral point that is how
I will measure Stick free neutral point clear, now the two more neutral point you need to find out
so let us finish that also.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:2zero)
Now let us find out how can I estimate maneuvering point both stick fixed and stick free. We want
to now try to find out experimentally the maneuvering point, both stick fixed and stick free, let us
first find out by definition that stick fixed maneuvering point is that CG location at which dDelta
E by dn (𝑑𝛿𝑒 ⁄𝑑𝑛 ) is zero. And stick free maneuvering point is that CG location at which dFS by
dn (𝑑𝐹𝑆 ⁄𝑑𝑛 )equal to zero, this have to definition we have aware of, we have to conduct an
experiment to find out the CG location at which dDelta E by dn is zero and at which dFS by dn is
zero.
We know very well now, I can measure elevator deflection, I can measure the stick force through
strain gauge ,What about load factor, in the theory class we have given a maneuvering flight in
terms of pull up, and also in term of bank in turn right, we will not go for a pull up we will go for
bank and turn, when I do bank and turn or turning flight then you know ‘n’ is 1 by cos Φ you have
seen, This L cos Φ equal to W.
1
𝑛=
cos 𝜙
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So if this is your airplane this is the lift. this is the phi (𝜙), if it is the W, this will be L cos 𝜙, so
If L cos 𝜙 equal to W, so L by W is equal to 1 by cos 𝜙, which you know L by W is nothing but,
n load factor so if I am banking the airplane and making a turn like this, and without losing the
altitude because, I am balancing that weight, it will try to take the altitude by L cos 𝜙 okay.
𝐿
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 = 𝑛
𝑊
So Accordingly, I can find out what is the load factor which is I am flying If I take a reading phi
(𝜙) bank angle using bank indicator, which is in the cockpit okay, For example I have bank for
thirty degrees, then n equal to 1 by COS 30, you know the value of COS 30 so you know the value
of ‘n’, so very simple Delta E you know how to measure, ‘n’ 1 by COS of phi and FS through stick
force through strain gauges, so all measurements are possible. So what do I do, I go for what I do?
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I go to an altitude and go for a turn with the bank right, and as usual I note down the altitude. And
note down the outside air temperature, and then I note down what is the V, what is the phi (𝜙),
what is the Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ), I am putting what is the FS, stick force these measurements I make clear,
and as I told you elevator we measure using a potentiometer, and stick force we measure strain
gauges, so if you can visit here we can show you.
Now I have for different different V, I have this sets of value right, For one batch I say this
corresponds to point to CG 1, I repeat this, same experiment for CG 2, CG 3 as I have been doing
for other case, So different combination clear, I take two passenger I go for a bank turn, I take
three passenger so different CG, four passenger Different CG, one passenger different CG like that
for different CG configuration I fly, and I generate this data.
Let us say this could be 10 degree bank, 15 degree, 20 degree, 30 degree, 45 degree okay, and
Measure what is Delta E required what is the V, and what is the stick force I am getting so now If
I want to calculate the neutral point stick fixed, I know it is the CG location at which d Delta E by
dn (𝑑𝛿𝑒 ⁄𝑑𝑛 ) is zero.
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So what I have to do very simple, I will again Delta E and n, I will see that for different n, whatever
I am measuring, measuring you can say that I am computing using 1 by COS phi (1⁄cos 𝜙) right.
I generate this straight line, this is for CG 1 and another set for CG 2, and another set CG 3 up to
CG 5 that is what I am doing, I am for the CG 1 combination one flight, What is the Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ),
I measured, I put it here and what is the load factor I am getting because of different bank angle,
for 10 degree some Delta E.
So for 10 degree means, 10 degree means 10 equal to 1 by COS of 10 degree, so I know the ‘n’
and what is Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ) required. Accordingly I am plotting them, for different CG, I plot this,
then what I do I again take the slope, slope and then I write, D Delta E by DN versus XCG, so this
slope I put here, so another slope, so another slope, I join them so, this is the CG location, at which
D Delta E by DN (𝑑𝛿𝑒 ⁄𝑑𝑛 ) equal to zero, so this is NM stick fixed maneuvering point clear.
Delta E, ‘n’ from 1 by COS phi, I plotted like this for different CG location, take the slope, cross
plot extrapolate you get stick fixed neutral point, for a stick free what you have to do, you should
be smart now, you know stick free maneuvering point is that CG location.
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′ )
Say NM prime (𝑁𝑚 is that CG location at which dFS by dn (𝑑𝐹𝑆 ⁄𝑑𝑛 ) equal to zero, there is no
problem in that. We have already, measured FS through our stick using the strain gauges, so I will
plot again FS versus n for different different CG location, as you have done for Delta E, then I take
the slope, I plot (𝑑𝐹𝑆 ⁄𝑑𝑛 ) versus XCG and five, six point I will get, join them and this is the CG
′ ).
location, and the CG location at which (𝑑𝐹𝑆 ⁄𝑑𝑛 ) equal to zero, so this is NM Prime ((𝑁𝑚
I repeat we have already measured FS, and ‘n’ I know so first plot FS and ‘n’ , for different CG
location, I join Them take their slopes I cross plot the slopes ,corresponding different CG location,
then I join them straight line extrapolate, cut the XCG axis here, And this is the point that CG
location at which (𝑑𝐹𝑆 ⁄𝑑𝑛 ) is zero.
So that is why definition is stick free maneuvering point, this is the simplest way of calculating N0
(𝑁0 ), N0 prime (𝑁0′ ), Nm (𝑁𝑚 ) and Nm prime (𝑁𝑚
′ ),
okay, we try to solve some examples but I
thought for completion of this part, I must also give you some flavor how do we do experiments
alright. Thank you
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 36
Point Mass Equation of Motion
After hectic section, now the time has come and when we should relax and try to see what we have
been discussing all through. So what I decided today? Let me go through quickly whatever we
have done so for.
If you see we started with definition of static stability, now when you are discussing about static
stability, we have very well understood that it is the initial tendency of the body to come back to
its equilibrium while it is disturbed from the equilibrium right. So for aircraft we were discussing
about longitudinal stability, we have discussed about lateral stability, we have discussed about or
let me write this here the sequence we have done directional first directional stability then we have
lateral Stability.
All are static stability right. Let me write here stability that makes things look better. Now ask our
self a question what was the condition for longitudinal static stability. We know that from CM vs
𝛼 graph we know that if the aircraft has to be stable at 𝛼 trim which is here, where CM is 0 then
𝑑𝐶𝑚
the condition was < 0 . Similarly for the directional stability we realized if an airplane is going
𝑑𝛼
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straight like this and because of the cross wind there is a beta (𝛽) is introduced, so the airplane
should have initial tendency to nullify that, so it will turn the airplane by generating Yawing
moment positive.
So we said 𝐶𝑛𝛽 greater than zero (𝐶𝑛𝛽 > 0) And for lateral stability what you understood was the
airplane is going like this because, of some disturbance it has banked like this, so if it is laterally
statically stable it should generate a moment which will it produce a negative disturbance is like
this should generate negative 𝐶𝑙 , negative rolling moment right. And how that mechanism was
generated or how this mechanism works. It is as the airplane banks it starts side slipping.
And when it side slips when the vertical tail, primary that gives the rolling moments, offcourse
you can get it from the wing also little bit. So the condition was for a positive 𝛽 it should generate
negative rolling moment. That is if there is a bank like this it induces positive 𝛽, and if it has to
come back, then it’s to generate negative 𝐶𝑙 , because 𝐶𝑙 , is positive right wing going down okay.
So we say 𝐶𝑙𝛽 , should be less than 0, and who are the main contributors towards these conditions.
If you see first 𝐶𝑚𝛼 Cm alpha it is the horizontal tail main contributor. Okay. Please understand
the keyword is main contributor. Then for Cn beta (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) it was vertical tail, and for Cl beta (𝐶𝑙𝛽 )
also we have seen it is a vertical tail and also we have seen that high wing okay, and also we have
seen if I give some Dihedral to the wing. High wing you understand high wing is this wing is here
and dihedral you understand that I am giving some angle like these and this angle is just a Gamma
or Dihedral angle.
So you understand what are the conditions, you also understand who are the main contributors?
𝑑𝐶𝑚
when I say < 0, the main contributor for stability or static stability is horizontal tail, wing also
𝑑𝛼
contribute towards stability, if the aerodynamic center of the wing is the ahead of CG of the
airplane it is De-stabilizing, if it is aft CG you know it is stabilizing and similarly for fuselage here
is mostly De-stabilizing and Cn beta (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) also gets from fuselage.
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Which is also again destabilizing, but vertical tail it makes it stabilizing right? wing also if you
give a sweep it will have stabilizing effect, if I summarize this I write (𝐶𝑚𝛼 )𝑤 , because of wing
(𝐶𝑚𝛼 )𝑓 , because of fuselage (𝐶𝑚𝛼 )𝐻𝑇 < 0, , because of Horizontal tail if you see this three
derivatives one thing I can take guarantee, that this will be less than 0, this will always stabilizing.
As far as fuselage is concerned, you can very well see fuselage typical shape is like this and its
center pressure will be somewhere here, and CG will be somewhere here, so it is always
destabilizing, or I can write (𝐶𝑚𝛼 )𝑓 > 0, and for wing we know if AC of the wing is behind, CG
𝑑𝐶𝑚
of the airplane then it is then < 0, or wing contribution is stabilizing if AC of the wing is
𝑑𝛼
ahead of CG it is destabilizing.
So it could be either less than 0, it could be either greater than 0, depending upon where is the AC
location and relation to the center of gravity of the airplane. No issue about this okay.
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Now coming back to the vertical tail or 𝐶𝑛𝛽 what was 𝐶𝑛 say 𝐶𝑛𝛽 what was 𝐶𝑛 . 𝐶𝑛
was a yawing moment non dimensional by half rho V square S into b,

𝑌𝑀
𝐶𝑛 =
1 2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑏
b is the span. And what we have seen for directional stability was directional stability 𝐶𝑛𝛽 should
be greater than 0 or If I plot 𝐶𝑛 verses Beta slope will be like this, and this is dCn by dBeta should
be greater than 0 (𝜕𝐶𝑛 ⁄𝜕𝛽 ) > 0. You could see from here Beta equal to zero is the trim, because
we want to fly at Beta equal to zero almost all the time except one or two occasions.
During landing or some time we want to reduce speed by increasing the drag, it go like this but
take it for understanding that we want to fly at Beta 0. Nobody would like to fly like this always
want to fly like this. So from here you could see if by disturbance Beta positive is introduced it
will automatically generate a yawing moment positive and what is yawing moment positive? It is
the right wing going back. So this will make the Beta to come back to Beta equal to 0.
So it will have initial tendency to come back to zero. So this is the understanding of the directional
stability. And again you should know the directional stability contributors are Cn beta wing
(𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) , wing, then Cn beta fuselage (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) and Cn beta vertical tail (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) right? So once
𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑠 𝑉𝑇
I have seen this vertical tail, if I put vertical tail I can guarantee that 𝐶𝑛𝛽 will became greater than
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zero that is if I put a vertical tail on a fuselage whether this way or whether I put the vertical tail
like this, that both the case 𝐶𝑁 𝛽 will be greater than zero.
𝐶𝑛𝛽 = (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) + (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) + (𝐶𝑛𝛽 )

𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑠 𝑉𝑇
There are two different configurations okay. Sometime we put the vertical tail up sometime we
put vertical tail down. Whatever this combination is 𝐶𝑛𝛽 will be always greater than zero rights.
then you have (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) Cn beta fuselage based on this understanding, if there is a beta 𝛽 then you
𝑓𝑠
could see here, if there is the positive Beta, this will give force in this direction and that will give
a moment which will take left wing backward.
That is if I am moving like this, force is here that will take the left wing towards back, that means
(𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) is less than 0 so, this fuselage (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) is less than 0. That is destabilizing because for
𝑓𝑠
directional stability, I want (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) should be greater than 0 for wing we have seen, if I introduce
sweep angle then (𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) because of wing will also greater than 0. It is stabilizing and this is
𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
the interesting part many times we will be fine suddenly there was a hype that the vertical tail less
airplane Right.
Airplane without a vertical tail because there are some configurations, which are for military
purpose, you do not want to keep vertical surface because, that increases the radar cross section
area. Radar that know it can be traced by radar. So better to not have a vertical tail so that you
reducing the radar cross sectional area RCS or radar cross sectional surface. So people will tell oh
it is great job you are doing there are no vertical tail, so directionally it will not be stable. Because
directional stability is given by vertical tail primarily.
But you could see that, if you give a sweep you can get it from wing also so nothing very big claim
you can get Cn beta positive (𝐶𝑛𝛽 > 0).
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You can stabilize directionally by making the wing having a sweep that is why vertical tail less
airplane whatever we might have seen, stealth aircraft B2 bomber type, there are no vertical tail
there are control surfaces here, somewhere here also something is there right. It’s doesn’t have a
vertical tail. But it has the large sweep and this sweep we are demonstrated to the expression this
sweep gives 𝐶𝑛𝛽 , greater than 0, So because of this sweep you are having directional stability in
term static stability is concerned.
So nothing to hype about it, there is no vertical tail so how we will get a directional stability okay
Right. so this was the discussion we had a lot of expression are there so, what I have decided in
one of the forum I will also pasting those derivations step by step, so that you can do your home
work you can re visit those expressions, and derive yourself right. Sometimes it becomes extremely
difficult to continue deriving expression here in a this sort of a mode of interaction. But I do not
know understand how much you getting into it right.
Where to stress and where not to stress especially on derivations part so one of the blog you will
find all the derivatives will be given right? And you can ask question based on those steps okay.
This we have done and why we have done all these things that is a question first of all final aim is
to also check whether the airplane, whatever we are discussing about dynamically stable are not.
That is why we started with static stability, now we will have stepping towards dynamic stability,
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and while will go to this process will try to develop equation of motion okay. So what will be the
philosophy.
You have equation of motion and then give a perturbation and see how the displacement are
responding. If it is damping out then you say it is dynamically stable, if it is going on increasing
you can say it is dynamically unstable. So what are the steps required here?
If I want to go for dynamic stability study what I will do first of all we think of equations of
motions. Just to give one example what is the meaning of equation of motion for flight vehicle. I
will take a simple example and try to share with you or create a road map for the final six degree
field of freedom equation or motion. Equation of motion. So what will do let us take a simple
example right.
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let us say let us say projectile of mass M. is fired at an angle Gamma (𝛾) at flight path angle is a
velocity vector, and we want to write the equation of motion that means, we want to know how its
position is changing. That is and how is its velocity changing speed changing what we do we fix
some X Y let us say, I write it X and Y this is the coordinate system I am thinking of let us say
simple planar trajectory air ,That is assuming that the projectile is fixed in the vertical plane.
This example is just to illustrate you; how to start thinking when I want to write equation of motion
typically, what this is called we will see we are actually trying to develop point mass equation of
motion. When I say point mass that means I can equivalently write this, in this fashion right? As
if the whole mass is concentrated at the CG of the projectile, is it pre-assumption this is stable
right. We will not stable then we will not able to solve the way we are doing it.
And now if I write it like this, I know what are the forces acting on this projectile, we know that
there will be drag on the fin drag on the body drag we everywhere, skin friction drag, pressure
drag will come So, we are expert now we know the total drag I know how to compute, and from
there I can find out what is the CD drag coefficient, let’s say that is known so, this the velocity
direction the drag will be in the opposite direction.
And where will be the lift? Lift will be perpendicular to the velocity vector, and there will be
weight here ‘mg’ correct. now we’ll make further assumption we’ll say angle of attack Alpha is
almost zero or we are neglecting the lift, which is in true case for this sort of a shell when they are
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fired the angle of attack is very very small 0.1 degree, 0.2 degree be that is the angle at which it is
in equilibrium.
All are symmetric everything symmetric right? we have realized that so, we are neglecting this lift
so, lift equal to zero, now we want to write the equation of motion so, what I do I write I choose
two axis one along V and one perpendicular to V right. let me write the motion along V, and one
perpendicular to V, I can as well write the whole component along Y and X, but I am just giving
you exercise, we are solving an exercise.
Where I am writing equation of motion along V and perpendicular to V. So, what is the step I
should follow, I know I should be very clear that have to follow F equal to MA force equal to mass
into acceleration And I should know that this are all in inertial frame now we are going to write
the equation of motion along V direction.
So, that will be what. m dV by dt equal to the net force why this mdV by dt because actually should
be dV by dt of mV this is mdV by dt plus Vdm by dt, but we are assuming mass is constant we are
assuming mass is constant this assumption will not be strictly true if it is aircraft. Because in
aircraft the fuel consumption will be there this assumption will not be true for rocket having solid
propellant, because as time goes the propellant mass gets consumed so, the weight reduces this
will be true strictly for a shell, Like a bofors shell right.
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𝑑 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑚
(𝑚𝑉) = 𝑚 +𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Where they are given initial kinetic energy so, they are no active propellant sitting inside so, mass
will be remain constant so, that is how I can take this has mdV by dt so, this is the acceleration
generated who is causing this acceleration.
That is by some force what the force is. force is a vertical of V direction so, force is minus drag
and minus mg sin gamma (𝑚𝑔 sin 𝛾) I could see from here this is Gamma so, this component is
mg sin gamma (𝑚𝑔 sin 𝛾) this is one now, what about when I write the equation along direction
perpendicular to V so, what is this equation will be so, here what are the forces acting perpendicular
to V is minus mg cos gamma (−𝑚𝑔 cos 𝛾).
And what is this causing this is causing you could understand is circular motion.
𝑑𝑉
𝑚 = −𝐷 − 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝛾
𝑑𝑡
This is V and this is tension so, this tension is perpendicular to V so, what sort of acceleration you
get. You get centripetal acceleration this tension which is perpendicular to V will generate a
centripetal acceleration, and you know centripetal acceleration is mV square upon R okay. Now
we see I can further write this as mV into V by R is equal to minus mg cos gamma (−𝑚𝑔 cos 𝛾).
what is the R here.
𝑉2 𝑉
𝑚 = −𝑚𝑔 cos 𝛾 , 𝑚 𝑉 ( ) = −𝑚𝑔 cos 𝛾
𝑅 𝑅
mV square R, R is a radius right? Because this force whatever is there MG COS Gamma right? It
will try to turn the trajectory so, there will be a radius of turn So, now what is V by R, V by R is
at what rate this velocity is turning right? I see the angle of attack is say zero so, whatever the rate
angle of attack is turning by this assumption it is the same rate at which your axis of the projectile
is also turning.
So, we call it now mV into Gamma dot that is angular speed with which the velocity vector is
turning is equal to minus mg cos gamma (−𝑚𝑔 cos 𝛾) so, you get Gamma dot equal to minus G
cos gamma by V.
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𝑚𝑉 𝛾̇ = −𝑚𝑔co s 𝛾
−𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾
𝛾̇ =
𝑉
So, what are the equation of motion we got when we wrote it like this, 1 is dV by dt is equal to
minus half Rho V square SCD by m minus g sin gamma (𝑔 sin 𝛾), I have divided this by ‘m’ all
through, And our second equation I got is d Gamma by dt is equal to minus g cos gamma by V
what is our aim. We want to find this coordinate of this projectile, in terms X and Y axis right? but
they assuming that this is planner trajectory so, we have to add third equation that is dx by dt is V
cos gamma (𝑉 cos 𝛾) and 4th equation is dy by dt equal to V sin gamma is that clear?
1 2
𝑑𝑉 − 2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶𝐷
1. = − 𝑔 sin 𝛾
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑑𝛾 𝑔 cos 𝛾
2. =−
𝑑𝑡 𝑉
𝑑𝑥
3. = 𝑉 cos 𝛾
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
4. = 𝑉 sin 𝛾
𝑑𝑡
Because this is V and this angle is Gamma so, this is V COS Gamma (𝑉 cos 𝛾) and this is V SIN
Gamma (𝑉 sin 𝛾) what is V COS Gamma (𝑉 cos 𝛾). It is the rate at which the projectile distance
is changing along X, that is V COS Gamma (𝑉 cos 𝛾). and V SIN Gamma (𝑉 sin 𝛾) is a rate at
which the distance of the CG changing along the Y direction okay.
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So, now you could see that these are the 4 very standard point mass equation of motion, how to
solve it. let us see first of all we identify these set of differential equations first order differential
equation, also you see that equation number 2 and equation number 1 this Gamma is present
Gamma is here Gamma is here in here also Gamma is here here Gamma is here so, you could see
V is here V is here so, you could see V is here so, you could see that they are coupled differential
equation first order differential equation right.
So, to solve that we need to have initial condition initial conditions, and let set the initial condition
if I want to see these two equations, I need to write at T equal to zero, X equal to let’s say X0 and
Y equal to Y0 So, depends this is decided by where from your firing, where from your launching
right? So, there That reference will have some coordinate, then also here we see in this at T equal
to zero what is V? V equal to V0 or V launch right. And also you know this Gamma at T equal to
zero, Gamma equal to Gamma0 (𝛾 = 𝛾0 ).
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠: 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0; 𝑥 = 𝑥0 , 𝑦 = 𝑦0
𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0, 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑙𝑎𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ
𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0, 𝛾 = 𝛾0
or that is called launch angle right. at what angle I have launching 10 degree, 20 degree, 45 degree,
55 degree to get different types of values of X, this value of X value where it is falling like this
this is typically called as range right.
And whatever in the Y direction happening, or it’s X of course, yes and around the Y direction
you know these are in height of the trajectory so, we have a maximum height, we have maximum
range. I am only talking about planar trajectory, in actual practice we will find they are three
dimensional so, there be a drift also I will have a distance cover along the lateral side so, those will
be adding in six DOF in point mass ,this is fairly simplified way to write the equation of equations
of motions.
And you realize that this are first order differential equation coupled first order differential
equations, and you need to solve them by numerical methods and you know that there will be there
will be so many methods to solve this equations, if possible will loading one or two software or
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code so that you can use it but any way you can go to MATLAB and solve this equation using
standard routine.
This lecture is given to you make you understand simple point mass model, when I am developing
what are the things I need to know first, Know first is what is the axis system I am talking about
then what are the forces. In all directions and that is where a six DOF concept comes into mind.
Then how do I do that although today I will not talk about six DOF just a warm up know what we
are heading towards.
We are familiar this is the axis system this is X, this is Y this is Z so, I will have force along X
direction I call it FX (𝐹𝑥 )force along Y, FY (𝐹𝑌 ) force along Z, FZ, (𝐹𝑍 ) then moment along X, MX
(𝑀𝑋 )moment about Y, MY (𝑀𝑌 ) moment about Z, MZ (𝑀𝑍 )right. We know the convention that
MX is positive, when right wing going down since rolling moment, MY is positive when nose is
pitching up and MZ is positive when Right wing is going back, I need to know how to calculate
this FX, FY, FZ and MX, MY and MZ.
So, that I can write the equation of motion here only drag force was required because we had
simplified assumption point mass So, I need to know what is the drag coefficient value right. To
find the drag but my six DOF, I need to know so many coefficients so, that I can model FX then FZ
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FY MZ MY MX all such thing that how its became little involved. Not complicated it gets involved.
It is question of matter of putting time nothing you don’t required any extra IQ for all these things.
This has been done fifty, seventy years back I mean hundred years back, do not get nerves
unnecessarily yes you may not like this Expressions does not matter may not like, but they are
very useful this neem tooth paste I never liked, but they are very useful. Okay so, please be clear
this needs little attention it is effort do not unnecessarily say it is complicated absolutely today
youngsters should not find this complicated at all okay.
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Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Lecture-37
Forces and Moments
Let us also now realize one thing.

When we talking about forces and moments we are talking about forces and moments along
force is along X, Y, Z direction an moments about X Y and Z direction whatever you have
learned so far that was I know that CL (𝐶𝐿 ) I have written function of Alpha (𝛼) and Delta E
(𝛿𝑒 ) then as for moment is concerned Cm (𝐶𝑚 ) I have written again function of Alpha (𝛼) and
Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ). Let say when I come to CY (𝐶𝑌 ) side force coefficient again it is function of beta
(𝛽) and Delta R (𝛿𝑟 ) and CN (𝐶𝑁 ) also function of beta (𝛽) and Delta R (𝛿𝑟 ) and Cl (𝐶𝑙 ) rolling
moment coefficient is function of beta (𝛽) and Delta A (𝛿𝑎 ).
𝐶𝐿 = 𝑓(𝛼, 𝛿𝑒 ) , 𝐶𝑚 = 𝑓(𝛼, 𝛿𝑒 )
𝐶𝑌 = 𝑓(𝛽, 𝛿𝑟 ) , 𝐶𝑛 = 𝑓(𝛽, 𝛿𝑟 )
𝐶𝑙 = 𝑓(𝛽, 𝛿𝑎 )
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Let me explain this the first when I talk about CL we wrote CL equal to CL Alpha (𝐶𝐿𝛼 ) into
Alpha (𝛼)plus CL Delta E (𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 )into Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ). similarly for CM we wrote CM Alpha (𝐶𝑚𝛼 )
into Alpha plus CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) into Delta E. We are now going step by step we are taking
the first case. Now I can erase this part. what was the understanding here of course there should
be Cm0 there should be CL0 what is the understanding here the understanding is this is the lift
coefficient this the moment coefficient any condition where aircraft is having Alpha and an
elevator deflected by Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ).
There no dynamic state it is a steady state type okay. But when I am writing equation of motion
the whole airplane I am giving a Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ) actually airplane will have some transient then it
will go to steady state. So what happens if an aircraft is perturbed or disturbed by giving an
elevator. It starts oscillating in this direction i.e. pitch up pitch down pitch up pitch down or its
oscillation about Y axis. Right.
And that if we see this is my X axis this is my Y axis this is Z axis. So there be oscillation about
Y axis and we say that, that is ’q’ will be the pitch rate. What is the meaning of pitch rate at what
rate the attitude of this airplane is changing oscillating about Y axis is pitch rate. So now we will
see because of this dynamics.
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CL is not only function of Alpha also will be the function of ‘q’ and Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ). ‘q’ will show
you how this pitch rate also will change CL right. Similarly, will find the further analysis will
find it not only depends upon Alpha (𝛼), ‘q’ and Delta E (𝛿𝑒 ) it also depends upon Alpha dot
(𝛼̇ ). At what rate angle of attack is changing okay. We will explain why this happened but I am
just building up so that we can develop expressions.
𝐶𝐿 = 𝑓(𝛼, 𝛼̇ , 𝑞, 𝛿𝑒 )
So if CL is like this then the Cm also be a function of alpha (𝛼) , Alpha dot (𝛼̇ ), ‘q’, Delta E
(𝛿𝑒 ). Now see from the static case it was just function of Alpha and Delta E similar CM is
function of Alpha and Delta E. But the moment of talking the dynamic case when alloying the
oscillations something like this there is a ‘q’ the pitch rate so that we are saying the CL also will
be the function of ‘q’ not only ‘q’ as airplane does like this the velocity vector and the axis there
angle changes angle between the velocity vector and axis changes.
So there is a induction of Alpha dot. So, this CL also will be function of Alpha dot and since CL
will be function of Alpha, Alpha dot, ‘q’ and Delta E. Cm will naturally be function of Alpha,
Alpha dot, ‘q’ and Delta E because Cm is nothing but CL is multiplied by length Okay. Now
challenge is here, you’ll find for the highly dynamic aircraft highly maneuverable high-
performance aircraft, this CL be function of even Delta E 0 with what rate we are moving the
elevator that also became interesting variable to model CL but we are not a such high-
performance aircraft.
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𝐶𝑚 = 𝑓(𝛼, 𝛼̇ , 𝑞, 𝛿𝑒 )
We are going for conventional aircraft where the CL is modelled like this and Cm is modelled
like this now let us take CL what you are are seeing we go very, very slow in this.
CL function of Alpha I will write q, I write Alpha dot and then I write Delta E okay. Now I can
write CL equal to CL0 plus CL Alpha (𝐶𝐿𝛼 ) plus CLq (𝐶𝐿𝑞 ) let me write qC by 2 V I will
explain you why you write like this plus CL Alpha dot (𝐶𝐿𝛼̇ ) Alpha dot C by 2 V, plus CL Delta
E (𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 ) into Delta E.

𝑞𝑐 𝛼̇ 𝑐
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝛼 + 𝐶𝐿𝑞 ( ) + 𝐶𝐿𝛼̇ + 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
2𝑉 2𝑉
Normally if I give you expression like this we will write CL equal to CL0 plus CL Alpha (𝐶𝐿𝛼 )
into Alpha plus, CLq (𝐶𝐿𝑞 ) into q plus, CL Alpha dot (𝐶𝐿𝛼̇ )into Alpha dot plus, CL Delta E
(𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 ) into Delta E.
But you have seeing here for ‘q’ I have to replace by qC by 2 V for Alpha dot (𝛼̇ ) I replace by
Alpha dot C by 2 V okay, Why? Let’s understand these are all dimensional i.e., Alpha (𝛼) and
Delta e (𝛿𝑒 ) but you could see that ‘q’ has a what is the unit of ‘q’ radians per second. This is a
dimensionless, what is Alpha dot (𝛼̇ ) again radians per second so time is there so these are not
dimensionless but all other are dimensionless. Control variable are motion variable so you want
to write CL using all non-dimensional motion variable okay.
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So, what is done if ‘q’ is radians per second unit wise right. What we have done we, multiply by
chord mean aerodynamic chord and divided by 2 V many literature they divided by V and what
is the dimension of this, you see it’s radian per second then meter per meter then second , these
all cancel again this becomes dimensionless radian is dimensionless quantity or unit right? So,
now what has happened by changing ‘q’ to qC by 2 V we can make this dimensionless.
𝑞𝑐̅ 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑚
[ ]= 𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝑉 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚
And you have modified CLq if I use the first definition here the CLq will be dCL by dq but in
this way when we have defined please note that CLq is DCL by d qC by 2 V correct Not this. So
this is non-dimensional quantity okay, This is CLq means dCL by d qC by 2V physically
meaning is what? what is change in CL because of ‘q’. if there is a ‘q’ positive pitch up or pitch
down how much CL is going to be changed that is the, this derivative is tell us that gradient it
will tell us.
𝜕𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐿𝑞 = 𝑞𝑐
𝜕 (2𝑉 )
Similarly what is the CL Alpha dot (𝐶𝐿𝛼̇ ) ,CL Alpha dot will be dCL by dAlpha dot, C bar by 2
V please note down this again this has been made non-dimensional.
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𝜕𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝐿𝛼̇ =
𝛼̇ 𝑐̅
𝜕 (2𝑉 )
So here this is not the way you are defining, you are defining CLq as dCL by d qC by 2V,
CLAlpha dot (𝐶𝐿𝛼̇ ) as dCL by d Alpha dot C bar by 2 V, okay? This should be cleared now you
need to know each of these derivatives what is CLAlpha (𝐶𝐿𝛼 )? What is CLq (𝐶𝐿𝑞 )? What is CL
Alpha dot (𝐶𝐿𝛼̇ ) and what is CL Delta E (𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 )?
If I know this then, when I am writing the equation of motion if I know what is the value of
Alpha? What is the value of ‘q’? What is the value of Alpha dot? And what is the value of Delta
E? I know how much CL it is generating. As simple as that that the beauty of this modeling I
repeat again if I know the values of CL0, CL Alpha, CLq, CL Alpha dot and CL Delta E then
whenever using equation of motion then to get the CL I need to know the value of Alpha, Q,
Alpha dot, and Delta E.
since I know other thing, I know what is the CL the airplane is experiencing correct okay? That
is the purpose of writing this in this fashion and also to put an effort to know can I calculate CLq.
Can I calculate CL Alpha dot. can I calculate CL Delta E. All the derivative based on the
geometry of the airplane and flight conditions.
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Let us say let us focus on ‘q’ derivative, where ‘q’ derivatives means you know backup in your
mind it is basically you are talking about qC by 2 V right, That is a non-dimensional let us see
will there will be any CL because of ‘q’ or not okay, So how do I visualize let me take the
horizontal tail part of the airplane. Let me consider horizontal tail of an aircraft and let say this is
the airplane is going positive ‘q’. positive ‘q’ why because the pitch rate, if it is pitch rate nose
up is positive.
As we know this is our X and this is Y rotating about Y nose up it is the positive pitching
moment. Now the moment it’s rotates about ‘q’ what happens? This tail goes let’s say A.C of the
of the tail somewhere here let’s say I concentrate this will be going down with a speed ‘q’ and
this length you know by now it is ‘lt’, so if this is going with ‘q’, what is the speed at which this
point will go down? This V equal to omega R (𝜔𝑅) so it will ‘q’ into ‘lt’ it is clear or not for
example.
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If I take this example this is tail and it is going through pitch up positive ‘q’, its pitching up
positive ‘q’ this tail is going down so relative air this tail will go with what speed? With ‘q’ into
‘lt’ omega R (𝜔𝑅) V equal to omega R (𝑉 = 𝜔𝑅). And as it goes down I can always say the
relative air will be coming in the same magnitude in the opposite direction. So what will happen
here since it is rotating like the AC at this point will go down with a speed q*lt (𝑞𝑙𝑡 ), so I can say
relative air will come with an speed Q into lt (𝑞𝑙𝑡 ) Roll out.
I repeat again as this airplane is rotating with ‘q’ about CG this tail is going down with a speed
(𝑞𝑙𝑡 ). Especially the AC of the tail and since the tail is going down like this, I can say relative air
is coming with the speed ‘q’ into ‘lt’ (𝑞𝑙𝑡 ). Remember this airplane is moving also with a speed
V so Delta Alpha (Δ𝛼) introduced at tail will be how much? Will be q*lt (𝑞𝑙𝑡 ) by V
approximately. The vertical component and horizontal component.
𝑞𝑙𝑡
Δ𝛼 =
𝑉
If this is the increase in angle of attack what does that mean? It means it will generate lift here
because of Delta Alpha (Δ𝛼), so what will a lift Delta L (Δ𝐿) will be half rho V square at tail
into S tail into CL Alpha tail (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) into q*lt (𝑞𝑙𝑡 ) by V. no objection this will give what type of
moment about CG? Because of ‘q’ the lift is here upward so what type of moment it will be? It
will give nose down moment, right?
1 𝑞𝑙𝑡
Δ𝐿 = ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ( )
2 𝑡 𝑉
Delta L (Δ𝐿) to be more precise, you could see that there is a increase in lift because of ‘q’. and
this lift Delta L will give moment which is negative. So Delta M (Δ𝑀) I can write as half rho V
square tail S tail CL Alpha tail q*lt (𝑞𝑙𝑡 ) by V into ‘lt’. Do u think this is right expression? what I
have to take care remember whenever you are writing moment and all you need to careful about
the sign what is happening because of positive ‘q’, Delta L is like this that is giving a nose down
moment.
1 𝑞𝑙𝑡
Δ𝑀 = − ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ( ) . 𝑙𝑡
2 𝑡 𝑉
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So Delta L is giving a Nose down means negative moment, so I have to ensure here I have to put
minus sign now it is perfect. So we have the two expressions now let us see how can I generate
‘q’ derivatives.
So Delta L equal to half rho V square tail S tail CL Alpha tail into q*lt by V, so what will be
Delta CL? will be Delta L by free stream dynamic pressure into S reference that is Delta CL or I
write Delta C capital L because small L is for rolling moment.
So this will be now equal to this divided by this your expert this is eta ST by S right CL Alpha
tail q*lt by V. what is your aim we want to find out what is the expression for CLq. What is the
definition of CLq? It is dCL by dq , C by 2 V so from here if I divide this expression by say
Delta CL, let me write this Delta CL equal to eta St by S CL Alpha tail q*lt by V so you want to
find, CLq which is dCL by dq C by 2 V because it is linear So I can divide this by qC and 2 V
and left hand side I will get CLq as per the definition here.
𝜕𝐶𝐿
𝜕 (2𝑉 )
𝑆 𝑞𝑙
𝜂 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ( 𝑉𝑡 )
2𝑉
So what happens here? Once I put this I see this goes off V and V goes off, so I have expression
for CLq as 2 eta St by S CL Alpha tail ‘lt’ by C and by now you are expert you know the Way to
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write this, St ‘lt’ by SC into CL Alpha tail, correct 2 Neeta are familiar with one of the popular
expression, this is the popular expression and that is 2 Neeta into VH into CL Alpha tail VH is
the Tail Volume ratio so what is the message?
𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡
𝐶𝐿𝑞 = 2𝜂 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ≡ 2𝜂 𝐶 = 2𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡
𝑆 𝑐 𝑆 𝑐 𝐿𝛼𝑡
Message is if I know the tail volume ratio if I know CL Alpha of the tail Neeta is around 1, I can
easily calculate CLq because CLq is equal to this expression. Why I want to find CLq because I
want know what is the CL during the flight. When there is a ‘q’ if so I know CLq and if I
measure the value of ‘q’. I can find how much is of the contribution here right? Now this is the
first expression now see this Delta M (Δ𝑀) what is happening in Delta M (Δ𝑀).
When I expand Cm in similar way you know this will be Cm0, plus Cm Alpha (𝐶𝑚𝛼 ) into Alpha
Cmq (𝐶𝑚𝑞 ) into qC by 2 V plus Cm Alpha dot (𝐶𝑚𝛼̇ )Alpha dot C by 2 V plus Cm Delta E
(𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ) into Delta E, by now you know how to calculate Cm Alpha (𝐶𝑚𝛼 ) and what is Cm0, we
also know Cm Delta E they also static case now we are trying to go for dynamic case,. Now you
are trying to find ‘q’ derivatives okay that is what the change in the force, forces and moment
because of ‘q’ pitch rate.
𝑞𝑐 𝛼̇ 𝑐
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝛼 + 𝐶𝑚𝑞 + 𝐶𝑚𝛼̇ + 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
2𝑉 2𝑉
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We have already found out the expression for CLq, we will now find the Expression for Cmq,
what will be Cmq? what is the Expression? Can I estimate it? Compute it approximately using
some expression right. So we will now come back here we have seen from Delta L (Δ𝐿) to Delta
M (Δ𝑀) is this expression, So if I want to have Delta Cm (ΔCm ) that will be Delta M divided by
half rho V square S C bar, okay So this will become again you are now expert eta St by S ‘lt’ by
C bar CL Alpha Tail (𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ) q*lt by V. okay.

Δ𝑀 𝑙𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝑞𝑙𝑡
ΔCm = = −𝜂 ( ) 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡
1 2 𝑐̅ 𝑆 𝑉
What is the expression you got for Delta Cm? Write it here do not forget our aim is to find Cmq
right? Our aim is to find an expression for Cmq which is nothing but dCm by dq C by 2 V C bar
by 2 V, so we have got the expression of Delta Cm is equal to minus eta St ‘lt’ by SC bar into CL
Alpha T, L into q*lt by V. Please remember whatever CLq expression we have derived and now
CLq we are deriving these are primary only for horizontal tail contribution.
𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝐶𝑚𝑞 =
𝑞𝑐̅
𝜕 2𝑉
𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡 𝑞𝑙
𝜂 ( 𝑆𝑐̅ ) 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝑉𝑡
Δ𝐶𝑚 = −
𝑞𝑐̅
2𝑉
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We have to similarly find out the contribution because of Fuselage and Wing, but we are trying
to find the first expression for tail contribution, because we know that is the primary component
which will add this derivative. so this is of course I repeat here all now focusing on tail i.e.
horizontal tail so now our aim is to get Cmq, So Cmq is Delta Cm by q C bar by 2 V this is equal
to minus eta St ‘lt’ by SC bar CL Alpha tail q*lt by V divided by q C bar by 2 V. So what is the
final expression?
𝑙𝑡
𝐶𝑚𝑞 = −2𝜂𝑉𝐻 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ( )
𝑐̅
You could see V, V gets cancelled ‘q’ was here so, you have Cmq as minus 2 eta VH CL Alpha
Tail into ‘lt’ by C. Such a neat expression what is Cmq? Cmq is minus 2 eta VH CL Alpha tail
‘lt’ by C. You could see one thing very interestingly that if you change ‘lt’ if you change VH that
means if you have changing VH Cmq is largely affected and also if you change ‘lt’ this also will
change Cmq.
Suppose if you want to increase Cmq, Cmq means what damping so this will tell you that, if I
want increase damping increase ‘lt’ or increase VH are both okay. This is extremely important,
what you call derivative I am now focusing only on derivative.
I will come to the physical significant of it as we are clear. What has the derivative
mathematically or empirically looks like right? With little bit of insight, you could see that, why
I am saying this Cmq is damping derivative is I like to explain you immediately now, because
now at least you know what is the expression of Cmq. Before I explain what is the nature of Cmq
let me explain first Cm Alpha (𝐶𝑚𝛼 ) right.
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And I will take you back to all those examples of mass spring remember, I have been giving this
example, So we wrote mX double dot plus CX dot plus KX equal to F(t) per this was stiffness
and the C was damping constant right. How to define damping constant C the restoring force or
moment is proportional to the rate of change of displacement so, this constant is the damping
constant and the constant.
𝑚𝑋̈ + 𝐶𝑋̇ + 𝐾𝑋 = 𝐹(𝑡)
𝐶: 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Which tells you the amount of force or moment which is proportional to the displacement only,
that is stiffness this is rate of change of displacement and this is displacement here you see when
we are talking angular stability Alpha is like ‘X’ here, and ‘q’ is like X dot here it's a rate okay?
so this moment whatever Delta CM is coming because of ‘q’ it is proportional to the ‘q’, You
could see that what is happening here how this moment was generated there was a Delta L (Δ𝐿)
and Delta L (Δ𝐿) has a ‘q’ here if ‘q’ is there Delta L is there.
1 𝑞𝑙𝑡
2 𝑡 𝑉
1 𝑞𝑙𝑡
Δ𝑀 = − ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ( ) 𝑙𝑡
2 𝑡 𝑉
Delta M (Δ𝑀) is also again this Delta M (Δ𝑀) is coming because of ‘q’ right. So, if ‘q’ is
positive Delta M is negative so, this restoring moment is proportional to ‘q’ to the rate that is
how Cmq we call it damping derivative, CM Alpha restoring moment is CM Alpha into Alpha
right? so, it is proportional to Alpha so, this is stiffness derivative right. This Stiffness understand
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how stiff the spring from that analogous to K has stiffness as you call spring constant, And this is
Analogous C which is because of the medium of the fluid.
Now we understand if I want to make an airplane dynamically stable, you not only need
something like K also need something like C that it need to have stiffness, as well as damping
and that is why we are now developing this expression and we will ensure and see that our
airplane has both static and dynamic stability. In general for normal case if an aircraft
dynamically stable that is statically stable also right. But will be doing our job in a manner which
will not only make us understand what is static stability what is dynamic stability on how they
are coupled okay, in terms of response.
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 38
Aircraft Equations of Motion
So, good morning so far, we have been discussing the static stability part of it and from elevator
required to stick force requirement as well as their gradients for example elevator per G, d Delta
E by dn (𝑑𝛿𝑒 ⁄𝑑𝑛 ) then the stick force per G all these things we have derived and at the end you
realized that lot of equations were there but now once we understand the static part of it we need
to go for dynamic stability and in that direction we have already made a beginning, we talked about
point mass model.
That is how to write the equation of motion of a body in air moving in air and that was a very
simple approximation however it is very useful you will find in armaments whenever they want to
compute a range of a projectile been fired this point mass model very fine for simple reason those
shells like a bofors shells or 105 mm artillery shell when they fly they fly at a almost zero angle
of attack for most of the firing angles so as it flies at 0 angle of attack.
So, naturally the force which it experiences primarily is the drag that too independent of angle of
attack it is CD0. However, when we are talking about dynamic stability we need to develop
complete equation of motion of an airplane and we will see from those equations if I disturb the
airplane how the airplane is responding and by studying their response or studying their tendencies
we will try to understand whether this aircraft is dynamically stable or not.
So, it is important that we develop complete equation of motion for an airplane in motion and you
understand that airplane can have six degrees of freedom when I am talking about an airplane I am
talking about a rigid airplane nowadays with high tech materials coming will find that lot of
flexibilities in the material for the wing in particular is, unavoidable sometime desirable so, I am
not talking about though conditions.
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I am only talking about the airplane, which is rigid that is the distance between two particle of any
part of the airplane they remain fixed they does not move relative to each other right? So, that's
the rigid airplane like rigid body so, with this assumption we will try to develop equation of motion
for an airplane.
If I draw an airplane I have set the axis system and I am talking about an axis system is X Y Z
which is body fixed X Y Z say body fixed and located at center of gravity this point is at center of
gravity. Now it depends on the purpose how do I align this axis there are many ways you can align
this axis for many, many exclusive purposes but here to start in the simplistic manner, we are
aligning this X axis let say on the fuselage reference line this line on symmetry may not be
guaranteed.
If I put X axis along the line of symmetry then you will see some cross product of inertia moment
of inertia will vanish but we are saying okay at this stage with the X axis is the line of fuselage
reference line here. When I said a body fixed axis please understand this axis is fix to the body to
the airplane so, if the airplane moves axis also moves right? If I airplane takes an angle of motion
like this then axis which are X axis it will also move with the airplane.
So, body fixed, if it is going like this everything is moving the same way as the body or the airplane
equation is moving right? That is why I am calling it body fixed axis system.
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Now let me define another axis system which is earth fixed this is closely I can say this is inertial
frame I will explain you what it is let me write this then I will come back to this so, completion of
this drawing let me write this is an earth fixed and inertial frame of reference I will talked about it
do not worry. What is happening you see when I try to write the equation of motion if I through a
body.
So, this will be acted upon by various forces right? one is of course of the gravity force another is
as it's moving relative to air it will experienced aerodynamic force and if on the body if we are
putting an engine then it will have propulsive force that is.
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If I see forces if I write forces acting on an airplane or aircraft in motion one is of course
aerodynamic force second is gravitational force all because of force of gravity and third is or
gravitational and third is propulsive this is strictly true for airplane.
If it is the space vehicle then you will have all though interplanetary forces that will come to the
picture. We are not considering those thing because those things are not significant as long as the
airplane is flying within the atmosphere and airplane can only fly within the atmosphere because
we have a wing and our airplane is a aerodynamic in nature that is forces lift to drag extra they
come out of the relative motion between the air and the airplane that is important.
So, this if I try to write a keyword I will write relative motion or I call it air relative please try to
understand this little more.
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You all know that if this airplane is moving in air it will experience lift, it will experience drag
because it is in motion and there is a atmosphere here but think about situation if this aircraft is
grounded and it is towed like this. It is not moving with respect to ground it is not moving with
respect to ground but if suddenly wind start blowing possible it could be wind is coming toward
the head we call it head wind if it comes from here.
We call it tail wind and this is called head wind you could see if there is a head wind or tail wind
it will again experience some aerodynamic forces although this aircraft is not moving in air its
stationed on the ground that is obvious because we know this aerodynamic force or aerodynamic
forces. They depend upon the relative motion, they are air relative okay? So, even if it is having
zero velocity with respect to the ground but with respect to the air it has a velocity so, it will
experience a force,
So far aerodynamic forces it is important we keep our focus on relative motion with respect to the
atmosphere clear? Gravitational you understand this basically we will assume here ‘g’ to be
constant because the height is not that large so, that we need to take care of variation of ‘g’ okay?
Propulsive we know it could be a jet engine, it could be a piston prop IC engine but the another
thing you should understand when I am talking about these forces as far as stability is concerned
the gravitational force will always act through the center of mass.
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And we are evaluating the motion about center of mass like this okay? So, that will not have effect
in this angular motion as far as stability is concerned because the moment because of the
gravitational force about CG will be zero. However, we will have components in terms of moment
about CG because of aerodynamic forces, because of propulsive forces depending upon where it
has been kept this is in general, we should immediately able to visualize when we close our eyes
and think okay?
Once you identify the forces the sources where the force will be available for airplane to draft, we
need to know how to write the equation of motion and when you talk about equation of motion.
you go back to your again tenth, eleventh class and you will remember that famous F equal to ma
that is if we apply an external force F on mass ‘m’ then you know that F and acceleration are
related like this or I can interpret it like this.
𝐹̅
𝐹̅ = 𝑚𝑎̅ 𝑜𝑟 𝑎̅ =
𝑚
If I apply a force F on mass ‘m’, I know how much acceleration it will generate what was the
assumption here this is valid as long as I am applying this in inertial frame. What is the meaning
of inertial frame that means this frame that X Y Z were from your measuring this frame should not
have any acceleration clear?
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So, no acceleration, now you could understand this is the airplane and you know this is X, I write
‘b’ for body Yb for body Zb for body now I ask a question is this Xb, Yb, Zb axis Xb, Yb, Zb axis
system or frame this is axis system or frame same meaning is it inertial? Is it a inertial frame of
reference?
And if I am measuring anything with respect to Xb, Yb, Zb can I tell its inertial frame what is the
question you will ask does this frame have any acceleration? If it does not have acceleration then
we say it is inertial frame. But check here since it is the body fixed the body is moving body will
have rotation body will have acceleration both angular as well as translatory.
So, definitely Xb, Yb, Zb is non-inertial, in fact that is we find text book they write rotating frame
so, there is a problem if I want to write F equal to ‘ma’, ‘F’ I know from there and to find
acceleration then a relationship is F by ‘m’ but the problem is this is to be applied in inertial frame
into whatever forces we are measuring whatever velocities we are measuring whatever distance
we are measuring that should be measured with respect to inertial frame.
But unfortunately, Xb, Yb, Zb are non-inertial it is not inertial frame So, how to apply this under
such condition question is clear? Okay? So, now we look for let as define some inertial frame
unfortunately see the problem is our earth itself is rotating if I fixing an axis system on the earth it
looks like yes, it is fixed but it is also rotating so then that is an also non-inertial frame so, what do
I do for space vehicle there could be a point many, many points people may define at infinity right?
And that way they can manage these situations in relative sense, but for earth there is a problem
and my axis system is fixing on earth when the airplane is flying I’m seeing from here measuring
everything with respect to the earth but there is a safe corridor of assumption where we can operate
and handle this problem what we will assume for our airplane motion, the angular motion of the
earth can easily been neglected because they are not very long duration things right? Okay? So
what is the assumption we made neglect earth rotation the moment you put this assumption.
This becomes for all our purposes for aircraft performance an inertial frame that is why we have
fixed XYZ or Z axis on earth that is why earth fixed this body fixed this is we are treating as a
inertial frame of reference okay?
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Once we have done that now let us again revisit famous Newton’s law of motion, F equal to ‘ma’
if I go little step back if I try to go back and introspect what is this equation representing, we know
that from Newton’s laws of motion that F is equal to rate of change of linear momentum you know
‘mV’ (𝑚𝑉̅ ).
𝑑(𝑚𝑉̅ )
𝐹̅ =
𝑑𝑡
Linear momentum how to define linear momentum? Immediately, the answer come linear
momentum is ‘m’ into V but I would like you to think in terms of little bit of more philosophical
definition when I say ‘mV’ I interpret this as quantity of motion contained in a body like, V is
meter per second right? ‘m’ into V is I will think like quantity of motion contained in a body now
if I do a closer looker.
As far as Newton’s law of motion is concerned this would be on the reference to inertial frame
that is whatever derivative, we are taking that should be respect to inertial frame now if I expand
this what do I get I get m dV by dt plus V dm by dt.
𝑑𝑉̅ 𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝑚
𝐹̅ = 𝑚 +𝑉 ∶ → 0 (𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑)
Most of the cases we are dealing will assume, this part to be zero that is there is no change in the
mass during the operation although you understand that fuel consumption will be there, but we
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will assume that fuel consumption is, consumption is neglected and that is how you are writing m
𝑑𝑚
dot equal to zero ( 𝑑𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑚̇) ,but what is important, important is now F equal to m dV by dt and
this should be done in inertial frame IF is inertial frame that means you’ve assumed earth fixed
frame as a inertial frame, so you observed what is the direction it is going.
What rate it is changing with respect to an axis fixed on the inertial frame on the earth not with
respect to an axis system fixed on the aircraft, because aircraft is rotating frame it’s not a inertial
frame so that is the catch point and that is the basis, where which will be used to develop equations
of motion right? And typically, we say six degree of freedom equation of motion or equations of
motion and that is why six degrees of freedom we say six DOF, six degrees of freedom that is
degrees of freedom why six degrees?
You are very clear about it you know it; this is X this is Y this is Z so one degree this motion along
X along Y along Z and the rotation motion along X,Y and Z. So XYZ this motion and one motion
this one motion this one motion this right? So, there are six degrees of freedom so what is the
meaning there by we will develop an equation motion through which I should be able to solve a
problem, that if I give elevator deflection aileron deflection how this airplane is changing in free
space.
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And that should be characterized captured by this six DOF simulation right? Okay? That is our
aim what is the problem, we got stuck we got stuck that yes F equal to m dV by dt but we need to
do with respect to inertial frame of reference this derivative however, if I am working with the
body fixed axis system like this body fixed axis is BFA, this is body this is fixed axis the problem
is if I operate on respect to this axis system this is not inertial frame of reference.
So I won’t be able to apply Newton’s law correctly okay? In the similar fashion you know this
moment and they are related like this rate of change of H, H is what? Any guess what is H, could
you recall? H is angular momentum so, in your class 10th you might have read if we recall that
mVR right? That will help you, if this is R and this is the mass ‘m’, which is moving with velocity
V then R cross MV is the angular momentum that you used to study in class ninth, 10th or 11th,
̅
𝑑𝐻
̅=
𝑀 ̅ : 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
;:𝐻
𝑑𝑡
And one of my teacher told me if you want to remember what is angular momentum? Remember
like this it is the moment of the momentum, so moment of the linear momentum, this is linear
momentum ‘mV’ I know moment means force into distance, right? So, if you think in terms of
moment of the linear momentum is angular momentum, this is my teacher used to tell me and
that’s to help me just for you to keep it back of your mind if you try to develop physical feel for
angular momentum.
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Think like this, this is the moment, moment is an effect moment causes an effect for rotation right?
Which causes rotation so this moment of linear momentum is angular momentum and as F equal
to m dV by dt, I can write moment equal to rate of change of angular momentum these two
equations are to be utilized for one is I get acceleration from here linear accelerations I will get
angular acceleration from here so I can get linear position and angular position by integrating all
these solutions.
Right. So this is the basis only problem is I need to work with inertial frame okay? So this if I
understand and keep back of our mind we will see how simple it is to develop six degrees of
freedom equations of motion.
Now see the conflict, when I want to find aerodynamic force, aerodynamic forces what did you
discuss we discuss it depends upon the relative velocity okay? It does not depend upon the ground
velocity that is the airplane if it is moving like this and this is the ground which is for our case
inertial frame the aerodynamic force here will depend upon what is the relative airspeed with
respect to the atmosphere not with respect to the ground as I give you an example.
If the airplane is stationary on the ground, where suddenly the wind starts blowing it will
experience aerodynamic forces so for aircraft if I want to calculate aerodynamic forces these are
air relative these are air relative that means I will be more comfortable when I operate with Xb, Yb
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and Zb axis system because this will be very useful to get me air relative speed along this axis Xb,
Yb, Zb right? Because we have seen ground with respect to ground which really does not matter.
It’s all matter is what is the relative airspeed, that means the body is moving like this the
atmosphere is stationary is moving like this so you know relative air will be this way that way and
depending upon the orientation so, it is the relative airspeed, airspeed relative to Xb, Yb, Zb axis
speed air relative speed with respect to the body means Xb, Yb, Zb axis but these are not inertial
frame we cannot directly apply it so, what is the issue how to solve it that is the big question.
Please come back mathematically I want to find derivative dV by dt and dH by dt in inertial frame
but we are finding these forces they depend upon the air relative speed so that is more because of
it is easier to solve a problem in Xb, Yb, Zb axis because it is an air relative speed. Thank you very
much.
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 39
Six Degrees of Freedom of an Aircraft
Good morning, so today we will be spending time in developing six DOF or six degrees of
freedom, six degrees of freedom equations of motion, and by now you know what are the six
degrees of freedom.
If this is the airplane, we have X, Y, Z so, one motion translatory motion along X along Y along
Z and rotation motion about X, Y, Z that is, X, Y, Z, these three motions and this, this and this
right? These are six degrees of freedom what is the meaning of that? Meaning is there by what is
our interest? Our interest is, when we develop six DOF, six DOF equations of motion we say the
airplane is moving, I want to give a disturbance the airplane and see how it is responding in terms
of all these six degrees of freedom.
And from that response we like to utilize it conveniently to understand whether the aircraft is
dynamically stable or not, our aim is for dynamic stability analysis just not forget that that is our
basically aim.
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Why we are developing this six DOF equation of motion, our primary aim is to study dynamic
stability of airplane aircraft, six DOF equation of motion is can be used for so many things, if you
want to know up to what range it is going, how it is moving in different directions you also can do
that but, we are very clear about this this equations of motion and we are developing with clear
understanding, our mind, will be studying the dynamic stability of an aircraft.
We have already completed static stability of an aircraft right. And now how to develop the
equations of motion, you know F is equal to ‘ma’ and applied moment is d by dt rate of change of
Angular momentum okay. But the constraint is when you want to apply these, you have to very
very clear that this should be applied with reference to inertial frame, that is important and what is
a inertial frame.
A frame which does not have any acceleration, and for our purpose we have assume earth fixed
axis system which is we are calling that that is our inertial frame, because you are neglecting the
rotation of earth okay. So, for an aircraft is good enough of assumption, let me tell that this XE YE
ZE with the axis system.
For earth fixed which is for us is inertial frame of reference, so what I can do is this equation if I
go in between I can write this is nothing but d by dt of ‘m’ into V, and this is equal to mdV by dt
plus Vdm by dt right? And you are assuming that dm by dt is 0 the mass is constant why this is
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okay for us we are doing a stability analysis, our aim is to do dynamic stability analysis so we will
be studying the response of airplane for a short duration right? For example it is in the cruise.
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝑚
𝐹̅ = 𝑚 +𝑉 ; →0
Now you give some deflection and see what is happening but this study will be for a very short
duration, with respect to the trim condition and during that short duration it is fair enough to assume
that fuel consumption is very negligible, so this assumption is okay. Why this assumption is okay.
Because we are doing it for stability analysis stability analysis, and time duration of study time
duration is very small, so it is fair enough to assume that fuel consumption is zero.
or negligible, so the weight remain the same so dm by dt is zero fine, so I write F which all of us
know is F external is mdV by dt correct, now let us go little bit deep into this expression, remember
we are developing this equation no one.
With referred to initial frame of reference, which is earth axis so now I can write V as U Earth
into I of Earth or let me write U for clarity Ui earth plus Vj earth plus Wk earth what is the meaning
of this? This is I am resolving V total velocity along [i, j, k] of initial frame of reference Correct
okay. If I further try to understand suppose this is your IE vector this is your JE for your inertial
and this is ZE, and suppose this is velocity vector V.
𝑉̅ = 𝑈 𝑖̂𝐸 + 𝑉𝑗̂𝐸 + 𝑊 𝑘̂𝐸
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Then I am taking the component of V along IE and That is U component of V vector along JE is V,
and similarly component of V vector along ZE is W. So, if I put F is equal to mdV by dt, so it will
be d by dt of V for V, I write U IE plus V JE plus W KE like this.
𝑑
𝐹̅ = 𝑚 ̂𝐸 ]
[𝑈𝑖̂𝐸 + 𝑉𝑗̂𝐸 + 𝐾
𝑑𝑡
This is the total velocity V, Rotation wise do not get confused, this is the component of V along
inertial frame Y Axis right. So now if I take derivative I get mdV by dt into IE plus mdV by dt J
earth direction plus mdW by dt in K Earth direction. Please see here when I was taking the first
term derivative, Ideally it should be mdU by dt so let me write dU by dt I plus U dI by dt right.
Here if I expand these this should be mdU by dt, IE plus mU dIE by dt but I know.
𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑖̂𝐸
𝑚 𝑖̂𝐸 + 𝑚𝑈
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
It is a inertial frame of reference so IE, JE, KE are fixed so, they are not changing the direction so
this is zero, I have not put those term here so from here now we can easily see F vector is having
FX IE plus FY JE plus FZ KE and what is FX? FX is nothing but mdU by dt what is FY mdV by dt
what is FZ mdW by dt okay. There is no problem in that.
𝐹⃗ = 𝐹𝑋 𝑖̂𝐸 + 𝐹𝑌 𝑗̂𝐸 + 𝐹𝑍 𝑘̂𝐸
̅ ). I may right its angular momentum

Similarly if I do this ‘M’ summation of a d by dt ‘H’ 𝑑⁄𝑑𝑡 (𝐻
as HX, ‘X’ component along Earth initial frame and HY into JE plus HZ into KE, so these are
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component of total angular momentum along inertial frame with its earth fixed IE, JE and KE. If I
put this thing here, I can write.
𝑑
∑𝑀 = ̅)
(𝐻
𝑑𝑡
̅ = 𝐻𝑋 𝑖̂𝐸 + 𝐻𝑌 𝑗̂𝐸 + 𝐻𝑍 𝑘̂𝐸
𝐻
M as L IE plus M JE plus N KE so what is L? L is the nothing but HX. So L equal to D by DT of

HX this is clear? M is d by dt of H so d by dt of this vector so if you’re not clear let me repeat here,
so d by dt of H it means this is equal to d by dt of HX IE plus HY JE plus HZ KE. So if I expand it I
get value dHX by dt, IE plus dHY by dt by JE plus dHZ by dt into KE. No problem clear about it so
for this I am writing as L. for this L for this M and for this N so I can write.
𝑑 𝑑
̅ ) = [𝐻𝑋 𝑖̂𝐸 + 𝐻𝑌 𝑗̂𝐸 + 𝐻𝑍 𝑘̂𝐸 ]
(𝐻
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑀 = 𝐿𝑖̂𝐸 + 𝑀𝑗̂𝐸 + 𝑁𝑘̂𝐸
𝑑 𝑑𝐻𝑋 𝑑𝐻𝑌 𝑑𝐻𝑍
̅) =
(𝐻 𝑖̂𝐸 + 𝑖̂𝐸 + 𝑖̂
𝑑𝑡 ⏟𝑑𝑡 ⏟𝑑𝑡 ⏟𝑑𝑡 𝐸
𝐿 𝑀 𝑁
This as L IE plus M JE plus N KE, see whenever I am deriving some Expression please understand,
since I do not have any introduction whenever I get inside that I am a bit fast you may miss the
point I go on repeating it. In fact you find many lectures I repeat on a next day. so that is what that
sort of a taught comes to me ,when I review it when I see you when I think, what I am done today,
so please your open forum very aggressively, wherever you are not able to understand just right
me drop me a line. Okay.
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Now let us come back to the Physics, what is L? L if you see here is d by dt of HX what is HX? So
let us ask a question that what was H? H was H vector was the total angular momentum. And total
angular momentum about which axis? obviously we are all working in inertial frame, so it is about
inertial frame IE, JE, KE axis. Correct. So, what is dHX by dt this is the component along X direction,
Right. So, component along X direction. Please try to develop the understand the physics.
So that you are not lost in this term, and very simple compared along X axis, this is Y this Z, ZE
XE since we are working with Earth fixed inertial frame, so this is a moment rate of angular
moment who causes this change of angular moment, that is some External applied moment must
be there like who causes the rate of change of momentum in linear case, it is external impressed
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force, so who will cause the change in the angular momentum? That is some external impressed
moment.
So this is nothing but about X axis so it is rolling moment L is about X rolling moment right? So
this part is rolling moment. So this is about X axis clear, I repeat like you have F equal to ‘m’ or d
by dt of mV what you are understanding? That this external force which causes the rate of chance
of linear momentum Right. Now if I right ‘m’ is equal to dH by dt. What is my interpretation this
external moment causes change in the angular momentum vector.
𝑑
𝐹̅𝑒𝑥𝑡 = (𝑚𝑉̅ )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
̅ = (𝐻
𝑀 ̅)
𝑑𝑡
It’s a external moment applied on the body. And this angular momentum in vector has three
components along IE JE KE axis, and this rate means rate of change of angular momentum, along
IE similarly along JE along KE and this part is about X axis. So, this is like a rolling right this
moment is called rolling Okay
𝑑
𝐿= 𝐻 (𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝑑𝑡 𝑋
So, this is called rolling moment L is rolling moment what about M is similarly d by dt of HY so
about Y axis, so if this is the air plane, this is the X this is the Y so why axis which moment will
be there? This is pitching moment. Right. So, this is pitching moment. And then if you see N here
N, N equal to dHZ by dt so, this N will cause this dH by dt, dHY by dt, they are the components
right, scalar components and direction are given by I, J, K. So, I have removed this vector sign
here right.
Ideally I should write M which is basically about Y axis pitching moment similarly N if they come
here HZ a rotation about Z axis so, this is nothing but yawing moment okay. And I know you are
smarter you know rolling moment positive is when right wing going down yawing moment is
positive is when are right wing going back and pitching moment positive is when nose goes up all
this things we are clearly understand.
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So, this is the component and let us see what is the next step? Let us not forgot that we are writing
these equations of motion with refer to inertial frame which is for this particular case is earth fixed
frame okay. So, now let us do one thing we draw an airplane.
I always say when ever writing you expression do not forgot you are working for an airplane so,
that insight should not may be missed the airplane is the center of gravity I am taking any mass
Delta ‘m’ (𝛿𝑚) okay. And as you know now we are drawing body fixed axis system so, I will use
the word XB then this is YB and somewhere here this will be ZB, B means body fixed axis system
what is the beauty of this body fixed axis system that it rotates with the body, so it is body fixed
and located at the center of gravity here X axis I can align depending up on our requirement some
time we align X axis in such a way that it becomes a plane of symmetric okay.
The vertical plane becomes plane of symmetric Advantage is if I put X axis like that you will see
we can put the value of some cross moment of inertia equal to zero so, that simplifies our case
assume that XB is along the fuselage reference line we are not putting any condition on XB we will
put it as and when required right? And let's this denote this as ‘r’ bar, ‘r’ bar (𝑟̅ ) is and the position
vector of this mass delta ‘m’ with respect to CG okay. So, let me clearly write this what is delta
‘m’? delta ‘m’ is the mass element under consideration.
𝛿𝑚 ∶ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
That is total mass you know your distributing into small, small particles right. And remember we
have assumed that this airplane is rigid so, the relative position between two point physically
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remains same they do not change right. So, delta ‘m’ is the mass element under consideration and
V, V is the let's say I have to give V someone here that's the V, what is V? V is the velocity of the
mass element with respect to inertial frame, velocity of the mass element with respect to inertial
frame what is that.
𝑉̅ : 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝐼. 𝐹
I have drawn this ‘V’ as the velocity of the center of gravity am I correct what did I write here?
Velocity of the mass element with respect to inertial frame so, this is not correct representation
this represents what? This represents velocity of the center of mass please understand this
represents the velocity of the center of mass but what we are talking about velocity of the mass
element with respect to inertial.
This velocity of this element and you could understand the velocity of this element and this element
need not be same because if a body rotating like this it's rotating about CG then even if the CG is
not moving but this point are having a velocity omega (𝜔) cross ‘r’ (𝑟̅ ) right. So, this point velocity
and this point velocity of center of mass are not same in general.
So, this is, understand this is V velocity of the mass element and this is VC (𝑉𝐶 ) velocity of the
center of mass this should be very, very clear okay. Once I am very clear about it then I write the
delta F, delta F is the resulting force resulting force acting on delta ‘m’ so, what could be the
resulting forces, aerodynamic forces.
𝛿𝐹̅ ∶ 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝛿𝑚
Gravitational forces right. For an airplane these are two forces, propulsive force will act in general
through the propulsion mechanism whether it is a propeller or it is jet engine right. So, this is the
total resulting force acting on D so, now I can use because I am working in inertial frame
everything, I am now developing in inertial frame Delta F I can write as delta ‘m’ dV by dt.
𝑑𝑉
𝛿𝐹̅ = 𝛿𝑚
𝑑𝑡
Please note that this is dV by dt not dVC by dt because I am writing what is the effect on the mass
delta ‘m’ because of external force delta F acting on ‘dm’ this delta F is acting on ‘dm’ so, I will
draw a line like this so, that you clearly understand this is the external force acting on ‘dm’ which
is causing acceleration dV by dt or which is changing the momentum right? In accordance with
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Newton’s laws of motion and definitely we are particular we know how to apply Newton’s laws
of motion.
So, we are applying all this thing in inertial frame which is earth fixed so, every measurement is
made with respect to earth fixed right. That is if I am talking about this velocity V this is measured
to respect to earth fixed axis system okay. which is fixed in inertial frame that should be very, very
much clear to you now I and write.
Let me write this, one is summation of delta F is F that is total force F vector will be added and we
know that V equal to V center of mass plus dr by dt. No problem the velocity of this particle V
because that is important for us, here please note that we want to relate this velocity V which is
velocity of the mass element with center of mass speed or velocity okay. So, this velocity at this
will be velocity of center of mass plus dr by dt because if it moving like this it could move like
this so.
𝛿𝐹̅ = 𝐹̅
𝑑𝑟̅
𝑉̅ = 𝑉̅𝐶 +
𝑑𝑡
That dr by dt will come here so, this is the expression then I can write of course VC is velocity of
center of mass with respect to this value inertial frame I will keep on writing. So, that it goes into
your mind and dr by dt is velocity of elemental mass velocity of ‘dm’ with respect to, with respect
to what? dr by dt, ‘r’ is measured what is ‘r’? Let’s understand ‘r’ is the position vector that is it
tells you where this delta ‘m’ is located with respect to what?
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𝑑𝑟̅
𝑉̅ = 𝑉̅𝐶 +
𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝐶 ; 𝑉𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑀 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝐼. 𝐹
𝑑𝑟̅
∶ 𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝛿𝑚 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝐶. 𝑀
𝑑𝑡
𝑟̅ ∶ 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝐶. 𝑀
Is it with respect to inertial frame no it is respect to with respect to center of mass right. This ‘r’ is
respect to center of mass which I am writing a CG for general situation I write center of mass clear.
So, what is dr by dt this is the velocity of delta m with respect to since ‘r’ was with respect to
center of mass so, dr by dt is also respect to center of mass for us it is center of gravity also similar
concept is same right. This is clear?
Then next will go are little bit of more involved equations very simple equations that more
important please understand it should understand the physical meaning of it once you understand
that then these things are on your fingertips. Don’t memorize anything here, any problem anywhere
you are not able to understand use the forum aggressively okay.
So let us see what is F? F external was summation of delta F and by Newton’s law you know delta
F equal to m dV by dt it's for a delta ‘m’ mass element it is delta ‘m’ dv by dt and what was V, V
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we have just now represent that as velocity of center of mass plus dr by dt this was which respect
to center of mass and this is with respect to inertial frame.
𝐹̅ = ∑𝛿𝐹̅
𝑑𝑉̅ 𝑑𝑟̅
𝛿𝐹̅ = 𝛿𝑚 ∶ 𝑉̅ = 𝑉̅𝐶 +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑𝑟̅
∑𝛿𝐹̅ = 𝐹̅ = ∑ (𝑉̅𝐶 + ) 𝛿𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
So, I have substituted this here to get summation of delta F equal to total F is d by dt of summation
of VC for V it is VC plus dr by dt like this and delta m and delta m is here is the total force.This
was force on single element summation means total force so, after this what happens if I expand
then I get.
F equal to m dVC by dt plus d by dt of summation dr bar by dt into delta m so, again I do little
manipulation I write F equal to m dVC by dt plus d square by dt square summation ‘r’ bar dm or
delta m right. Is it clear. m dVC by dt, m dVC by dt then d summation, so this has been taken out
so, d square by dt square summation r*dm what is summation r*dm? What is summation r*dm
please note that we have ensured that the axis system is at CG location right?
𝑑𝑉𝐶 𝑑 𝑑𝑟̅
𝐹̅ = 𝑚 + ∑ 𝛿𝑚
𝑑𝑉𝐶 𝑑 2
𝐹̅ = 𝑚 + 2 ∑ 𝑟̅ 𝛿𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
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So, if this the airplane, then axis system is at center of mass so, by this definition this automatically
becomes zero why? Because you know how do you define center of mass any center of mass. Any
center of mass location is summation of r*dm by summation of dm now since ‘r’ your axis you
say axis is at CG, so this value becomes zero, so naturally r*dm became zero this is definition of
center of mass okay. I am sure you should be able to understand this. If this is zero then what I am
having?
∑ 𝒓̅𝜹𝒎 = 𝟎
∑𝒓̅𝜹𝒎
𝒓̅ =
∑𝜹𝒎
F is equal to m dVC by dt. What is the physical meaning of this try to understand that okay?
𝒅𝑽𝑪
̅=𝒎
𝑭
𝒅𝒕
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F equal to m dVC by dt. VC is the velocity of center of mass with respect to initial frame. What is
the meaning of this? We started doing this is the body we took element mass and you say this is
delta F another mass delta F2 another mass delta F3. So let say all these forces are acting in general
direction on this body okay. Now how to apply Newton’s law? This tells you the way to handle it
as long as we are working in inertial frame of reference which says forget about the Delta mass
and all these things.
Find out what is center of mass of whole of this Delta elements this is the center of mass or for our
case it is CG also okay. Once you have located that point then assume that whole mass is at that
center of mass. And this is applied by a force F which is resultant of this force. So now you apply
this so this will tell you if there is external force F what will be the acceleration overall effect on
the acceleration of the center of mass right? That is what you are looking for because we also want
to track how the center of mass of the air plane is moving in flight right, Okay.
This is very useful equation will use one. So, this talks about center of mass moving what is the
velocity vector but we also like to know what is the angular velocity isn’t it? because it has gone
not only three degrees of freedom, its six degrees of freedom [U V W P Q R] that is angular
motions. So this equation is good as for as velocity is concerned but now you have to look for the
angular motion okay. And who cause angular motion like F cases linear motion and angular motion
is causes by the moment right, which will also effect of force right.
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Moment so we will use the moment equation. What was the moment equation again Delta M equal
to d by dt of delta H recall what is delta H, delta H is the angular momentum. Angular momentum
and which is caused by moment acting on, that element. This I can write as by definition d by dt
definition of angular momentum is it is moment of the momentum remember? Moment angular
momentum if want to define angular momentum go back to class 11-12.
It is actually moment of a momentum and it is defined as r cross mV (𝑟̅ × 𝑚𝑉) right, Okay. So
now what I will do I will write here r cross V delta m. r cross mV written in this fashion right. This
is rate of change of angular momentum and what is V, V we have seen VC center mass plus dr by
dt and dr by dt was with respect to center of mass but VC was with respect to the inertial frame and
this I can write as VC plus omega (𝜔) cross r where omega is omega vector is angular velocity
with respect to what?
𝑑 𝑑
̅=
𝛿𝑀 (𝛿𝐻̅ ) = [(𝑟̅ × 𝑉̅ )𝛿]
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟̅
𝑉̅ = 𝑉̅𝐶 + = 𝑉̅𝐶 + 𝜔
̅ × 𝑟̅ ∶ 𝜔
̅ ≡ 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑑𝑡
With respect to inertial frame don’t forget that. This is respect to inertial frame then ‘r’ you know
is position vector measured with respect to center of mass right. So omega will have again three
components one P along IE axis plus Q along JE axis plus R along KE direction unit vector
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directional. IE, JE, KE are the unit vectors of the inertial frame which is for us earth fixed frame
because we have neglected acceleration of the earth okay.
̅ = 𝑃𝑖̂𝐸 + 𝑄𝑗̂𝐸 + 𝑅𝑘̂𝐸
𝜔
So, now we are trying to define the expression of our H, the angular momentum and just to recall
remember angular momentum. We interpret in class 10th, 11th, 12th was it’s the moment of the
momentum, moment of the linear momentum right. Okay so I thought this will help you to
understand so moment is ‘r’ cross force so, moment of momentum is ‘r’ cross mV (𝑟̅ × 𝑚𝑉) i.e. r
cross mV delta m e have taken out, V is here so this if I right. Remember V is nothing but V equal
to VC plus omega cross ‘r’ (𝑉̅ = 𝑉̅𝐶 + 𝜔
̅ × 𝑟̅ ). Now we will try to develop equations so that we
can find out the angular motion right.
For that we know we need angular momentum like for linear motion for modeling equations to
derive or to predict or to compute linear motion like U V and W, we use linear momentum, for
angular motion we will be using angular momentum and what is angular momentum? If you recall
Go back to class 10th eleventh and all which is which was to be defined as moment of the linear
momentum right. So, we are using that concept H angular momentum is moment of the linear
momentum.
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So V bar delta m is the linear momentum of a elemental mass, moment is ‘r’ cross that and that is
on summation means it is the total vector sum. And V you know VC plus omega cross ‘r’ so that
is substituted here V equal to VC plus omega cross ‘r’ so I have the H expression has summation
‘r’ cross VC plus omega cross ‘r’ delta m here so again if I modify it will be summation r delta m
and VC first term plus ‘r’ cross omega cross ‘r’ delta m and by now we know if axis is at the center
of mass of center of gravity.
̅ = ∑(𝑟̅ × 𝑉̅ )𝛿𝑚 ∶ 𝑉̅ = 𝑉̅𝐶 + 𝜔

𝐻 ̅ × 𝑟̅
̅ = ∑(𝑟̅ × (𝑉̅𝐶 + 𝜔
𝐻 ̅ × 𝑟̅ )𝛿𝑚)
̅ = ∑ 𝑟̅ 𝛿𝑚 × 𝑉̅𝐶 + ∑[𝑟̅ × (𝜔
𝐻 ̅ × 𝑟̅ )]𝛿𝑚
This gentleman is zero, so we have expression of H as summation ‘r’ bar cross omega cross ‘r’ dm
right. Here let’s not forget this term vanished because the axis is located at the center of mass.
Okay. So, this is very clean now? You see I have to use this relationship H has got component like
HX IE plus HY JE plus HZ KE which are the unit vectors, so omega I will expand as P IE let me write
this then I’ll explain Q JE plus R KE what is the meaning of this expression.
This is the angular velocity which has component P along earth fixed X axis Q along earth fixed
Y axis, component R along earth fixed Z axis. Similarly I can write ‘r’ as X IE plus Y JE plus Z KE
.what I will do now I need to find HX HY HZ so I will operate this I will put ‘r’ here I will put
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omega here and I will use the property of vector triple product and I will leave it to you, you should
be able to derive it if I do the vector triple product expansion I will get expression like it. I will get
if you write the expression, I will write HX equal to.
𝐻𝑋 𝑖̂𝐸 + 𝐻𝑌 𝑗̂𝐸 + 𝐻𝑍 𝑘̂𝐸 = 𝐻

̅ = ∑ 𝑟̅ × (𝜔
̅ × 𝑟̅ )𝛿𝑚

𝜔
𝑟̅ = 𝑥𝑖̂𝐸 + 𝑦𝑗̂𝐸 + 𝑧𝑘̂𝐸
PIX minus Q IXY minus R IXZ then HY is minus P IXY plus Q IY minus R IYZ and HZ equal to minus
P IXZ minus Q IYZ plus R IZ .and you know that what is IX, IX is the moment of inertia about X axis
IXY IXZ cross moment of inertia and we should be able to easily derive this by using this two
information, okay? I leave it to you at this stage and if you do not feel comfortable to come from
here to here, I am sure should not to be the case right.
𝐻𝑋 = 𝑃𝐼𝑋 − 𝑄𝐼𝑋𝑌 − 𝑅𝐼𝑋𝑍
𝐻𝑌 = −𝑃𝐼𝑋𝑌 + 𝑄𝐼𝑌 − 𝑅𝐼𝑌𝑍
𝐻𝑍 = −𝑃𝐼𝑋𝑍 − 𝑄𝐼𝑌𝑍 + 𝑅𝐼𝑍
You all engineering student now? These things you have done many a times I am writing all these
things to familiarize to you so that you can go to the aircraft equation of motion and if you cannot
do that any way we will be putting after getting your feedback and will post it for yourself getting
understand of it right.
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Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Lecture- 40
6 DOF: Angular Momentum Components
Good morning friends, we were discussing about the steps required to formulate six degrees of
freedom equation of motion and how did you we start, we say that if I want to write equation of
motion.
Then I need to use this d by dt of mV that is external impressed force that is responsible for
changing the momentum of a body right? And also we need a simplification, we say this can be
written as mdV by dt plus Vdm by dt right? And what is the simplification we did we said dm by
dt is zero that is negligible change in mass please understand we are developing this equation of
motion for his specific purpose.
𝑑 𝑑𝑉̅ 𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝑚
𝐹̅ = (𝑚𝑉̅ ) = 𝑚 + 𝑉̅ ; =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
For purpose of dynamic stability analysis and when you do this dynamic stability analysis, we are
not doing for a longer time we do for a small time may be we need only data of three, four seconds
five seconds six seconds that's all, it should be able to immediately characterize generally for stable
airplane whether it dynamically stable or not okay? So, because of the duration is small we said
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we are assuming that whatever change of mass has happen because of fuel consumption that is
neglect okay?
(Refer Slide Time: zero2:15)
So, we wrote F equal to mdV by dt and based on this we develop further equation we wrote F
equal to mdVC by dt understanding was whatever external impressed force is acting on the body
that can modulate for rigid airplane as if this is as simple as this external impressed force will
change the acceleration of the center of mass what is center of mass, or center of gravity, we say
on earth it is the point where all.
𝑑𝑉̅𝐶
𝐹̅ = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
The masses is can be assumed to be concentrated recall we started developing this by assuming
elemental mass then did the summation right? So, this is one understanding, second, we got that
external impressed moment that is again that will cause rate of change of angular momentum this
was linear momentum and this angular momentum and from there we got equations that this H we
try to develop how to derive an expression for angular momentum.
We again followed that definition of angular momentum as ‘r’ cross mV right? And we again to
Delta m then did summation last lecture you could see so, after doing that we got the expression
H equal to P IX minus Q IXY minus R IXZ then HY this is HX the component of H along X axis. I
will explain, what is this X axis I will try to recall so, that it goes deep into your mind let me first
write and HY we got has minus P IXY plus Q IY minus R IYZ and HZ component is minus P IXZ
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minus Q IYZ plus R IZ that is exactly where we ended our last lecture so, I will go little more into
this so, that your clear? What exactly happening.
𝐻𝑋 = 𝑃𝐼𝑋 − 𝑄𝐼𝑋𝑌 − 𝑅𝐼𝑋𝑍
𝐻𝑌 = −𝑃𝐼𝑋𝑌 + 𝑄𝐼𝑌 − 𝑅𝐼𝑌𝑍
𝐻𝑍 = −𝑃𝐼𝑋𝑍 − 𝑄𝐼𝑌𝑍 + 𝑅𝐼𝑍
one thing we should not forgot since we are applying Newton’s laws of motion we are defining
everything velocity angular momentum all this thing we refer to inertial frame right? And In our
study, what is the inertial frame is earth fixed inertial frame so, this XE YE ZE why we are choosing
earth as inertial frame because we are assuming here that earth acceleration is negligible to the
context what we are doing stability analysis.
So we are assuming earth has no acceleration or the acceleration is too insignificant to do anything
with the stability analysis that's why we say we are assuming earth fixed and we are treating it as
inertial frame for the purpose of this study okay? And what is HX? HX is angular momentum of the
airplane along X direction that is along the unit vector IE which is fixed this is not rotating right?
What is HY? HY is angular momentum along earth fixed J direction unit vector similarly K
direction for HZ and how did you develop this equation that's also important.
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We trying to go back and see how these expressions were obtained HX HY HZ is the component of
angular momentum along inertial frame which is earth fixed and unit vectors are IE JE and KE
right?
If you recall what was the approach this H we are shown to be equal to summation ‘r’ cross omega
cross r*dm right? What was ‘r’ again see if this was the airplane this is the wing just recall this is
the center of mass and what was ‘r’? ‘r’ is the distance of mass element Delta m with respect to
center of mass, okay? Or the center of gravity for our purpose what was omega? Omega was the
angular velocity of this Airplane about inertial frame, correct?
̅ = ∑ 𝑟̅ × (𝜔
𝐻 ̅ × 𝑟̅ )𝛿𝑚
What was omega? So, omega was what we assume was angular velocity about inertial frame which
are having I Y Z can KE as the unit vector. So, if I write omega in terms of refer to inertial frame I
will write say, omega X component let’s say P into IE plus Q, Y component into JE unit vector plus
R, KE unit vector, okay? What are PQR? PQR are the component of angular velocity omega along
inertial earth fixed XE YE ZE axis right? Okay? So, this is clear? So, now what we will do? We will
try to see from here how do you get this expression I will write the steps and you should do
yourself.
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First of all, let’s find what is omega cross ‘r’ omega cross ‘r’ would be what is ‘r’? ‘r’ is are you
know is X let say X IE plus Y JE plus Z KE okay? Now, omega cross ‘r’ is what you now by vector
algebra I write IE JE KE and omega, omega is P Q R, ‘r’ is X Y Z so, if I try to take the cross product
omega cross ‘r’ this will give me omega cross ‘r’ equal to let me write QZ minus RY IE minus PZ
minus RX JE plus PY minus QX KE bar how do I get this we are trying to explore, try to understand.
𝑟̅ = 𝑋𝑖̂𝐸 + 𝑌𝑗̂𝐸 + 𝑍𝑘̂𝐸
𝜔
𝑖̂𝐸 𝑗̂𝐸 𝑘̂𝐸
𝜔
̅ × 𝑟̅ = | 𝑃 𝑄 𝑅|
𝑋 𝑌 𝑍
̅ × 𝑟̅ = (𝑄𝑍 − 𝑅𝑌)𝑖̂𝐸 − (𝑃𝑍 − 𝑅𝑋)𝑗̂𝐸 + (𝑃𝑌 − 𝑄𝑋)𝑘̂𝐸
𝜔
How did you get this expression HX HY HZ which are the component of angular momentum of the
body along earth fixed XE YE ZE axis system right? Please go back to my lecture notes the
expression of H was given us summation ‘r’ cross omega cross r*dm and you know ‘r’ is XIE YJE
and ZKE now if I take the cross-product omega cross ‘r’ now you know IE JE KE , P Q R, X Y Z
and if I take omega cross ‘r’ I will get these three terms like this you know very well.
How to do it take this so, the I so, QZ minus YR minus J right? Cut this it is PZ minus RX so,
similarly for K if I do like this, this is PY minus QX okay? so, this is omega cross ‘r’ what we are
supposed to find ‘r’ cross omega cross ‘r’ so, for ‘r’ cross omega cross ‘r’ this will be again very
simple again you write IE JE KE unit vectors and then it is ‘r’ cross so, X Y Z and for omega we
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write Q Z minus RY then this is minus PZ minus RX and let me write this little separate here KE
unit vector this will be PY minus QX okay?
𝑖̂𝐸 𝑗̂𝐸 𝑘̂𝐸
𝑟̅ × (𝜔
̅ × 𝑟̅ ) = | 𝑋 𝑌 𝑍 |
(𝑄𝑍 − 𝑅𝑌) −(𝑃𝑍 − 𝑅𝑋) (𝑃𝑌 − 𝑄𝑋)
Then you do this cross product and then we will see that you will get an expression again by
mechanically just it does not require any skill now, simply we have to do similar way and then you
will get whole expression
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H as let me write this summation of P, Y square plus Z square minus Q YX minus R ZX dm then
minus again summation of P XY minus Q X square minus Q Z square plus R YZ dm and third one
will be plus summation R X square minus P XZ minus Q ZY plus Y square R, dm. Clear? See for
example if I take the first term this I will take it out so, this will be I and this into this, this into this
minus this into this, this is the procedure this into this minus this into this so, immediately you
could see you get PY square here right? So, accordingly you can develop okay?
̅ = ∑(𝑃(𝑌 2 + 𝑍 2 ) − 𝑄𝑌𝑋 − 𝑅𝑍𝑋)𝛿𝑚 − ∑(𝑃𝑋𝑌 − 𝑄𝑋 2 − 𝑄𝑍 2 + 𝑅𝑌𝑍)𝛿𝑚
𝐻
+ ∑(𝑅𝑋 2 − 𝑃𝑋𝑍 − 𝑄𝑍𝑌 + 𝑌 2 𝑅)𝛿𝑚
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But let us give an interpretation what is summation of Y square plus Z square dm we all know
what is it, this is nothing but IXX right okay? Similarly you find summation of YX dm this will be
cross moment of inertia IYX. So, accordingly you can develop so, what we have seen we now know
what were the steps to get this HX HY HZ which are the component of angular momentum are about
the inertial earth fixed frame okay?
∑(𝑌 2 + 𝑍 2 )𝛿𝑚 = 𝐼𝑋𝑋
∑ 𝑌𝑋𝛿𝑚 = 𝐼𝑌𝑋
And you are now smart enough to know how this terms have come please remember you have to
do it once all this things then you can play around with the result okay? So, put your time to see
the how what are the steps how we got this thing that clarify so, many things when we will be
going for implementation. But remember one thing you are all working so for in inertial frame
right? What is the issue now.
I will be discussing then we will try to justify why we need to work in body frame and that will
make our life more comfortable right? That is the part now coming so for we are working in inertial
frame.
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What are the issues see suppose this is the body okay? This is the airplane and are working with
respect to inertial frame. Now see we have been using moment of inertia of the body. When your
estimating deriving the expression for angular momentum like IXX IYY IXY IYZ, so many but imagine
suppose this is an inertial frame and I am fixed, I also imagine this inertial frame is same were
here. Whatever way you think that is this inertial frame I can always see inertial frame at this point
which is fixed with the earth orientation there is no change in orientation okay?
Now what will happened if the body moves rotates like this as the body moves now see the moment
of inertia about earth fixed axis system will go on changing right? Suppose, this is the body and
let say earth fixed axis system is this which is exactly what is in on the earth whatever way we
have drawn there if the body rotates what is happening whatever X axis was earth is here now the
position of particle from the earth fixed X axis is changing so moment of inertia will change similar
thing will happen with other axis also as the body rotates and if I am doing all measurements to
the respect to fixed axis.
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The moment of initial of the body will go on changing with time moment of inertia will go on
changing with time. Right? I explained here suppose this body has rotated like this okay but our
earth fixed axis is stationary okay? You see, this is X this or to be more precise, in right system
the way we are doing it lets a this is X earth this is Y earth this is Z earth right?
As the body has been rotated that distance of the particles from the X Y Z axis is also changing
that is if it was initially like this if you think of a particle here it has some coordinates with respect
to earth fixed X Y Z axis, if it rotates same particle now will have different coordinates. So its
moment of inertia will change that means I can say as the body rotates if I working with inertial
frame
Its moment of inertia will go on changing with time.
Which creates a lot of complication for us, for computation this is one, second thing is you all
know the Aerodynamic forces, dynamic forces they depend upon relative almost precisely AIR
relative Air relative speed or velocity okay? So it has nothing to do it what is a speed with respect
to the ground or earth fixed system.
I have given you example an aircraft could be on the ground however if there is a wind it will
generate or it will experience aerodynamic forces. So as far as aerodynamic forces are concerned
I will be more comfortable if I see what is happening with respect to relative to any frame which
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is fixed the body okay? I will not be comfortable in terms of if this velocity is with respect to
ground because the forces depend upon the air relative velocity with respect to the body.
So, that also resuscitate it is better to works in a body frame, okay? So, two things I repeat as I am
rotating the body or as the body rotates in free space the moment of inertia of the body about the
fixed, earth fixed axis system changes so we say moment of inertia will go on changing with time
that gives complication second point because the aerodynamic forces is depend upon relative air
speed relative air with respect to body not with respect to ground.
So, I will be more comfortable to work with a frame which is with a body, body frame and that is
where what is done is we prefer working in body frame.
Let’s say this is XB YB and ZB this is the body fixed frame that means as the body rotates the frame
also rotates so one thing since the frame rotates, so in the body frame the moment of inertia will
not change with time correct? Because axis also rotating if it was respect in inertial frame then as
the body rotates inertial frame is not rotating so, there will be change in moment of inertia.
Now, if I work in body frame as the body moves axis also moves so moments of will remain same
no issues second thing if I work in a body frame I can get what is the relative speed of the air plane
with respect to the medium okay? So, these two things makes life comfortable and of course it
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goes without saying this is located as center of mass or center of gravity for our case right? So, we
have a desire to work in a body frame it will make our life very comfortable where is the problem?
Let us see it is good we want to work in body frame that make our life comfortable but where is
the problem?
Problem is when we are applying F equal to d by dt, mdV by dt or m equal to d by dt of H i.e. rate
of change of momentum and we have neglected your dm by dt so this was to be more precise this
was d by dt of mV rate of change of momentum and that will wrote as mdV by dt because dm by
dt was zero so, need to have vector differentiation in which frame this should be in inertial frame.
𝑑 𝑑𝑉̅ 𝑑𝑚
𝐹̅ = (𝑚𝑉̅ )| ≡ 𝑚 ; =0
𝑑𝑡 𝐼𝐹 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑀= ̅ )|
(𝐻
𝑑𝑡 𝐼𝐹
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Please understand one thing suppose, you are in a frame, suppose this is a vector in this frame
okay? And assume that this directions are not changing the frame is not rotating okay? Its unit
vector direction IE JE and KE are fixed right? Now see if this body rotates like this what will happen
what will happen is and lets say this body is having velocity V then the component of V along X
Y Z will go on changing right? So when you say there is a rate of change of momentum along X
YZ
We can easily find out what is the component here? What is the component here? What is the
component here? And take that derivate of that component the scalar component that will be the
actually contributing towards the rate of change of the momentum or rate of change of velocity
okay? However, if we see this is the velocity vector right? And velocity vector let’s say it is fixed
here and this frame is rotating then what will happened two things are happening when frame is
rotating.
One is the component is changing? Scalar component as well as because this unit vector is
changing that means there is a change dI by dt, dJ by dt, dK by dt, that is there’s a rate of change
of unit vector why because the direction is changing if the frame is rotating the direction of I J K
are changing so vector is a different vector if directions are different so there is the rate of change
of vector for our purpose right? So what is to be done is that if I want to really do this derivative.
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That is derivative of a vector in inertial frame, I will ask a question can I still use this as an effect
but operate it in rotating frame that is I want to work in this body frame which is rotating but I will
ensure that it is equivalent. Equivalent to differentiating the vector in inertial frame so what is the
way to do it okay? That is the question you are asking.
For example, if you see if I’m measuring acceleration of a body let say some axis system is there
I say it is a inertial frame so I know that whatever the X distance is there d square X by dt square
is the acceleration correct as long as this is inertial frame. But now if this frame is itself is
accelerating let’s say with some AF (𝑎𝐹 ). Then whatever acceleration we are measuring with
respect to this frame will not be the true acceleration.
So what is the best way to get the true acceleration? That if I know frame acceleration. Somehow
I should absorb in this acceleration and correct this acceleration then I should get it okay?
With this philosophy, will now try to see how mathematically this problem can be handled through
the definition of a vector in rotating frame so what do you want dA by dt but I want to work in
rotating frame and I will just show that it’s very well standard result and that is if dA by dt inertial
frame is equivalently.
Can be handled by operating by differentiating in a rotating frame if you appropriate corrections

and that is dA by dt in rotating frame plus omega cross A. That is you find dA by dt assuming
there is no change in I J K direction okay? Only scalar part I repeat here. What is the message here
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the dA by dt inertial frame is equivalently, I can use and operate on rotating frame, if I get dA by
dt in rotating frame and add this omega cross A omega is the angular velocity is the angular
velocity of the frame let us try to understand it more.
𝑑𝐴̅ 𝑑𝐴̅
| ≡ | ̅ × 𝐴̅
+𝜔
𝑑𝑡 𝐼𝐹 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
And I would suggest that let us see how this equation was or expression was derived. Once you do
that, you’ll find oh this is the thing, but the message is what you need not differentiate the vector
in inertial frame you still can work in a body frame rotating frame if you instead of this you do this
in a rotating frame plus add this that all okay what exactly it means when we derive this relationship
Thank you very much.
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Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Lecture – 41
Vector in a Rotating frame
So now Let us try to understand this, we will be deriving this, many of you might have already
done it yourself, but I will prefer that we will go back to this derivation and that will help in, I F
means. When I write IF it is inertial frame and ROT means rotational frame. For our problem,
which we are solving writing equation of motion, this rotating frame is the body fixed axis, which
is also rotating with the body, means body fixed. Inertial frame means it is earth fixed inertial
frame, okay.
𝑑𝐴̅ 𝑑𝐴
| = | ̅ × 𝐴̅
+𝜔
𝑑𝑡 𝐼𝐹 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝑂𝑇
So, the other definition is that inertial frame I should try to understand that unit vectors i, j, k are
not changing, the magnitude is one, direction is not changing fixed, but for rotating frame the i, j,
k as the body rotates they also rotate. So, the direction is changing, all the magnitude is not
changing, its unit. But the direction is changing so this vector is changing okay. That is how it
doesn’t remain inertial frame of reference. So how that is to be developed, and let us see.
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Let me define a vector A. I can define this vector both in inertial frame and rotating frame because
both are having axis system. So, for A in inertial frame, I write as Ax IE plus Ay JE plus Az KE okay.
So Let us dot, dot, dot, this is defining inertial frame. I can define this vector is same frame I define
this in rotating frame. So, in rotating frame the scalar component of A will be different now.
𝐴̅ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂𝐸 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂𝐸 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂𝐸
So, this is I say AX prime, I cap E I put a prime right, the moment I put a prime is this is referred
to rotating frame, plus Ay prime, JE plus Az prime k prime. Please understand I should not slip this
prime. Once I said prime means this is defined in rotating frame r f rotating frame. Clear okay.
𝐴̅ = 𝐴′𝑥 𝑖̂′𝐸 + 𝐴′𝑦 𝑗̂𝐸′ + 𝐴′𝑧 𝑘̂𝐸′
Now Let’s take this A. Let’s talk about inertial frame, I am doing derivative in inertial frame, so
dA by dt equal to in general what it will be, if I write mechanically the vector definition. So, this
will be dx by dt into IE plus AX plus d IE by dt. Similarly, second term will be dAy by dt into j cap
earth frame. So, I must write e earth plus ay into d j earth by dt plus similarly Az d by dt of k plus
dAz by dt into k. Let me repeat dx by dt, i vector Ax this fine dy by dt, j, Ay d find Az dk by dt plus
dAz by dt, k, I value it in first now what is important.
𝑑𝐴̅ 𝑑𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝑖̂𝐸 𝑑𝐴̅𝑦 𝑑𝑗̂𝐸 𝑑𝐴̅𝑧 𝑑𝑘̂𝐸
= 𝑖̂𝐸 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝑗̂𝐸 + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝑘̂𝐸 + 𝐴𝑧
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
What is value of dIE by dt and dJE by dt and dK prime E by dt what is the value of that because
you are now computing this as the inertial frame, we should not forget this is in the inertial frame.
What we know in the inertial frame it earth fixed and the unit vectors along this directions x y z
directions are not changing in direction or in magnitude. magnitude is one unit vector and it is a
fixed it’s not rotating we have assumed that earth as non-rotating platform for our purpose.
So, these derivatives since they are not changing this is equal to zero in inertial frame. Correct,
any doubt?
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So this is zero. What will happen the dA by dt will become what? Now dA by dt let me write here.
Somewhere, so that I can use it appropriately. So dA by dt in inertial frame is as simple as dAx by
dt, Ie plus dAy by dt Je plus dAz by dt, Ke as simple as that. This is derivative of vector in the
inertial frame, it is nothing great. You have been all doing in class 9th, 10th. I am talking about
every problem was solved in inertial frame. So, what is the if I say A is V then what does it mean,
it means the dV by dt is dVx it’s component into Ie plus dVy by dt Je plus dVz by dt and Ke where
the V has the component.
𝑑𝐴̅ 𝑑𝐴𝑥 𝑑𝐴𝑦 𝑑𝐴𝑧
= 𝑖̂𝐸 + 𝑗̂𝐸 + 𝑘̂
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐸
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴̅ = 𝑉̅
𝑑𝑉̅ 𝑑𝑉𝑥 𝑑𝑉𝑦 𝑑𝑉𝑧
= 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
V has component and Vx Ie plus Vy Je plus Vz Ke so what are Vx,Vy,Vz they are the component
of V in the inertial frame X component Vx, y is Vy and z component is Vz so what will be the
acceleration. That will be the, because it’s in the inertial frame. So along X acceleration will be
dVx by dt along y it will be dVy by dt along z will be dVz by dt correct, so this is very, very clear
now and the inertial frames no problem that too you have been doing. Now let us see a derivative
in rotating frame, because we want to work in rotating frame, okay.
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Let me start from the beginning, so that there is no confusion. Before I do that please understand
A is defined here in inertial frame same A vector, vector is same has been we defined in rotating
frame the vector doesn’t change to whatever frame we put totally the vector is same ok. So, now I
want to work in rotating frame, the rotating frame for our case is the body frame is the example of
rotating frame because as the body moves in rotating frame which is a body fixed frame it also
rotate. So, let us see how do I differentiate dA by dt using body frame.
So, body frame A is this so, d by dt Abar it will be equal to see here, it will be dAx prime by dt
into I prime. What is the I prime? I prime is the unit vector in the body frame oh this is should
not be e please correct it this is wrong, because this is not earth frame, right this is a body frame I
repeat here. Please see I have written A as like this initially ‘E’ was there so I am erasing that
because this is between the rotating frame in the body frame.
Sorry for this confusion don’t worry its better sometimes you write something wrong and that
stresses is your mind and you learn better so do a correction when I am defining ‘A’ vector in body
frame they are a scalar components and their unit vectors are different now ok. The unit vector in
body frame is I prime and J prime and K prime, the components are Ax prime and the Ay prime
and the Az prime correct.
So, now I am differentiating so I get dx prime by dt I prime plus Ax prime d I prime by dt

immediately you know that now d I prime by dt will not be zero because body frame as the body
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rotates frame rotates so the direction of unit rotates so dI prime by dt can not be zero because
vector is a different vector if it has a different direction, even if magnitude is same. Ok. What is
the next step, next will be.
dAy prime by dt into j prime plus Ay prime into d j prime by dt, similarly the third term will be
dAz prime by dt k prime plus Az prime d k prime by dt all the terms are here this [Ie, Je, Ke] were
the unit vector in the earth fixed reference I’,J’, K’ are the unit vector in the body frame reference
initially I wrote here Ie, Je, Ke which is wrong absolutely ok.
𝑑𝐴̅ 𝑑𝐴′𝑥 ′ 𝑑𝑖̂′ 𝑑𝐴′𝑦 ′ 𝑑𝑗̂′ 𝑑𝐴′𝑧 ′ 𝑑𝑘̂ ′
= 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝑘̂ + 𝐴𝑧
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Unit vectors are different ok now see you know that now I cannot write dI’ by dt or and dj’ prime
dz’ prime dk prime is equal to zero because you know vector is changing the direction is changing,
question is how do I find out this vector ok, very simple.
Let’s say this is the circular motion this is a ‘r’ vector and this is rotating with the omega. Then
you know that dr by dt equal to omega cross ‘r’ very simple isn’t it rotating like this so dr by dt is
omega cross ‘r’. omega is a vector, What is the omega is the angular velocity of the rotating vector
ok so now for ‘r’ if I write I prime cap, it’s the unit vector in the body frame of reference then
what will be happen this will give me simply dI prime by dt equal to omega cross I prime so simple,
now if I put ‘r’ bar equal to j prime this implies dj’ prime by dt is equal to omega cross j’ prime
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similarly I put r is equal to k’ prime this gives me dk’ prime by dt is equal to omega cross k’
prime, fantastic, this is so elegant so simple way of find out, what is the dI’ prime and dt prime
dj’ prime by dt and dk’ prime by dt ok now what is solution?
𝒅𝒓̅
=𝝎 ̅ × 𝒓̅
𝒅𝒕
′
𝒅𝒊′
𝒓̅ = 𝒊̂ ⇒ ̅ × 𝒊′
=𝝎
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒊′
𝒓̅ = 𝒋̂′ ⇒ ̅ × 𝒋′
=𝝎
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒊′
̂′ ⇒
𝒓̅ = 𝒌 ̅ × 𝒌′
=𝝎
𝒅𝒕
solution is you have to put it here so dA by dt is equal to dAx’ prime by dt so I write it dAx prime
by dt into I prime, I write dAy prime I am just doing some rearrangement so j prime similarly dz
prime by dt k prime and what is left this of taken here this of taken here this of taken here what is
left this is Ax prime d I prime by dt and d I prime by dt is omega cross ‘I’, so I write this is omega
cross I prime similarly so this is taken care similarly for this Ay prime into dj prime and dt is what
it is omega cross j so this is omega cross j prime. similarly for Az I will get Az prime into omega
cross k prime also this term.
𝑑𝐴̅ 𝑑𝐴′𝑥 ′ 𝑑𝐴′𝑦 ′ 𝑑𝐴′𝑧 ′
= 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ + 𝐴′𝑥 (𝜔
̅ × 𝑖 ′ ) + 𝐴′𝑦 (𝜔
̅ × 𝑗 ′ ) + 𝐴′𝑧 (𝜔
̅ × 𝑘′)
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This term I can easily write, or let me write the complete term so that you understand better, we
erase this part also as long as you understand.
what we are doing and so what we are getting dA by dt is equal to dAx prime by dt into I prime
plus dAy prime by dt into j prime plus dAz prime by dt into k prime plus for this I can write as
omega cross Ax prime i prime plus Ay into j prime plus Az k prime right, this simply I take the
common so this tells me what this, what is dAx prime by dt and dAy prime by dt dAz prime by dt.
That is the beauty.
𝑑𝐴̅ 𝑑𝐴′𝑥 ′ 𝑑𝐴′𝑦 ′ 𝑑𝐴′𝑧 ′
= 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ + 𝜔
̅ × (𝐴′𝑥 𝑖̂′ + 𝐴′𝑦 𝑗̂′ + 𝐴′𝑧 𝑘̂ ′ )
What is it? It says don’t worry about rotation. Rotation will be taken this will be gentleman. You
see what is your component of the vector in X direction, Local X direction, body X direction, find
that derivative, similarly body Y find the derivative so you are operating in the body frame now
ok. Because Ax prime, Ay prime, Az prime were with respect to the body axis right. So, this is I
write.
I write da by dt in the body frame and very simply you know this is omega cross A this is equal to
your dA by dt. You may have a question when I take omega common so in this case when I wrote
this you see Ax prime, Ay prime, AZ prime ok. So, what we have understood is very simple now.
̅ 𝒅𝑨
𝒅𝑨 ̅
= | +𝝎 ̅
̅ ×𝑨
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑩𝑭
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That dA by dt in inertial frame is equivalently I can work in body frame, I have to add omega cross
to A, so in our problem we have vector differentiation which demanded it should be done in inertial
frame what were the differentiation one was d by dt of V, mdV by dt .
𝑑𝐴̅ 𝑑𝐴̅
| = ̅ × 𝐴̅
| +𝜔
𝑑𝑡 𝐼𝐹 𝑑𝑡 𝐵𝐹
That was the force external this should be in inertial frame of course here we assume m dot is zero.
Similarly you know for M it should be d by dt of ‘H’ angular momentum again in inertial frame.
what its telling either you do in Inertial frame or equivalently you are in the body frame and add
this ok. So that is the way, we work in body frame and the same time we did not violate the
condition for Newton’s Law that it should be with respect to inertial frame. So now with this
understanding we will complete.
First part of derivation of equation of motion ok. So now we will be using this to complete the
derivation of equation of motion.
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What we wanted was F equal to mdVc by dt in inertial frame and now we know that. That is
equivalences in mdVc by dt in body frame or rotating frame and comma omega cross Vc so this
is equivalent to working in body frame right, we are now expert in this. What is Vc let’s understand
Ui in body frame then plus Vj in the body frame and Wk in body frame we are working in body
frame please understand this right.
And what is omega before we come to omega what is the meaning of [U, V, W] it is the ‘X’
component of the Vc which is measured with respect to inertial frame but their X component is
resolved in the local body direction body fixed axis I direction, similarly for V and W. and Now
it’s a omega, omega I write as Pi plus Qj plus Rk, what are P,Q,R. P,Q,R are the component of
omega and omega was measured with respect to which frame inertial frame. But P,Q,R are the
component of that omega into, resolve into local XYZ body fixed axis coordinates all axis system.
𝑉̅𝑐 = 𝑈𝑖̂ + 𝑉𝑗̂ + 𝑊𝑘̂
̅ = 𝑃𝑖̂ + 𝑄𝑗̂ + 𝑅𝑘̂
𝜔
So now if I do, what I get Fx i plus Fy j plus Fz k will be equal to this m d by dt of Vc, Ui plus Vj
plus Wk this plus omega is Pi plus Qj plus Rk omega cross Vc. V c again Ui plus Vj plus Wk. It’s
very simple now. You’ll find, see right hand side you can easily right from here by equating X
component and Y component, Fx as mUdot, plus QW minus RV. Fy as mVdot UR minus WP ok.
And Fz as mWdot minus UQ plus VP. This is a beauty you are now allowed to work in the body
frame.
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𝑑
𝐹𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐹𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐹𝑧 𝑘̂ = 𝑚 [𝑈𝑖̂ + 𝑉𝑗̂ + 𝑊𝑘̂ ] + (𝑃𝑖̂ + 𝑄𝑗̂ + 𝑅𝑘̂) × (𝑈𝑖̂ + 𝑉𝑗̂ + 𝑊𝑘̂)
𝑑𝑡
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚[𝑈̇ + 𝑄𝑊 − 𝑅𝑉]
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚[𝑉̇ + 𝑈𝑅 − 𝑊𝑃]
𝐹𝑧 = 𝑚[𝑊̇ − 𝑈𝑄 + 𝑉𝑃]
see from here if you are working in the inertial frame suppose you are working in the inertial frame,
then what will be Fx, Fx will be simply m U dot this two term will not come if it is inertial frame
this terms are coming because of this omega cross ‘A’ right, because of we are trying to correct
for not being operating in inertial frame by omega cross ‘A’ that vector or omega cross whatever
view your angular momentum should you see. I repeat here what are U, V,W.
The U, V,W are the air relative speed resolved into local body fixed axis coordinate. what is V. V
you see what is Vc is the velocity of the vector with respect to inertial frame, that can be resolved
into this written in the local body coordinate system like we wrote ‘A’ vector both in
What we did, we wrote ‘A’ in Ax IE plus Ay JE plus like that similarly also we wrote ‘A’ as Ax
prime I plus Ay prime j prime plus Az prime k prime. So, this is what we are doing we are writing
that vector which was with respect to inertial frame, and we are writing with respect to the local
frame now you could see if I put a sensor in the aircraft I can easily get the u v w because now it’s
588
a body relative the aerodynamic force is will be easily computable because now U, V, W we
getting air relative right, air relative speed and then this question will come what is Fx and Fy and
Fz we are discuss about that before I discuss about the Fx. Fy, and Fz.
Let us complete the moment part there is a another equation is waiting for us to be handled let us
handle that, so let us now complete the moment equation and we will be following the same help,
which is dA by dt in inertial frame equal to dA by dt rotating frame or body frame for our case
plus omega cross A.
So we know need to calculate m as d by dt (H) angular momentum vector .so I will use this so dH
by dt in inertial frame will be equal to I’ll find dH by dt . and dH by dt in the body frame plus
omega cross H and you know ‘H’ vector has to be expressed in body frame we know the
component of H so I’ll simply write it as d by dt or of let me write PIx minus QIxy minus R Iyz
and this is now ‘i’ that is in the body frame.
𝑑
̅=
𝑀 ̅)
(𝐻
𝑑𝑡
̅
𝑑𝐻 𝑑𝐻̅
| = | +𝜔 ̅
̅×𝐻
𝑑𝑡 𝐼𝐹 𝑑𝑡 𝐵
This is first term and the second term will be d by dt of what is this term this is minus PIxy plus
QIy minus RIyz into j prime is the unit vectoring body along the body j direction so the third term
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will be d by dt minus PIxz minus QIyz plus RIz k prime it will be right RIyz so many expressions
you have to write so be careful that’s why I repeat.
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
= [(𝑃𝐼𝑥 − 𝑄𝐼𝑥𝑦 − 𝑅𝐼𝑦𝑧)𝑖] + [(−𝑃𝐼𝑥𝑦 + 𝑄𝐼𝑦 − 𝑅𝐼𝑦𝑧)𝑗̂] + [(−𝑃𝐼𝑥𝑧 − 𝑄𝐼𝑦𝑧 + 𝑅𝐼𝑧)𝑘̂]
Once in lifetime you should develop this do this by your hand and life will be very comfortable,
you cannot avoid this also if you really want to be good flight dynamics man generally notation
wise, we would double script for Ix we write Ixx, for Iy write that Iyy and Iz we write Izz so third
is minus PIxz minus QIyz and RIzz fantastic, this is the first term, then omega cross H so, plus
omega you know Pi plus Qj plus Rk omega and ‘H’ also you know ‘H’ as this expression.
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
= [(𝑃𝐼𝑥𝑥 − 𝑄𝐼𝑥𝑦 − 𝑅𝐼𝑦𝑧 )𝑖] + [(−𝑃𝐼𝑥𝑦 + 𝑄𝐼𝑦 − 𝑅𝐼𝑦𝑧 )𝑗̂] + [(−𝑃𝐼𝑥𝑧 − 𝑄𝐼𝑦𝑧 + 𝑅𝐼𝑧𝑧 )𝑘̂]
So, ‘H’, but the expression of ‘H’ we have used here you all know, so if you expand it simply
derivative and take derivative and expand it do not forget this term it is important, ‘H’ you have to
write H as Hx i plus Hy j plus Hz k and this is nothing but Hx the nothing but Hy and this is Hz
we have to put it here and do this operation and then you will get six equations let’s see what are
those equations so once you do this part already
You have seen mUdot minus VR plus WQ is equal to Fx and you know mVdot plus UR minus
WP is equal to Fy then mWdot minus UQ plus VP is equal to Fz and if you do this operation you’ll
get equation like this Ixx p dot minus Ixz r dot so you have seen this Fx, Fy and Fz came from
once set of equation and when you do this whole operation you will get equation like this Ixx p
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dot, let me write this, Ixz r dot minus Ix PQ plus Izz minus Iyy into RQ and that will be equal to
the component of moment.
𝑚(𝑈̇ − 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑊𝑄) = 𝐹𝑥
𝑚(𝑉̇ + 𝑈𝑅 − 𝑊𝑃) = 𝐹𝑦
𝑚(𝑊̇ − 𝑈𝑄 + 𝑉𝑃) = 𝐹𝑧
𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝑃̇ − 𝐼𝑥𝑧 𝑅̇ − 𝐼𝑥 𝑃𝑄 + (𝐼𝑧𝑧 − 𝐼𝑦𝑦 )𝑅𝑄 = 𝐿
Because remember this is the rate of change of angular momentum and that is equal to the moment
ok that is causing angular movement and this ‘M’ has three components Li plus M j plus N k what
is ‘L’. ‘L’ is about the ‘X’ axis that is rolling movement .This the rolling movement we’ll go detail
about it, but at present you know this ‘M’ you understand pitching moment about Y axis that is
why j bar here, and ‘N’ is yawing moment ok .
̅=
𝑀 ⏟
𝐿 𝑖̂ + 𝑀
⏟ 𝑗̂ + 𝑁
⏟ 𝑘̂
𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑌𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Which is about Z axes so If I take [L, M, N] and compare their components, we get this sort of an
equation this is ‘L’, which is rolling moment and then you will get Iyy q dot, let me write because
every possibility of writing it wrong, Izz p r plus Ixz of p square minus r square ok is equal to ‘M’
which is the pitching moment and the third one is Izz r dot minus Ixz p dot plus Iyy minus Ixx p q
plus Ixz q r is equal to yawing moment .
𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝑄̇ + (𝐼𝑥𝑥 − 𝐼𝑧𝑧 )𝑃𝑅 + 𝐼𝑥𝑧 (𝑃2 − 𝑅 2 ) = 𝑀
𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝑅̇ − 𝐼𝑥𝑧 𝑃̇ + (𝐼𝑦𝑦 − 𝐼𝑥𝑥 )𝑃𝑄 + 𝐼𝑥𝑧 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑁
Finally we have got 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and set of equations and you know these are three for translatory
motion and these three are the angular motion you can see is ‘P’is rolling about ‘X’ axes ‘Q’ is
pitch rate about pitching about the ‘Y’ axes and ‘R’ is yaw rate about the z axes so we have got
explicit equation, we need to know what are these Fx, Fy and Fz, what are these [L, M, N] how do
they vary when an aircraft is disturbed either in terms of orientation or in terms of external
condition and when both understand will be able to do justice to our stability analysis but before
we go forward to that in next class what I will do. I’ll again start from here explain each term,
physical meaning of term and then now you know that for computing [Fx, Fy,Fz] or moment we
need to know angle of attack, the side slip angle so it is the angle between the velocity vector and
the chord line or axis of the airplane, so it is extremely important to know to define some equations
where I can see how do I model the axis orientation of the airplane because the axis is fixed to the
591
body, so as the body moves, axis also moves how do I define the orientation so that orientation
again you have to do with respect to inertial frame and there is catch in that and you need to
understand very subtilties of that because its rotation, remember rotation is not a vector but small
rate of change of rotation is a vector can be treated as a vector so there is will some complexity so
our roll will be to go slowly and clarify those doubts so that when we are going to implement this
you are master of this equations right. Thank you very much friends.
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Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Lecture – 42
Euler Angles
Good Morning. We are continuing on the six DOF equations of motion. If you recall we derived
these equations of motion.
And here this force components, total force here which is the ‘X’ component. What is this X? X
is the body axis X right. And we need to know what were those forces. This is aerodynamic force
this is come because of the drag, because of lift. FTX is there because of the propulsion or thrust
and, then ‘gx’ means the component of the weight or the gravity force okay. Similarly, along Y,
along Z. when the Question comes how do I define the orientation of the airplane?
𝑚(𝑈̇ − 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑊𝑄) = 𝐹𝐴𝑥 + 𝐹𝑇𝑥 + 𝐹𝑔𝑥
𝑚(𝑉̇ + 𝑈𝑅 − 𝑊𝑃) = 𝐹𝐴𝑦 + 𝐹𝑇𝑦 + 𝐹𝑔𝑦
𝑚(𝑊̇ − 𝑈𝑄 + 𝑉𝑃) = 𝐹𝐴𝑧 + 𝐹𝑇𝑧 + 𝐹𝑔𝑧
Because I cannot use body fixed axis system. Because as the body rotates the body axis also rotates,
so what is the way to define? There we try to define the orientation of body with respect to inertial
frame.
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Orientation of the body with respect to inertial frame. We define Euler angle or Euler angles which
are psi (𝜓), theta (𝜃) and phi (𝜙). Please note that when you define Euler angle to locate a body
in free space the order is very important. The order should be in terms of psi (𝜓), theta (𝜃) and
phi (𝜙) that is extremely important. So, for this part of the lecture this course you take it, the
statement you take it, as a statement I am not going to go deep detail into it.
All these details we may be talking about in our next course may be ten-hour course on advanced
dynamic stability. All ready we have covered so many things. But remember this Euler angle has
to be in particular, then how do I define psi (𝜓), theta (𝜃) and phi (𝜙). Let us understand that psi
means remember this is the airplane, let’s say this is an airplane and let’s say this is X earth as well
as ‘X’ of the body I have aligned that like this. And this is the Y and, then Z is into the board.
Psi means, first rotation is psi (𝜓) means , psi positive means right wing going like this. So, this
is this psi rotation okay this is psi, psi rotation means what is happening now? As I rotate by like
this, this wing also comes like this and this becomes your new Y1 direction. Correct body fixed.
Remember this is like this, and now it becomes like this. If I make it little bit of more exhaustive
for your understanding. So, this is the second orientation, what this orientation is after giving psi
rotation. Now what is happened this y has become y1, because it’s a body fixed axis.
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What is theta? Theta (𝜃) is rotation about y1 axis. So psi then now theta is rotation about y1 axis.
And once that y1 axis rotation is given, now phi will be rotation about this ‘X’ axis which is body
fixed ‘X’ axis. So, phi will be rotation about Xb axis. Is this part clear? Let me demonstrate this.
Let us understand the physically what are the Euler angle. Assume that this is the airplane and this
is the X axis of the airplane and, this is the ‘Z’ of the inertial plane and, I rotate it by psi. the
moment I do it by psi (𝜓)Y axis will become like this.
So, theta (𝜃) is what? theta (𝜃) is rotation about this axis? Now this is the ‘X’ axis, ‘X’ body axis.
So, what is phi (𝜙)? phi (𝜙) is about this axis clear I repeat again. This is rotation about z axis.
So this your new Y axis. Rotation about Y axis is theta and this is the new X axis, body axis
rotation about ‘X’ is phi okay. This is the order of psi, theta, phi and you need to understand that
psi, theta, phi are not orthogonal okay. This is extremely important because you have seen that
rotations are like this.
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Why do you need psi, theta, and phi? Because I need to find the orientation of this airplane so that
I can get angle of attack extra, extra okay. Orientation is important right and If I want to get the
forces I need to know what is the orientation so that I can get the component of force. We need to
know the orientation of airplane because we want to find out the forces. Along the local body fixed
axis system okay. Let’s say for example if I want to find out.
What is the component of gravity force along local body Xb and you know this is theta and this is
nothing but ‘mg’. Then I can write FX equal to mg minus sin theta (𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃). Similarly, you can
see that for a given configuration where there is bank angle, I would accept that you derive this
yourself okay. And Fz equal to mg cost theta cost phi (𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜙) okay.
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𝐹𝑥 = −𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜙
𝐹𝑧 = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜙
Please do yourself by giving appropriate rotation. And by now you know if phi is zero, this Fy
goes, there is no FY, naturally there won’t be any Fy. But phi is zero then there is a Fz, and of
course Fx does not depend upon bank angle phi (𝜙). I need to add this explanation to you so that
you can understand what is the final form. Do not forget we are developing this equations of motion
for the stability analysis.
there is another word of caution, please remember this psi is called azimuth angle and not yaw
angle. Strictly speaking Right. Because yaw angle, when you talk about yaw angle, it is actually
rotation about Zb axis. What about azimuth angle? It’s rotation about Z earth inertial frame axis.
They are some subtle things you should understand and also theta, Euler in theta is also called as
elevation angle but not pitch angle and when I am talking about Eulerian psi theta. Theta is
elevation angle. Why? What is the pitch angle? Pitch angle is the rotation about body Yb. What is
theta? Theta you have seen, it is rotation about Y1 axis.
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That is Plane was like this after this, when I give a psi rotation. Then the plane Y1 is this and theta
is rotation about Y1 axis, i.e. Euler theta is rotation about Y1 axis. But we talk about pitch angle
it is the final. Whatever orientation is there Yb axis about that is theta. It is something very loosely
used and people often commit mistake but I thought I will tell you although we are not going deep
into this part of understanding it is just a warm-up, So that you can take-up the next advance
dynamic stability which will be 10 hour course. Where we will go one by one into all this thing.
It’s also important to know what the angle of attack just for revision. Alpha was tan inverse w by
u, that you can make out the vertical and the horizontal. And then beta we will be using as sin
inverse lateral versus total velocity. Which mostly you will find it is for small angle it is like this
okay. To complete this six DOF equation of motion.
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We need this navigation equation also, which is phi dot minus psi dot sin theta Q is equal to theta
dot cos phi plus psi dot cos theta, sin phi and R equal to psi dot cos theta cos phi minus theta dot
sin phi. To complete the whole equation of motion we also need to develop relationship between
psi, phi dot, Q and etc. And the equations are like this. I am not deriving this but we’ll make a
physical interpretation of this. What are P Q R? P Q R are the component of the angular velocity
of airplane or the frame fixed to the body.
𝑃 = 𝜙̇ − 𝜓 sin 𝜃
𝑄 = 𝜃̇ cos 𝜙 + 𝜓̇ cos 𝜃 sin 𝜙
𝑅 = 𝜓̇ cos 𝜃 cos 𝜙 − 𝜃̇ sin 𝜙
Resolved along local X Y Z direction. I repeat again P Q R are the component of angular velocity
of the rotating frame which was with respect to inertial frame right. They are resolved along local
X Y Z direction or Xb, Yb and Zb direction. And this we can derive little bit of more of
mathematics rotation of axis system then you can easily find this we can refer any book. Any way
our next course will be only talking about these things. I am just keeping all this derivation.
Because our aim will be only to focus on the dynamic stability part will be most dealing with u dot
v dot w dot p dot q dot r dot equation. And among that in this course will be mostly doing
longitudinal equations of motion which is perturbed equation of motion. As you recall what we
decided we’ll develop the equation of motion and introduce perturbation and you’ll see that how
the perturbed quantities are varying. If they are coming back to zero, we’ll say these are
dynamically stable okay.
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So that sort of an approach we will be doing, we’ll play around this equation to develop feel.
Let us see m u dot – vr plus wq equal to minus mg sin theta plus Fax plus FTx. Let us try to see
what does this mean, When you talk about steady state equation of motion. If I am talking about
steady state, then what will happen this will end up in u dot will become zero, so minus V1R1
whenever we will be writing one (‘1’) that corresponds to steady state, plus W1 Q1 equal to minus
mg sin theta one plus FAx1 plus FTx1. Similarly, I can write for other equations. If I see it here. For
example, if it is a cruise flight let say cruise, what will happen during cruise what is the value of
V1 or R1, there is no lateral speed, there is no yaw rate, so this goes to zero this goes to zero,
because there are no Q1, there is no pitch rate.
𝑚(−𝑉1 𝑅1 + 𝑊1 𝑄1 ) = −𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃1 + 𝐹𝐴𝑥1 + 𝐹𝑇𝑥1
So, what we will get? We will get zero is equal to minus mg sin theta1 plus FAx1 plus FTx1. Now
see here if theta one (𝜃1 ) is zero which is essentially true for a cruise. Then what you get, we get
FAx1 plus FTx1 equal to zero. That is nothing but minus D plus T equal to zero and you know this
is nothing but T equal to D. You could see that from this equation I can get the simplified equation
which you have been already using in a performance course. Similarly, you could see for other
equations and we’ll try to do another let us see what does this help? Now here if theta1 (𝜃1 ) is not
zero what is that we are getting let us see this.
0 = −𝑚𝑔si n 𝜃1 + 𝐹𝐴𝑥1 + 𝐹𝑇𝑥1 ∶ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜃1 = 0 (𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒)
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𝐹𝐴𝑥1 + 𝐹𝑇𝑥1 = 0 ⇒ −𝐷 + 𝑇 = 0
Suppose if theta1 (𝜃1 ) not equal to zero, then what happens here this is zero equal to minus mg
sin theta 1plus FAx1 plus FTx1 ok. Now, I write this as mg sin theta 1equal to minus D plus T that
is the thrust and then I see I can write V sin theta 1 equal to minus DV plus TV by W, so this is
TV minus DV by W, so what is this, this is again giving us the old equations the rate of climb.
Rate of climb versus excess power. So, you are getting from all those six DOF equation by
simplifying it. Like that you can go and checking that, I thought I’ll mention these things before I
go for a dynamic stability analysis okay. Now take another equation and try to develop a feel.
𝑖𝑓 𝜃1 ≠ 0
0 = −𝑚𝑔si n 𝜃1 + 𝐹𝐴𝑥1 + 𝐹𝑇𝑥1
𝑚𝑔si n 𝜃1 = −𝐷 + 𝑇
−𝐷𝑉 + 𝑇𝑉
𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 = ; 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏
𝑊
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Let us take another equation, that is Fza plus FzT plus mg cos theta cos phi will be equal to mWdot
plus PV minus QU. Now see here if I put Theta equal to zero and phi equal to zero (𝜃 = 0, 𝜙 = 0)
to be more precise I should use an notation 1 steady state. Then what will happen, Fza plus FzT plus
mg equal to zero. What is the value of FzT? FzT means component of thrust along z direction is
zero, so then we have Fza equal to minus mg and Fza is nothing but minus lift as per direction is
concerned so you get a relationship lift equal to mg, lift equal to weight. So again you are getting
those popular equation from this six DOF equations of motion lift equal to weight. This is the way
I thought I will give you the example so that you understand correctly get some feel.
This part of the lecture was almost like a discussion, just to prepare you for dynamic stability
analysis. Do not forget. What’s the approach would be like for example, when I am introducing
perturbation we are talking about small perturbation, we’ll see soon we will be talking about all
those things talk about small perturbation. Your understanding is that I can linearly add the
perturbed velocity or perturbed quantity to the steady state quantity to get total quantity. So, U
total after perturbation is U1plus ‘u’. So this linearity is allowed also V I can write as V1 plus ‘v’
and W equal to W1 plus ‘w’. so what are the U1, V1 and W1 they are the quantities at the steady
state. For example if cruise is our equilibrium point value of U1, V1, W1 is at cruise flight, okay.
And then P I will write as P1plus ‘p’, Q as Q1plus ‘q’ like this R equal to R1 plus ‘r’and we should
also note down one thing since we are talking about small perturbation that means the product of
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two perturbed quantities will be negligible enough to be neglected from the analysis this
assumption also, we have. This is one and then second thing you should also understand, when we
talk about aerodynamic force lets say Fxa I will write it as FXA1 at steady state plus ‘fx’ similarly
for fz it is small fz. What is this fx? ‘fx’ is the perturbed aerodynamic force.
𝑈 = 𝑈1 + 𝑢
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑣
𝑊 = 𝑊1 + 𝑤
𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑝
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑞
𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑟
𝐹𝑥𝐴 = 𝐹𝑥𝐴1 + 𝑓𝑥
And this we will see that ‘fx’ will be function of alpha, perturbed alpha, perturbed pitch rate
perturbed delta e like that. And that again will be you see how beautifully we are using the same
concept of Taylor series and linearity and try to get those derivatives and completely estimate or
model and functionality of perturbed aerodynamic forces in terms of perturbed motion variables
okay and then you will see how do we handle and get the characteristics equation and get the roots
and the roots are negative, then you have a different meaning, if roots are positive different
meaning and that is how we will be analyzing dynamic stability of an airplane. Thank you very
much.
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Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Lecture – 43
Small Perturbation Theory
Good morning friends, we have so far developed equations of motion and we have expressed
equations of motion in body fixed axis system and if you recall we have u dot v dot w dot p dot q
dot r dot equations and you all know why we are developing this equations of motion. We are very
focused. We are developing this equation of motions to study the dynamic stability of the airplane.
What is dynamic stability? If a body is disturbed from the equilibrium and if it totally has tendency
to come back to equilibrium but also in a finite time it comes back to the equilibrium then we say
this is dynamically stable system okay. So, we now use these equations and use small perturbation
theory we have early understood some part of it in last lecture. To repeat this, we will be actually
talking about small perturbation for simple reason that.
We do not want much of a nonlinear aerodynamics to come into the picture and we will be
operating at steady state and we will assume that at steady state the aerodynamic coefficient can
be expanded u see a linear approximation right. So we will be focusing towards small perturbation
and you know this small perturbation there are many basic assumptions that product of two small
perturbed quantities can be neglected and you see as you develop we will be using those concepts.
But let’s not forget we are trying to understand the dynamic stability of the airplane. And try to
develop a model to study the dynamic stability of an airplane to evaluate dynamic stability
characteristics of an airplane through its natural frequency through its damping ratio and time to
double the time to half, all these things we’ll know. But to make thing simpler, what we will do?
We first do dynamic stability for a longitudinal case.
Perhaps in the course we will be focusing more on longitudinal case. In a course on advanced
dynamic stability we may go for lateral directional in explicit form. This course is the first course
on dynamic stability. We will not unnecessarily make life miserable. What we will do? We will
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take simple things and understand what is the approach how to interrupt’s so that we can use this
understanding for much complex cases okay.
Remember that we have u dot v dot w dot p dot q dot r dot equations, but since I am talking about
the longitudinal case that means I am talking about motion in the vertical plane. So I will be
bothered about u dot, not v dot okay. I will not talk about bothered about roll I am talking
longitudinal so see u dot this is w dot, plunging and also the pitching right. So, three equations we
will take for our consideration.
(Refer Slide Time: 03.30)
And one is mudot minus VR plus WQ is equal to minus mg sin theta plus FAx plus FTx I will
explain all this term and we are already doing this. Still, I think I must explain let me write this
equation mWdot minus UQ plus VP is equal to mWdot minus UQ plus VP is equal to mg cos phi
cos theta plus FAz plus FTz. And the pitching equation that is q dot so it is Iyy q dot plus Ixx minus
Izz PR plus Ixz into P square minus R square equal to MA plus MT.
𝑚(𝑈̇ − 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑊𝑄) = −𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 + 𝐹𝐴𝑥 + 𝐹𝑇𝑥
𝑚(𝑊̇ − 𝑈𝑄 + 𝑉𝑃) = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜙 cos 𝜃 + 𝐹𝐴𝑧 + 𝐹𝑇𝑧
𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝑄̇ + (𝐼𝑥𝑥 − 𝐼𝑧𝑧 )𝑃𝑅 + 𝐼𝑥𝑧 (𝑃2 − 𝑅 2 ) = 𝑀𝐴 + 𝑀𝑇
So, these are the equations and we are naming it as longitudinal equations of motion. Why
longitudinal you understand longitudinal means the motion is restricted to vertical plane so this is
Udot how the speed is changing, how the plunging motion is changing and how the pitching motion
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is changing so that is Udot. Here is Udot, here is Wdot and here it is Qdot okay. You know this
phi theta these are all Euler angles you are very well now.
You know that there is a particular order of the rotation psi theta phi to locate the orientation of
the body fixed axis system with respect to the earth inertial frame of reference right. So, here when
I have written force is along ‘X’ direction or along ‘U’ direction that is FAx, ‘A’ means
aerodynamic forces.
FAx I mean component of aerodynamic forces along body fixed x axis right it’s very important.
Similarly FAz is the component of aerodynamic forces along body fixed z axis and MA is of course
the moment about y axis aerodynamic moment. And what is FTx. FTx is because of thrust. FTx , FTz
all are because of thrust okay. Suppose this is the airplane, and suppose the engine is somewhere
here so it will give a thrust also CG is somewhere here you could see it will give the moment also
right.
So we are focusing more on longitudinal stability and that is why we have picked this three
equation that you understand right. And also, we understand that we will be using what we call
perturbed, small perturbation we will be using small perturbation theory.
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Which also we have fairly good idea now small perturbation theory. The key point is. This
perturbation will be introduced where? See what we are going to do. We are going to see the
dynamic stability of the airplane. So as per the definition we are going to disturb it at one point, at
the equilibrium that is at the steady state. So, we will introduce this perturbation at the steady state
that is the catch point. And see how perturbed quantities are behaving.
So let us say we represent U, total velocity after giving perturbation after giving a disturbance is
U1 that is the speed at the steady state plus the small quantity perturbed quantity U. so this is
perturbed velocity so you could see that we have using that linear approximation. Similarly, we
can write V will be equal to V1 plus small v, W is equal to W1 plus small w. what is W1. W1 is
the steady state component of total velocity along local ‘Z’ or body axis z direction. For example,
if the airplane is moving like this.
𝑈 = 𝑈1 + 𝑢
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑣
𝑊 = 𝑊1 + 𝑤
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This velocity is V star (𝑉 ∗ ) let’s say and the x axis is here y axis is here and z axis is this and this
is alpha then W1 is here. W1 positive is in this direction and W1 will have a component of V along
W1 along z direction local z direction or again if you see in better way if this is the velocity V star
(𝑉 ∗ ) and if this is the airplane and this is exaggerating for understanding. This is x axis and this is
the z axis so what is W1. W1 is the component of V star total velocity along z direction at steady
state. So this should be very very clear in your mind.
And now we will go on doing little mechanical things so [U, V,W] you have written as similarly
you can write
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P is equal to P1 steady state plus small p then Q is equal to Q1 plus small q, R equal to R1 plus
small r then theta (Θ)equal to theta 1 (Θ1 ) plus small theta (𝜃) then psi (Ψ)equal to chi 1 (Ψ1 )
plus small chi (𝜓)and phi (Φ) equal to phi 1 (Φ1 ) plus small phi (𝜙).
All this small quantities p, q, r, u, v, w theta (𝜃) psi (𝜓) phi (𝜙) they are to be understood as
perturbed quantities okay. Now we will substitute this in this equation and see how our equation
of motion for perturbed case developed into okay. So, we will take this case now here we will do
some little bit of adjustment.
We will write the first equation as Fxa minus mg sin theta equal to mudot plus Q W minus R V
same thing okay we have written this equation. Now notice here that we have not included FTx
because we understand that if you know how to handle Fax mathematically FTx will be similar so
you can add those FTx term that the way Fax have been introduced okay. Here FTx is not added as
you understand that if I only add Fax and I know how to handle Fax, I guess I can able to handle
FTx also okay.
𝐹𝐴𝑥 − 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚[𝑈̇ + 𝑄𝑊 − 𝑅𝑉] ∶ 𝐹𝑇𝑥 ∶ 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑑
I am trying to make blackboard looks little cleaner and more focus is on the understanding rather
than all those mathematical manipulations okay. Now what is to be done? Yes this is Fax I can
write as Fax1 plus fx, I will explain it what is it. Faz I write Faz1 plus fz and M equal to MA1 plus
m. what is this one. Once I am writing the quantities with subscript one that means these are the
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condition at steady state. Why that is important because after all we are giving disturbances about
steady state which is the equilibrium point for us and these are the perturbed quantities so what is
the meaning.
𝐹𝐴𝑥 = 𝐹𝐴𝑥1 + 𝑓𝑥
𝐹𝐴𝑧 = 𝐹𝐴𝑧1 + 𝑓𝑧
𝑀 = 𝑀𝐴1 + 𝑚
If I write Fax total after perturbation if Fax1 that is whatever force is there at steady state plus the
perturbed quantity, perturbed aerodynamic force okay. So we can sometime also just to avoid
confusion we see we will be stressing the conventions the science in the manner that you will feel
very very comfortable. Many books will write fx as represent fx as fax assuming that this is only
for because of perturbation only because of aero dynamic force.
For example, let’s see, what is physically what does it mean? Let us say the plane is moving like
this and at the steady state it is the drag, let us say alpha is very small. The moment I disturb it so
there is a perturbed alpha so some component of lift also will come along this direction additional
component. So that is what is because of perturbation right. Which is too added over all that of the
aerodynamic forces at steady state and we are again taking the advantage that we are assuming
very thing is linear that is why small perturbation okay.
This is very important that is why small perturbation we are using. Now you see I will just
substitute here. I will write for Fax I will write f what is written is Fax1 plus fx minus mg sin theta
we will write sin theta 1 plus theta very mechanical don’t get upset with so many terms it’s very
very simple. So, U1 plus Udot plus what will happen here? For Q, I write Q1 plus small q. So I
write Q1 plus small q for W I write W1 plus small w minus R for R, I write R1 plus small r for V
I write V1 plus small v right this is the equation while we have introduced perturbation meaning
thereby what.
𝐹𝐴𝑥1 + 𝑓𝑥 − 𝑚𝑔(sin(Θ1 + 𝜃)) = 𝑚[(𝑈1 +̇ 𝑢) + (𝑄 + 𝑞)(𝑊1 + 𝑤) − (𝑅1 + 𝑟)(𝑉1 + 𝑣)]
The Airplane was moving so that Fax was at steady state if Fax1 minus mg sin theta 1 equal to m
U1 dot plus Q1 W1 minus R1V1 that was the condition that is at steady state all these quantities
were at steady state, it was Fxa1 sin theta 1 U1 Q1 W1 R1 V1. But the moment when I give a
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disturbance Fax1 now has become Fax 1 some perturbed force, aerodynamic force has come
because of perturbation right.
Now I can expand this by applying sign and all this multiplication then what I do is I will put
approximations number one theta is small or perturbed quantities are small and then I will expand
it. Let me write the expansions what I’ll get is let me write for you that we get one complete the
equation so that you are happy so let me erase this part. It will take longer length of the blackboard
so I can erase this also. So, theta is small which is again perturbed quantity.
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If I expand it what I will get we see fax 1 plus small fx minus mg let me write this minus mg sin
theta 1 cos theta you should also do it if I commit a mistake you should be able to correct it. Cos
theta 1 into sin theta this is equal to mU1 dot plus u dot plus Q1 W1 plus Q1W plus QW1 plus q
w minus R1 V1 minus R1 v minus r V1 minus r v. You could check yourself this is sin theta 1 plus
theta I have to expand sin a plus b so I will get those term here u 1 dot plus u dot is here q Q1 into
W1 so this physically at steady state so I have to write as Q1. So it is Q1 W1 that term is there Q1
small w is also there so this is small w. I should write like this small w.
okay and then small q W1 yes that term is there small q W1 and then small w q it is there fantastic
we are so far correct. Then minus R1 V1 here is R1 small v very correct. And then minus r capital
V1 yes, minus r v very good. You could do this wonderful expansion okay very good. Now we are
assuming theta is small so I will say sin theta is theta and cos theta is 1 okay. So if I expand we
see sin theta 1 plus theta which will be nothing but sin theta 1 plus theta cos theta 1 you understand
the approximation is.
𝐹𝐴𝑥1 + 𝑓𝑥 − 𝑚𝑔 sin Θ1 cos 𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠Θ sin 𝜃
= 𝑚[𝑈̇1 + 𝑢̇ + 𝑄1 𝑊1 + 𝑄1 𝑤 + 𝑞𝑊1 + 𝑞𝑤 − 𝑅1 𝑉1 − 𝑅1 𝑣 − 𝑟𝑉1 − 𝑟𝑣]
sin(Θ1 + 𝜃) = sin Θ1 + 𝜃 cos Θ1 ∶ 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃; cos 𝜃 ≈ 1
If this theta is small theta 1 is not small that is why theta sin was here so we have make it theta,
theta is perturbed quantity. This you should be clear this is perturbed theta okay. And here sin theta
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1 cos theta was there. So, theta is small so we have used cos theta is equal to 1. So, theta small
means theta is a perturbed theta okay. So, once I do this, I get this sort of a relationship now
yourself you see. Now say what we are doing? We are doing longitudinal perturbed equation of
motion right.
And this perturbation are introduced where at steady state. So, we are trying to write at steady state
what were the condition and that is FAx1 we have to use this equation this should be Ax aero
dynamic force at x. so at steady state this is Fax1 minus mg sin theta 1 right equal to mU1 dot plus
Q1 W1 minus R1 V1. Let us see what is the condition at steady state is. When you are at steady
state FAx1 minus mg sin theta 1 minus mU1 dot plus Q1 W1 minus R1V1.
𝐹𝐴𝑥1 − 𝑚𝑔 sin Θ1 = 𝑚[𝑈̇1 + 𝑄1 𝑊1 − 𝑅1 𝑉1 ]
And if I carefully see this expression, I underline this U1 dot Q1 W1, R1V1 okay. This is actually
equal to FAx1 and mg sin theta 1 cos theta so this becomes 1 because of cos theta being small so
this term also gets coupled with this term. Now I can say FAx1 minus mg sin theta 1 FAx1 minus
mg sin theta 1 is equal to mU1 dot Q1 W1 minus R1V1 so I can remove this term because they
are automatically taken care, they are equal right. So, if I do that if I take over this term what do I
get? Once I know that fax 1 minus mg sin theta 1 and this cos theta is 1 small perturbation this
term this term equal to this term so this this and this so what is.
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What remains here is ‘fx’ right minus theta mg cos theta 1 is equal to m Udot plus q W1 could you
see this I have removed this so let me do for u this gentleman goes okay. Because they are equal
to this this this and rV1 where and this okay. I am erasing this. Now we are left with what on right
hand side mUdot Q1 w then q W1 like this.
𝑓𝑥 − 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠Θ1 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚[𝑢̇ + 𝑄1 𝑤 + 𝑞𝑊1 + 𝑞𝑤 − 𝑅1 𝑣 − 𝑟𝑉1 − 𝑟𝑣]
Now remember at steady state what is the value of Q1 at steady state when the quiver was going
like a cruise, at cruise is there any q is there any pitching rate. No so this also vanishes correct. But
can I talk same thing about this term qW1. What is W1, W1 cannot be zero because need not be
zero because this airplane axis is ‘X’ here ‘Z’ here and it has some angle of attack alpha (𝛼).
So the component of velocity along ‘Z’ direction is W1 at steady state so this will not vanish and
q is the perturbed quantity it is there so it will not vanish. Then we have q into w okay both are
perturbed quantity small quantity so I can say they are product of two small perturbed quantity can
be neglected so this little man also goes.
And here you see R1 into v when the airplane is at steady state cruise flight we are talking about
cruise we are giving perturbation, so about cruise there you no yaw there is no yaw rate right. So,
R1 is zero this man also goes. This goes because R1 is zero, yaw rate is zero. Similarly, rV1 you
see this term. What is V1? V1 is the side slip velocity but I am talking about the cruise and we are
talking about a motion in the vertical plane so naturally there is no V1 so this V1 is zero so this
man also goes.
𝑓𝑥 − 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠Θ1 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚[𝑢̇ + 𝑄1 𝑤 + 𝑞𝑊1 + 𝑞𝑤 − 𝑅1 𝑣 − 𝑟𝑉1 − 𝑟𝑣]
And ‘r’ into ‘v’ is again product of two small quantities so they also vanish. So what is happening
what are the terms, they are there for you one is u dot another is q W1 so I get equation.
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fx minus theta mg cos theta 1 equal to mudot plus qW1 what are this theta, theta (𝜃) is perturbed
pitch angle or perturbed theta okay. So now I can write fx is equal to minus theta mg cos theta 1
is equal to mUdot plus q W1 so this is one equation of motion which is written along the x direction
body fixed x direction. We will do some more modification or more assumption so that things look
pretty simple but for all of you I must tell you, you have do it once and then forget it, then you use
the final equation and try to understand the physical meaning of all this term that is more important.
𝑓𝑥 − 𝜃𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Θ1 = 𝑚(𝑢̇ + 𝑞𝑊1 )
since I have got equation like ‘fx’ minus theta mg into cos theta 1 equal to mudot plus q W1 this
is the perturbed equation of motion. longitudinal one of these equations and I know by now fx is
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the perturbed aerodynamic force along x direction theta is the perturbed pitch angle theta 1 is the
steady state pitch angle, u dot is a perturbed acceleration u dot q is perturbed pitch rate W1 is the
component of velocity in along z direction at steady state okay. Now there is the trick we will do.
If we choose stability axis. What is the stability axis? That is, you see this is the airplane okay.
This is your ‘X’ this is the ‘Y’ and this is the ‘Z’ now relative air velocity is something coming
like this so that why we have got a alpha (𝛼). Whenever you want to find force is along [X, Y, Z]
we have to take component right like this. But now if I choose a stability axis and define it’s axis
which point towards this is the velocity vector. So the ‘X’ axis is such that let me do it like this.
This is the airplane and this is your relative velocity vector so I align by x axis along the velocity
vector at steady state so this becomes my ‘Z’ so I write Zs ,Xs clear.
What I have done. This was angle alpha correct. Between the velocity vector and x axis. Now what
I am doing. I am defining stability axis system such that this ‘X’ axis is aligned along the velocity
direction so ‘X’ axis is here. The moment I put ‘X’ axis here I call it Xs that is Xs is stability axis
Zs is stability axis what is the advantage see this is the velocity direction the lift and drag will be
perpendicular to velocity and parallel to velocity.
So I am very happy very easy for us to handle the aerodynamic forces we need do all the
component every time here and there. That is the advantage of stability axis that you point the ‘X’
axis, body fixed ‘X’ axis in a direction which point towards the relative velocity or air velocity
direction and so that there is another advantage, when it is [Xs, Ys, Zs] axis I am choosing that is
when I am choosing the stability axis system.
Now the velocity vector is along Xs direction right. So there cannot be any component along Zs
direction because they are perpendicular right. So, for stability axis system one other advantage
for computational point of view that is W1 will be zero. Please get this point clarified. When this
was the velocity vector and it was not a stability axis system there will be a component of V along
W1 or along Z which is W1 as per our notation the component of velocity along ‘Z’ direction body
fixed ‘Z’ direction.
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But the moment I put axis system such a way that the ‘X’ axis is along the velocity vector direction
then this velocity cannot have the component along ‘Z’ direction because they are perpendicular.
So automatically at steady state W1 will be zero that is w at steady state will be zero that also
simplify the equations and if you are operating at stability axis system, then you know W1 will
become zero so this equation gets modified to.
What will happen that eqaution will become fx minus theta mg cos theta 1 equal to mudot so this
is the perturbed equation of motion of course it is along ‘X’ direction using stability axis system
correct this part is clear. So, what are the understanding here that ‘X’ axis is pointing towards the
velocity vector so that there is a component of velocity along the ‘Z’ direction so W1 is zero. So
my perturbed equation of motion along the ‘X’ direction looks like this fx minus theta mg cos theta
1 equal to mudot.
𝑓𝑥 − 𝜃𝑚𝑔 cos Θ1 = 𝑚𝑢̇
And please understand theta and u they are perturbed quantities along with fx which is perturbed
aerodynamic force along ‘X’ axis.
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Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Lecture- 44
Small Perturbation theory continued
We have seen perturbed equation of motion using the stability axis system and last lecture we have
seen it is derived. One equation along X axis now today we will be doing along Z axis.
Or this is Z equation because we are talking about longitudinal motion that is why we are talking
about [X, Z] and motion about Y. So, the equation is you see the six DOF equation, it is Fza plus
mg cos theta cos phi equal to mWdot plus PV minus QW ok. Now you are expert we’ll introduce
perturbation. So how do I introduce perturbation? For Fza what I write FZa1 that is aerodynamic
force acting along Z direction at steady state plus because of perturbation there the force plus fz.
Similarly, for ‘mg’.
𝐹𝑧𝑎 + 𝑚𝑔 cos Θ cos Φ = 𝑚[𝑊̇ + 𝑃𝑉 − 𝑄𝑈]
Here it is cos of theta1 at steady state plus perturbed theta into cos phi1 plus phi equal to m again
here the W1 plus small w dot plus P1 plus p very mechanical ok into V1 plus v minus Q1 plus
small q into V1 plus v. Please understand that we are this is not V this is QU sorry. So this will be
the U1 plus u very boring you could see from my energy level here I am getting tired of writing
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all this. That is why you are the younger generation people if you take pen and pencil and whatever
I am telling you derive it ok. And you have to do it once I am telling you do it once and forget it.
𝐹𝑍𝐴1 + 𝑓𝑧 + 𝑚𝑔 cos(Θ1 + 𝜃) cos(Φ1 + 𝜙)
= 𝑚[(𝑊1 +̇ 𝑤) + (𝑃1 + 𝑝)(𝑉1 + 𝑣) − (𝑄1 + 𝑞)(𝑈1 + 𝑢)]

Then remember the final result understand the physics of it and go for designing an airplane or
analyzing an airplane. So this is the perturbed equation we have introduced perturbed quantities
again we will see whatever we did last time. At steady state this FZA1 plus mg cos theta 1.cos phi
1 equal to m W1 dot plus P1V1 minus Q1U1 use this and expand this and use this and also use
product of two small perturbed quantities can be neglected and if you see in the mechanical way
you will get the second relation as let me write it here.
𝐹𝑍𝐴1 + 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 Θ1 cos Φ1 = 𝑚[𝑊̇1 + 𝑃1 𝑉1 − 𝑄1 𝑉1 ]
That is fz minus mg theta sin theta1 equal to m into w dot minus qU1. So what we will get is fz
minus mg theta sin theta1 equal to m into w dot minus qU1 so this is your second equation and try
to understand, what are these equations means fz means the perturbed aerodynamic forces along
the z direction. So, the body fixed direction. theta is the perturbed quantity, theta 1 is the steady
state value at equilibrium and w dot is perturbed acceleration q is perturbed quantity right. So
similarly, you could see the third equation, which is pitching equation is Iyy Q dot equal to m
pitching moment.
𝑓𝑧 − 𝑚𝑔𝜃 sin Θ1 = 𝑚(𝑤̇ − 𝑞𝑈1 )
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𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝑄̇ = 𝑀
And this you could easily see that this I can write it as Iyy Q1 plus q dot equal to M1 plus m. What
is Q1. Q1 is the pitch rate at steady state but at steady state what is Q, Q is zero because airplane
is going like this. There is no pitch rate this man will vanish and here M1 is the pitching moment
at steady state. Since the airplane is at trim, M1 will be zero but perturbed quantity will not be zero
because as you disturb airplane will do like this and try to comeback or it may diverge.
So, this man will not be zero but, at steady state ‘m’ pitching rate will be zero that is how we define
trim. So, If I do that then I get Iyy q dot equal to m simply this is zero and this is zero. Very simple.
So, what did we get you see how beautiful equations we got after doing from all those juggleries
and what is important for you remember the equations and try to develop feel for the equation and
will be doing it. But as I always as mentioning once you have to write this equation and expand it
class tenth and eleventh level you should be able to get this.
(Refer Slide Time: zero5:54)
so, what are the equations you have got Fx minus theta mg into cos theta 1 equal to mUdot and
then fz minus mg theta sin theta 1 equal to mwdot minus qU1 and also of course you also got Iyy
q dot equal to m these are what. These are perturbed equations of motion longitudinal case. Also
remember while you are deriving the first equation, we have assumed that you are writing is
stability axis system, the x axis is pointed towards the velocity vector. So, you must also note down
stability axis system. This has made this equation simple.
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𝑓𝑥 − 𝜃𝑚𝑔 cos Θ1 = 𝑚𝑢̇
𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝑞̇ = 𝑚
Now this is the equation. So what is our aim? Our aim is to see how to analyze dynamic stability
of an airplane? You could see here fx aerodynamic force, perturbed aerodynamic force is and theta
again is perturbed quantity and all is perturbed quantities. What does it mean? That if there is
disturbance through fx, fz or a moment. Then how perturbed quantity, q or here w or here theta or
‘U’ is going to vary if it comes down to zero then you say, it is dynamically stable. Suppose I am
going like this say there is a aerodynamic force because of the angle of attack disturbance came.
There aerodynamic force will come fx, fz and moment. This will create a response in terms of
perturbed theta perturbed u and perturbed w and if I solve this equation if I find this perturbed
quantity vanishes comes back to zero and when the disturbances are withdrawn then I know it is
dynamically stable, it is goes otherwise we say it is dynamically unstable.
So, what this call for is I need to solve this equation I need to model what is fx, fz and m and how
to calculate fx, fz and m. Once I know that, then it is simply solving any differential equation,
simultaneous differential equation right ok. So please understand we have come very close to
developing an equation where Equations of motion where we can have our own control. Yes, I
now I know this airplane configuration is going to dynamically stable or not.
And if you want to change the handling quality, if you want to change the natural frequency if you
want to change the damping ratio, I know how to do it. This will give us so much of information.
That is why you are putting so much of time to write all this and do all steps and which you may
not like at least I don’t like writing all those doing equations. We have developed perturbed
equations of motion longitudinal case and we have assumed stability axis.
And you could see that this equation became very much simpler because for stability axis
assumption. W1 is zero. Now again I repeat why we have developed this equation. Because we
want to see whether the aircraft is dynamically stable or not. And we need to solve this equation
in terms of ‘u’ the perturbed ‘u’ and perturbed theta and perturbed q and I want to see that how
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this ‘u’, theta (𝜃), q, perturbed u theta (𝜃) u varies if it vanishes and then you say it is dynamically
stable, the airplane is dynamically stable.
And what are this fx, fz and m, these are the perturbed force along x direction perturbed force
along z direction and perturbed moment about y axis.
Let us see this perturbed force fx that will depend upon what. That will depend upon, you could
see that u, alpha (𝛼) and delta e (𝛿𝑒 ) very simple because if ‘u’ is there then there is dynamic
pressure change half rho ‘u’ square so, fx will depend upon u. fx will depend upon alpha because
if there is a alpha there will be a CL and CD that component is come on x and then delta e of course
as we deflect the elevator that will also change the little bit of CL and little bit of drag.
𝑓𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑢, 𝛼, 𝛿𝑒 )
So, it is not a bad assumption to write fx function of u, alpha (𝛼) and delta e (𝛿𝑒 ). Similarly, fz
also you can write function of u, alpha (𝛼), delta e (𝛿𝑒 ) and sometimes you know that we’ll see
that it will be also be the function of alpha dot (𝛼̇ ) and I will explain you why alpha dot is being
included and sometimes it is neglected also and we will discuss as we progress. And the m is of
course equal to function of u, alpha (𝛼), alpha dot (𝛼̇ )and delta e (𝛿𝑒 ). Let me write delta e at the
corner so that it makes our life simpler.
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Why we have written delta e (𝛿𝑒 ) in the corner because we’ll treat delta e as a control input. And
u, alpha (𝛼), alpha dot (𝛼̇ ) they are all. What we call motion variables. But if you see here, we
have missed one very important derivative in moment ok. You have seen that it’s not only alpha
at steady state there is alpha, that would give you a moment but as it moves like this because of q,
there is the damping comes from the tail, primarily from the tail.
We have seen that, that is if I take this tail and this is the cg. We have seen if there is a ‘q’ then
relative air will come here and that will give a moment and force. We could see that, if there is a
‘q’ there will be force experienced by the tail in the opposite direction as it goes down so the force
as well as the moment pitching moment will be functional of q predominantly. So I have to put
here ‘q’ as well as here ‘q’.
So, what is my modified thing, modified thing is fz is a function of u, perturbed u, perturbed alpha,
perturbed alpha dot and perturbed q pitch rate and delta e and pitching moment is also function of
perturbed u perturbed alpha perturbed alpha dot perturbed q and delta e ok. So this is fairly a good
modeling for a small disturbances small perturbation.
𝑓𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑢, 𝛼, 𝛼̇ , 𝑞, 𝛿𝑒 )
𝑚 = 𝑓(𝑢, 𝛼, 𝛼̇ , 𝑞, 𝛿𝑒 )
Now the question is since we have assumed it to be a case of small perturbation. We want to take
the advantage of linear aerodynamics and then how should I expand fx. So we’ll write fx as, we
will expand fx taking advantage of linearity. I’ll write dFxa by d alpha by alpha or let say first u.
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First I write d FxA by du into u plus dFxA by d alpha into alpha plus d FxA by d delta e into delta
e. what is the meaning of this.
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝐴 𝜕𝐹𝑥𝐴 𝜕𝐹𝑥𝐴
𝑓𝑥 = 𝑢+ 𝛼+ 𝛿
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛿𝑒 𝑒
The perturbed force can be modeled if I know the derivative dFxA by du at steady state partial
derivative I can get fx. If I know dFxA by d alpha at steady state again if I know that dFxA by d
delta e, at steady state this is important right. So this is typically I am taking advantage of linear
expansion. But this another thing you should observe here that alpha. What is the dimension of
alpha and delta e, they are dimensionless variables, but what about ‘u’? ‘u’ is meter per second
whereas alpha (𝛼) and delta e (𝛿𝑒 ) are dimensionless.
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝐴 𝜕𝐹𝑥𝐴 𝜕𝐹𝑥𝐴
𝑓𝑥 = | 𝑢+ | 𝛼+ | 𝛿
𝜕𝑢 𝑠𝑠 𝜕𝛼 𝑠𝑠 𝜕𝛿𝑒 𝑠𝑠 𝑒
But we want to write in the whole equation in terms of consistent in terms of dimensionless motion
variable or control variables. So, what we do the trick is to write ‘u’ as u by u1. So, what is this u?
Whatever u is there here, I replace it by u by u1. And then you could see I could write rewrite fx
as dFxA the change in aerodynamic force because of ‘u’, by u by u1 plus dFxA by d alpha into alpha
plus dFxA by d delta e into delta e now you could see that everything is alpha, delta e, u by u1 all
are dimensionless. Let us again comeback to this.
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝐴 𝑢 𝜕𝐹𝑥𝐴 𝜕𝐹𝑥𝐴
𝑓𝑥 = | + | 𝛼+ | 𝛿
𝜕𝑢⁄𝑢1 𝑠𝑠 𝑢1 𝜕𝛼 𝑠𝑠 𝜕𝛿𝑒 𝑠𝑠 𝑒
What is the meaning of this term dFxA by du1, this is a the partial derivative evaluated where
evaluated at steady state. You see what is the meaning of this once we try to develop an expression
to calculate d FxA by d u by u 1 ok. Similarly for f z what I can write is fz will be dFza by du by
u1 into u by u1 you are now expert, dFza by d alpha into alpha plus dFza alpha if I write d alpha
dot into alpha dot again you will tell me sir, what is happening this is again alpha dot (𝛼̇ ) and q
they are dimensional quantities. So how you are writing like that.
I agree your point is correct. So we will do some correction. So mechanically if I expand it, it will
be dFza by du by u1, so you have seen it should have been dFxa by u and you agreed that I will
replace ‘u’ by u by u1. So this becomes this alpha is fine but the moment I go into alpha dot (𝛼̇ ).
dFza into alpha dot into alpha dot I find this man has radians per second, so it has a dimension and
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‘q’ is also radians per second it has a dimension so, I have to make both of them non-dimensional
to be consistent.
So what we do? We do the simple trick, we write fz equal to dfza by du by u1 into u by u1 plus
dfza by d alpha into alpha no problem everything is fine but the moment I come to dfza by d alpha
dot. I write it like this d alpha dot c by 2 u1 into alpha dot c by 2 into u1 again you see alpha dot.
I have replaced by alphadot dot by c, c is the chord by 2 into u1 and that is a non-dimensional
quantities. And similarly I write dfza by d for ‘q’ I write q c by 2u1 into qc by 2u1 to again take
care of this dimensional aspects and then we have d fza by d delta e into delta e.
𝜕𝐹𝑍𝐴 𝑢 𝜕𝐹𝑍𝐴 𝜕𝐹𝑍𝐴 𝛼̇ 𝑐 𝜕𝐹𝑍𝐴 𝑞𝑐 𝜕𝐹𝑍𝑎
𝑓𝑧 = ( )+ 𝛼+ ( )+ 𝑞𝑐 ( )+ 𝛿
𝜕(𝑢⁄𝑢1 ) 𝑢1 𝜕𝛼 𝛼̇ 𝑐
𝜕 (2𝑢 ) 2𝑢1 𝜕 (2𝑢 ) 2𝑢1 𝜕𝛿𝑒 𝑒
1 1
Again, if we come back to this expressions what is the meaning of dfza by d u by u1. This is the
partial derivative evaluated at steady state, all are evaluated at steady state ok. so now, this is clear
to you, as far as mathematically expanding it, we will try to give physical interpretation of this
derivatives. And we find how simple and how wonderful are this thing. And then for m, again we
write as function of u, alpha (𝛼), alpha dot (𝛼̇ ), delta e (𝛿𝑒 ). Now you have become smarter. So
we’ll write F is function of u by u1, alpha, alpha dot c by 2 u1, and of course q is there,
So qC by 2 u1, delta e right what you have done. We know finally we are going to change alpha
dot and q to alpha dot qC by u1.
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𝜕𝐹𝑍𝐴 𝑢 𝜕𝐹𝑍𝐴 𝜕𝐹𝑍𝐴 𝛼̇ 𝑐 𝜕𝐹𝑍𝐴 𝑞𝑐 𝜕𝐹𝑍𝑎
𝑓𝑧 = | ( )+ | 𝛼+ | ( )+ 𝑞𝑐 | ( )+ | 𝛿𝑒
𝜕(𝑢⁄𝑢1 ) 𝑠𝑠 𝑢1 𝜕𝛼 𝑠𝑠 𝛼̇ 𝑐 2𝑢 1 𝜕 ( ) 2𝑢1 𝜕𝛿 𝑒
𝜕 (2𝑢 ) 2𝑢1 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
1 𝑠𝑠
𝑢 𝛼̇ 𝑐 𝑞𝑐
𝑚 = 𝑓(𝑢, 𝛼, 𝛼̇ , 𝑞, 𝛿𝑒 ) = 𝑓 ( , 𝛼, , ,𝛿 )
𝑢1 2𝑢1 2𝑢1 𝑒
So we are now just mathematically we have replaced u by u by u1, alpha dot as alpha dot c by 2u1
and q as q c by 2u1 into delta e to make our life simpler. Now if I use this.
(Refer Slide Time: 2zero:59)
If I write expansion, what do I get, I get m equal to dM by d u by u1 (𝜕𝑀⁄𝜕(𝑢⁄𝑢1 )) into u by u1

plus dM by d alpha (𝜕𝑀⁄𝜕𝛼) into alpha dM by d alpha dot C by 2u1 (𝜕𝑀⁄𝜕(𝛼̇ 𝑐 ⁄2𝑢1 )) into alpha
dot C by 2u1 plus dM by dq C by 2u1(𝜕𝑀⁄𝜕𝑞𝑐 ⁄2𝑢1 ) into qC by 2u1 plus dm by delta e into delta
e. And again if I repeat what is the meaning dM by du by u1, and all these partial derivatives, they
are the partial derivatives valuated at steady state at equilibrium about which I am giving the
perturbation ok. You may suddenly start thinking alpha dot C by 2u1 why not alpha dot C by u1
you are fine as a matter of convention 2u1 has being taken, German do take sometimes they take
alpha dot C by u1 for us all those conventions mostly agreed it is alpha dot C by 2u1 ok.
𝜕𝑀 𝑢 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑀 𝛼̇ 𝑐 𝜕𝑀 𝑞𝑐 𝜕𝑀
𝑚= | ( )+ | 𝛼+ | ( )+ 𝑞𝑐 | ( )+ | 𝛿𝑒
𝜕(𝑢⁄𝑢1 ) 𝑠𝑠 𝑢1 𝜕𝛼 𝑠𝑠 𝛼̇ 𝑐 2𝑢 1 𝜕 ( ) 2𝑢 1 𝜕𝛿𝑒
𝜕 (2𝑢 ) 2𝑢1 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
1 𝑠𝑠
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So, this is the expansion what is important for us to understand. How do I evaluated this partial
derivative. So, we will start with the process of calculating this partial derivative so that it gives
physical feel for you rather than writing some expression blindly. let’s do that.
Let me segregate and write alpha derivative. What exactly are we talking about, we are talking
about dFxa by d alpha, dFza by d alpha, dM by d alpha let us see physically what does this means
and how to evaluate that. Let us start with dFxa by d alpha let us draw an aircraft, this is the axis
system and let there be an alpha ok. So, what is Fxa, Fxa will be minus D cos alpha plus L sin
alpha. You could see that if this is ‘V’ then drag will be here and Lift will be here so in general I
can write Fxa as minus cos of D, it’s component will come here (-D cos alpha) and from L we’ll
get one component along ‘x’ direction so L sin alpha. No issues on that. This is the D cos alpha
and L one component will come in this direction which is L sin alpha. Why minus D cos alpha
sign because it is in opposite direction of x. Now if I find out dFxa by d alpha, what do I get, I
have to take the derivative, so what I do minus q infinity S (𝑞∞ 𝑆) then this I write as or before I
do this to make sure that we are not getting lost. I write this in another state minus q infinity ‘S’
and I put it here CD cos alpha minus CL sin alpha no objection. I have taken half rho V square out
CD is this CD cos alpha minus is here plus here so minus here.
𝐹𝑥𝑎 = −𝐷 cos 𝛼 + 𝐿 sin 𝛼
= −𝑞∞ 𝑆{𝐶𝐷 cos 𝛼 − 𝐶𝐿 sin 𝛼}
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Now I take derivative dFxa by d alpha what does this mean, this will be minus q infinity S this is
first term, dCD by d alpha into cos alpha then I keep minus CD into sin alpha. See derivative of
cos alpha is minus sin alpha so that is why this minus sign has come here, ok. Then for this minus
so dCL by d alpha sin alpha then minus CL cos alpha . As simple as that, dCD by d alpha into cos
alpha then CD derivative of cos alpha is minus sin alpha, so minus CD sign alpha. Second term is
minus dCL by d alpha sin alpha then minus is there already then CL derivative of sin alpha is cos
alpha. Now, what is the story, story is we have to evaluate dFxa by d alpha at what condition. At
steady state.
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑎 𝜕𝐶𝐷 𝜕𝐶𝐿
= −𝑞∞ 𝑆 { cos 𝛼 − 𝐶𝐷 sin 𝛼 − sin 𝛼 − 𝐶𝐿 cos 𝛼}
𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛼
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑎
| = −𝑞∞ 𝑆{𝐶𝐷𝛼 1 − 0 − 0 − 𝐶𝐿 } ; 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑠 𝛼 → 0
𝜕𝛼 𝑠𝑠
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑎
| = −𝑞∞ 𝑆{𝐶𝐷𝛼 − 𝐶𝐿 } ; 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑠 𝛼 → 0
𝜕𝛼 𝑠𝑠
So, I have to calculate dFxa by d alpha at steady state that will be what. That will be minus q
infinity S, I write CD alpha at steady state, what are these alpha, alpha is perturbed angle of attack,
so at steady state, what was the value of perturbed angle of attack, at steady state it is zero. So this
cos alpha is 1. So at steady state this alpha is zero because there is no perturbed at steady state,
only we are evaluating at steady state. Minus CD sin alpha so this goes, so this is minus zero. This
is again minus zero and minus CL.
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You see at steady state this perturbed value of alpha is zero so this cos alpha becomes one this man
goes zero, this man goes to zero, this man is CL, so you have dFxa by d alpha evaluated at steady
state equal to minus q infinity S into CD alpha minus CL. You can further write this as dFxa by d
alpha evaluated at steady state equal to q infinity S into CL1 minus CD alpha. You see why I put
one because this is evaluated at steady state. At steady state alpha is zero but CL will be
corresponding to CL1 , that is CL at steady state and this minus sign I have absorbed. So I get this
expression dFxa by d alpha as this. Is it anyway difficult for you? No half rho V square at steady
state you know the aircraft is cruising half rho V square S you understand, ‘S’ you understand,
CL1 will be what, CL1 means CL at steady state is nothing but 2W by S by rho V square ok. What
id CD alpha, CD alpha is CD equal to CD0 plus K CL square. You can easily find out dCD by d
alpha from here by taking the derivative.
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑎
| = 𝑞∞ 𝑆{𝐶𝐿1 − 𝐶𝐷𝛼 }
𝜕𝛼 𝑠𝑠
2𝑊 ⁄𝑆
𝐶𝐿1 = 2
; 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿2
𝜌𝑉
So these are all known for us. So simplified expression we get for dFxa by d alpha. Why we are
all evaluating this? Because we have to put those expressions here dFxa by d alpha I have to replace
it by q infinity S, CL1 minus CD alpha, we’ll evaluate every all these derivatives and try to
substitute them by such expressions.
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Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Lecture – 45
Perturbed Equation of Motion: Longitudinal Case
Good morning friends we were developing perturbed equation of motion longitudinal case that is
you are restricting motion of the airplane in the vertical plane and we are talking about x axis and
about z axis or along z axis plunging motion and also motion about y axis pitching motion right.
And that is what exactly we are talking about in longitudinal motion and we are trying to develop
perturbed equation of motion with what in mind that we want to use this equation to see.
Whether the aircraft is dynamically stable or not, or we will use this equations to characterize the
airplane dynamic stability through may be natural frequency damping ratio, time to double or time
to half. When we say time to half we were talking about a stable system. Time to double means
we talking about unstable system. So, all those questions will be answered and we are trying to
develop longitudinal perturbed equation of motion.
And if you remember we wrote equation fx equal to or fx minus mg theta cos theta 1 equal to
mudot and this theta and u they are the perturbed quantity, similarly fx is the perturbed quantity.
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What is fx is because of perturbation, What is perturbed aerodynamic force that has being
experienced by the airplane right. And in developing the model for fx under the assumption of
everything is linear because of small perturbation we realize that fx will be the function of u alpha
and delta e for a nominal aircraft right. We not talking about high speed or highly agile aircraft,
we are not talking about high rate of turn extra. So it is fair good assumption.
𝑓𝑥 − 𝑚𝑔𝜃 cos Θ1 = 𝑚𝑢̇
𝑓𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑢, 𝛼, 𝛿𝑒 )
With high maneuverable airplane there will be some other terms may come like delta e dot may
be alpha dot so that can be handled as long as we understand the basics ok. And then we realize
one thing that alpha and delta e they are non-dimensional but u is dimensional u has meter per
second unit so we would like to write in the non-dimensional form, so we said you may write it
like this u by u1 alpha and delta e. why should you do that and then we also know we are using
the advantage of aerodynamics being linear so we express fx as dFxa by du by u 1 into u by u1
plus dFxa by d alpha into alpha plus dFxa by d delta e into d delta e into delta e correct. This is
very clear and what was this derivative? This is a partial derivatives number one and this needs to
be evaluated at steady state because we are giving the disturbance at steady state, for our case at
the equilibrium and you want to see how this perturbed quantities are going to behave as the
function of time. So that you can comment whether the airplane is dynamically stable or not right.
𝑢
𝑓𝑥 = 𝑓 ( , 𝛼, 𝛿𝑒 )
𝑢1
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑎 𝑢 𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑎 𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑎

𝑓𝑥 = 𝑢 | 𝑢1 + 𝜕𝛼 |𝑠𝑠 𝛼 + 𝜕𝛿𝑒 | 𝛿𝑒
𝜕 (𝑢 ) 𝑠𝑠
1 𝑠𝑠
Next challenge was how to estimate this derivatives? We have already in last class we have already
derived this expression dFxa by d alpha and we have shown that this equal to q infinite s minus
CD alpha plus CL1 what is this 1? 1 is corresponding to steady state because these derivatives are
computed at steady state and if that is true then to be consistent instead of writing q infinite will
write q1 so this is the dynamic pressure at steady state ok.
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑎
| = 𝑞1 𝑆(−𝐶𝐷 𝛼 + 𝐶𝐿1 )
𝜕𝛼 𝑠𝑠
For example, it is flying at the altitude with density is rho and the speed is V, and half rho V square
is the steady state value at that the point where the aircraft is in equilibrium right. This we have
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developed. What is next to be developed is? So this is done now we are attacking this, dFxa by du
by u1 right. Let us say dFxa by du by u1 before developing this please try to understand will there
be any change because of change in u.
U1 is to only non-dimensionalize that so the question we should ask ourselves. Will there be
change in the force along the x direction because of change in the speed? Answer is obviously yes
as the speed is changed because of perturbation, dynamic pressure will change, so indeed there
will be change. So, let us see how to model this.
So, this is airplane and we talking about the partial derivative, so hence we have liberty of assuming
others to be zero, the alpha or any other motion variable will be zero so we are saying like this,
this is x and let’s say this was u1 and this portion is perturbation small u, so total velocity U is U1
plus u no problem, again we are taking the advantage of everything being linear ok. That is why
we are restricting ourselves to small perturbation.
So, once I do that, then what is Fxa? Fxa would be half or you know it will be minus drag this is
the drag and drag you know is minus half rho V square, V will be U1 plus u whole square S CD as
simple as that. Okay. What is your aim? To find dFxa by du by u1 so we will do little mathematical
jugglery here. We will write this as minus half rho U1 square into one plus u by u1 whole square
S CD. no problem. Ok.
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1 1 𝑢 2
𝐹𝑥𝑎 = −𝐷 = − 𝜌(𝑈1 + 𝑢)2 𝑆 𝐶𝐷 = − 𝜌𝑈12 (1 + ) 𝑆 𝐶𝐷
2 2 𝑈1
Now we want to find out dFxa you should be able to do faster than me this will be minus half rho
U1 square into let’s say first I will take the derivative of this. So, this will be two, one plus u by
U1 into S CD then the next term I will take again minus half rho U1 square S into one plus u by
U1 square into dCD by du by dU1 right, this is clear. This is minus half rho U1 square S is here
this is same so this dCD by du by dU1. Now what is this dFxa by du by U1. what is another
condition?
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑎 1 𝑢 1 𝑢 2 𝜕𝐶𝐷
= − 𝜌𝑈12 . 2 (1 + ) 𝑆 𝐶𝐷 − 𝜌𝑈12 𝑆 (1 + )
𝜕(𝑢⁄𝑈1 ) 2 𝑈1 2 𝑈1 𝜕(𝑢⁄𝑈1 )
Then I need to evaluate this at steady state that is very critical ok if I want to evaluate at steady
state I know at steady state U is zero. So what will happen if I substitute that, then I get an
expression.
I will get dFxa by du by U1 and is equal to I put U is equal to zero because this is at steady state
so this remains minus we say ‘q’ so at steady state ok. So I write q infinite then there will be two,
then U is zero is gone so S cd then minus again Q infinite and then this is 1 this is half rho V square
S, u is zero so this goes, q infinty I write S and then I have dCD by du by U1 ok can I check this,
here see this is q infinity S, this is zero because at steady state no perturbed value so this becomes
one so dCD by du by U1, very good.
633
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑎 𝜕𝐶𝐷
| = −𝑞∞ . 2𝑆𝐶𝐷 − 𝑞∞ 𝑆 ( )
𝜕(𝑢⁄𝑈1 ) 𝑠𝑠 𝜕𝑢⁄𝑈1
Now I can write this as dFxa by du by U1 as minus at steady state we are evaluating so we agreed
we will not write q infinite at steady state we will put the substitute 1 to understand this is the
quantity evaluated at steady state. So two is here, two I write here S CD1 and again CD is evaluated
at steady state minus q1 S then CDu. where CDu is nothing but dCD by du by u1 will understand
what is CDu when we complete this. So, this is basically minus q1 s right. And so this will be two
CD1 plus CDu that is what is dFxa by du by U1.
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑎 𝜕𝐶𝐷
| = −2𝑞1 𝑆𝐶𝐷1 − 𝑞1 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝑢 ; 𝐶𝐷𝑢 =
𝜕(𝑢⁄𝑈1 ) 𝑠𝑠 𝜕𝑢⁄𝑈1
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑎
= −𝑞1 𝑆[2𝐶𝐷1 + 𝐶𝐷𝑢 ]
𝜕(𝑢⁄𝑈1 )
Let me check am I getting the same. Now let us see as I told you have to do all this things once
and try to understand and get physical interpretation of this derivative. So now we talk little bit
about this derivative. Ok let us do that.
So let me write this dFxa by du by u1 is equal to minus q1 s into 2 CD1 plus CDu. You could see
that we have developed this expression and we are trying to give an interpretation to write inside
q1. What is q1? q1 is half rho V square the dynamic pressure at steady state that is at the
equilibrium right.
634
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑎
= −𝑞1 𝑆[2𝐶𝐷1 + 𝐶𝐷𝑢 ]
𝜕(𝑢⁄𝑈1 )
1
𝑞1 = ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑠: 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚
2
For our case let say it is cruising and the cruise we have taken as equilibrium so this will be half
whatever the rho altitude will be there into v cruise square that is our q1 ok. Now no issues. CD1
what is CD1? CD1 means cd at steady state. How do you know? What is cd? cd we know through
drag puller that is CD0 plus k c l square. You are all familiar about this, so what will be CD1?
CD1 will be CD0 plus k CL1 square. What is CL1 square?
1
𝜌 𝑉 2 = 𝑞1
2 𝑎𝑙𝑡 𝑐
𝐶𝐷1 = 𝐶𝐷 ; 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑠
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿2
𝐶𝐷1 = 𝐶𝐷0 + 𝐾𝐶𝐿21
CL1 means CL at steady state for our case it is at cruise so what is CL at cruise? CL at cruise is
two W by S by rho V cruise (𝑉𝐶 ) square. So CL1 will be this. We all know lift equal to weight. So
all the things we are knowing. Now the question will come on CDu. What is CDu? Let us
understand what is CDu? This is very important please understand this CDu concept ok.
2𝑊 ⁄𝑆
𝐶𝐿1 =
𝜌𝑉𝑐2
635
This is the first time we are seeing it and they are very important for high-speed airplane ok. CDu
you know by definition. It is dCD by du by u1 right. Physically what does it mean? It means the
changes in u will there be change in CD is there or not. See please let us understand so you see CD
versus mac number plot right.
Generally it is something like this right. Up to 0.6 or 0.7. This is fairly constant CD. This is CD0.
This talking about drag its parasite drag, because of shape, because of mac number, because of
flight regime. We are talking about CD0. And you know after some point there is the formation of
shock waves and here around one we will get the peak. This is the CD versus mac number
And if I ask you what is dCD by dM which I mean dCD0 by d m is what you could see upto 0.6
or 0.7 which is almost zero, this is up to mac number equal to 0.6 or 0.7 ok. It varies different
different configuration and dCD by dM is positive in the first part here. This slope is positive and
you could see dCD by dM is less than zero for the second part at high supersonic speed.
You could see that when I am accelerating towards supersonic right. That time the dCD by dM is
actually positive. At here dCD by dM at supersonic speed is negative. So once you understand
this let us use this understanding, to understand what is dCD by du by u1. This I can easily write
636
as CDu as dCD by du by a, U1 by a. I am dividing u and u1 by a which cancels each other but it
gives very important information.
This tells this U1 by ‘a’ will be M1 and this is dCD by dM so I will look for CDu through this
relationship. Now you see CDu, M1 is the mac number at the steady state now important thing is
dCD by dM. So now since you understand dCD by dM. How it varies for subsonic transonic to
supersonic? So, you can easily say CDu is zero let say between mac numbers 0.6 to 0.7 is the mac
number.
𝜕𝐶𝐷
𝐶𝐷𝑢 =
𝜕𝑢⁄𝑎
𝑈1 ⁄𝑎
𝜕𝐶𝐷
𝐶𝐷𝑢 = 𝑀1
𝜕𝑀
𝐶𝐷𝑢 = 0 ; 0.6 − 0.7 (𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ)
𝐶𝐷𝑢 > 0 ; 𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑜 1.0
𝐶𝐷𝑢 < 0 ; 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐
And this dCDu or CDu is positive at this part may be upto 1.0 mac and CDu is negative for
supersonic. Extremely important derivative and you see that once you understood this we’ll see
what happens during the moment. ok. So, what is our success till? Now we have derived dFxa by
du by u1 and we have understood what are the right hand side.
637
So let us again come back that what we have fx equal to dFxa by du by u1 u by u1 plus d f dFxa
by d alpha into alpha plus dFxa by d delta e into delta e we have already evaluated this evaluated
this we know this has to be evaluated at steady state we are now left with evaluating this at steady
state.
𝑓𝑥 = | + | 𝛼+ | 𝛿
𝜕𝑢⁄𝑈1 𝑠𝑠 𝑈1 𝜕𝛼 𝑠𝑠 𝜕𝛿𝑒 𝑠𝑠 𝑒
So let us see dFxa by d delta e, at steady state is very straight forward thing but physically if you
understand. If this is the elevator and this is the tail. When I am deflecting by delta e, it is changing
CL delta CL will come and correspondingly delta CD will also come. So that will contribute toward
‘X’ and this is very head for a small perturbation I can write this as Fxa is equal to of course drag
will be in this direction, and x is in this direction.
So, I write minus half rho U1 square S CD delta e or let me write for your classification dCD by d
delta e into delta e. Remember this is Fxa because of elevator deflection holding other constant so
that why we are talking about the partial derivative and here you could see clearly that dCD by d
delta e will not be very strong number but then for completion we will complete this dFxa by d
delta e will be equal to minus q1 S CD delta e that’s all.
1 𝜕𝐶𝐷
𝐹𝑥𝑎 = − 𝜌𝑈12 𝑆 𝛿
2 𝜕𝛿𝑒 𝑒
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑎
= −𝑞1 𝑆 𝐶𝐷𝛿𝑒
𝜕𝛿𝑒
638
Please understand for small small aircrafts CD delta e (𝐶𝐷𝛿𝑒 ) may not be very large significant
but then any amount of drag need to be correctly modelled because this has directly link with the
fuel consumption. Of course, this is also at steady state so let us see what we have being doing and
why we are doing I again take you back to this fx minus m g theta cos theta 1 is equal to mudot
and fx.
We have written as dFxa by du b y u1 into u by u1 plus dFxa by d alpha into alpha plus dFxa by
d delta e into delta e of course this ‘A’ means aerodynamic force and I have been telling you
repeatedly similar exercise you can do for thrust expression also. At once you know how to do
for aerodynamic and you know how to encounter thrust effect also.
𝑓𝑥 − 𝑚𝑔 𝜃 cos Θ1 = 𝑚𝑢̇
𝑓𝑥 = | + | 𝛼+ | 𝛿
𝜕𝑢⁄𝑈1 𝑠𝑠 𝑈1 𝜕𝛼 𝑠𝑠 𝜕𝛿𝑒 𝑠𝑠 𝑒
So now what is the expression for dFxa. dFxa by d by u by u1 is equal to minus q1 S into CDu
plus 2 CD1. Then DFxa by d alpha we have seen in the last lecture that was equal to q1 S into
CL1 minus CD alpha. You understand what is CL1, you understand what is CD alpha? Then we
have seen dFxa by d delta e is equal to minus q1 S CD delta e right.
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑎
= −𝑞1 𝑆 (𝐶𝐷𝑢 + 2𝐶𝐷1 )
𝜕𝑢⁄𝑈1
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑎
= 𝑞1 𝑆(𝐶𝐿1 − 𝐶𝐷𝛼 )
𝜕𝛼
639
𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑎
= −𝑞1 𝑆 𝐶𝐷𝛿𝑒
𝜕𝛿𝑒
So what is fx then? Very simple fx will be this one for this, this one into u by u1 this term will be
this, this term will be into alpha and third is will be this term into delta e. clear I repeat in the fx,
now dFxa by du by u 1 which is given by this expression I have to substitute multiply by u by u1
for this I have to put this expression into alpha, and for third dFxa by d delta e (𝜕𝐹𝑥𝑎 ⁄𝜕𝛿𝑒 ) I have
to put this expression. And I will put it all this thing here in this equation ok. So what we will get
first purely mechanical so I can write this as.
Let me write it dFxa by d alpha so that is q1 S minus CDu plus 2 CD1 into alpha. No sorry. I have
written wrong thing there. That is the problem. Let me erase this we have to be careful. What I
have to write here. I have to write here the expression for dFxa by d alpha so what is that q1 S CL1
minus CD alpha into alpha let me check.
q1 s right CL1 very good then of course for third dFxa by d delta which is minus q1 S CD delta e
so I will write minus q1 s CD delta e into delta e. So this is completely the first term fx. whole fx
I have written it here clear. Now what is there in the next this is minus m g theta cos theta 1 equal
to mudot no issues simply mechanically I am doing, I have substituted fx as if with few expressions
then minus m g theta cos theta1 equal to mudot.
𝑢
−𝑞1 𝑆(𝐶𝐷𝑢 + 2𝐶𝐷1 ) + 𝑞1 𝑆(𝐶𝐿1 − 𝐶𝐷𝛼 )𝛼 − 𝑞1 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 − 𝑚𝑔𝜃 cos Θ1 = 𝑚𝑢̇
𝑈1
640
Now if I do some sort of a jugulary then I can write which I leave it to you understand immediately
what is this u dot I want to write so because I have to write in acceleration form so ‘m’, I divide
everything by m. so what I will get I will get minus q1 S by m CDu plus 2 CD1 right and I put it
here U1 and put it here small u. you understand the U1 I have taken under this m U1. ‘m’ has come
because of dividing by ‘m’ so this is u dot clear.
This m I am taking denominator here so I take u dot in left hand side and this u by u1 this u1 have
taken it here so what we are doing is? We are writing u dot equal to so this m has come here so
that m is here and u by u1, that u 1 I have taken it here so, its left with ‘u’, then second term is q1
S again divided by m right. And then, this is CL1 minus CD alpha into alpha, and of course this is
q1 S by ‘m’, CD delta e into delta e, no issues. So now I write u dot in neater form u dot is equal
to Xu into u plus X alpha into alpha plus X delta e into delta e no problem.
We are missing something know. This, this fine u dot is equal to this of course we’ll have here
minus m g theta so it will be g theta cos theta 1 please understand I have missed this term. What
you are doing u dot you are writing so divided by m so we are this part is taken here divided by m
this part is taken here but we forgot to take care of this term. This will be m will be cancelled so g
theta cos theta 1. So I will write this here minus g theta cos theta 1.
𝑞1 𝑆 𝑞1 𝑆 𝑞1
𝑢̇ = − (𝐶𝐷𝑢 + 2𝐶𝐷1 )𝑢 + (𝐶𝐿1 − 𝐶𝐷𝛼 )𝛼 − 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 − 𝑔𝜃 cos Θ1
𝑚𝑈1 𝑚 𝑚
𝑢̇ = 𝑋𝑢 𝑢 + 𝑋𝛼 𝛼 + 𝑋𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 − 𝑔𝜃 cos Θ1
Now if I ask you a question what is Xu? Let us see, whether you are with me or not as I told you
please sit with pen and pencil when listening to this lecture. So, what is Xu?
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Very simple see from here Xu into u that means this whole team is Xu that is Xu is minus q1 S by
m U1 into CDu plus 2 CD1 right. And you know U1 is the steady state velocity at cruise because
all the equilibrium or steady state is at cruise. Similarly you are smart enough to tell me what is X
alpha? X alpha you can check yourself. X alpha will be q1 S by m, CL1 minus CD alpha as simple
as that okay. So X delta e will be what? X delta e will be minus q1 s CD delta e ok.
Many books you see that to ensure every time this minus sign will be there so they write X alpha
as minus q1 S by m, and they write CD alpha minus CL1. So everywhere you will find minus q1
is coming. Okay. So this equation now we have been able to derive again lets come back to this
why we are deriving this equation because you know that, this u dot is a perturbed u how the u is
going to change that will be decided by the change in the aerodynamic because of motion and
those are decided by Xu, X alpha, X delta e and u, alpha are the perturbed quantity. Where I want
to see whether it really decays or it increases to come in terms of dynamic stability, but as you
understand here this is u, perturbed quantity alpha is there so this one equation is not sufficient.
𝑞1 𝑆
𝑋𝑢 = − (𝐶 + 2𝐶𝐷1 )
𝑚𝑈1 𝐷𝑢
𝑞1 𝑆 𝑞1 𝑆
𝑋𝛼 = (𝐶𝐿1 − 𝐶𝐷𝛼 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑋𝛼 = − (𝐶 − 𝐶𝐿1 )
𝑚 𝑚 𝐷𝛼
𝑞1
𝑋𝛿𝑒 = − 𝑆𝐶𝐷𝛿𝑒
𝑚
So we have to also include equation because of plunging as well as pitching which completes the
longitudinal perturbed equation of motion.
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Aircraft Stability & Control
Prof. A.K.Ghosh
Indian institute of technology-Kanpur
Lecture -46
Perturbed force
Let us take the second equation. What was second equation?

We wrote fz minus mg theta, sin theta 1 is equal to m, w dot minus q U1. Please remember we
have taken stability axis system right. And I’ll repeat what isa stability axis system is this. This is
an airplane this is your x, original x is this, y is this and z is this and here is the velocity vector like
this, this is the normal body fixed axis system. If I am talking about stability axis system then what
happens this airplane is this cg and this velocity vector.
So, I align x axis like this and we call it. Xs and this become Zs stability axis ok. This becomes
alpha so I am keeping the x axis align to the velocity vector why? Because then there is no
component of velocity in z direction so w1 becomes zero, w 1 goes to zero. But here you see w1
not equal to zero. Because this is the velocity vector there will be a component along the z
direction. But here by choosing stability axis system w1 becomes zero.
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So that after applying this only you got this final equation, you should not forget right extremely
important and why stability axis system because you know if velocity is in this direction then lift
but perpendicular to this, drag is opposing to this. So the computation becomes simpler again we
are, we’ll go mechanically like the way we have done there.
so we write fz is now we are smarter will write u by u1 then alpha putting it on q you make put it
term alpha dot and delta e. You might have seen in f x modeling we haven’t put q and we haven’t
put alpha dot. Theoretically they should be there but they are small so we have neglected it right.
For fz we need to know that why there should be a ‘q’? Which you know very well that if this is
the cg and if there is a horizontal tail or the wing whatever it is? If there is q, then this q if its going
up like this so the tail is going down. So relative air is going up like this.
𝑢
𝑓𝑧 = 𝑓 ( , 𝛼, 𝑞, 𝛼̇ , 𝛿𝑒 )
𝑈1
And its moving forward so there will be delta alpha. Which is q lt by u1 right? I say lt is the
distance between aerodynamic center. So this delta alpha will give you indeed a force in the terms
of lift and depending upon y or z axis. This will have component along the z axis right. So that is
why ‘q’ will played important role in fz and soon you’ll see it will have a more most crucial role
in terms of moment.
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pitching moment we also see that alpha dot will play role and will come back to the physical
signification of alpha dot in developing forces or fz, when you talk about the derivative with
respect to alpha dot and delta e you know very well right because of delta e there will be a force
lift and that will have a component always z know but modeling is ok. This part will be almost
mechanical you’ll see, since we have done the first problem very exhaustively so I can write.
Fz as dFza by d u by u1 into u by u1 plus dFza by d alpha into alpha plus dFza by d q c by 2u1 let
me write then I’ll tell you. And dFza by d alpha dot c by 2u1 into alpha dot c by 2u1 plus dFza by
d delta e into delta e. You could see these two alpha dot C and q c by 2u1.Remember we have to
convert u into non-dimensional by dividing by u1 because you wanted all this thing should be non-
dimensional form. But you could see here these q and alpha dot have a time dimension radians per
second.
𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑎 𝑢 𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑎 𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑎 𝑞𝑐 𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑎 𝛼̇ 𝑐 𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑎
𝑓𝑧 = 𝑢 𝑈 + 𝜕𝛼 𝛼 + 𝑞𝑐 ( )+ ( )+ 𝛿𝑒
𝜕𝑈 1 𝜕 (2𝑈 ) 2𝑈1 𝛼̇ 𝑐 2𝑈1 𝜕𝛿 𝑒
1
𝜕 (2𝑈 )
1 1
So what we do is now we write fz as a function of u by u1. Then alpha non-dimensional for q we

write q c by 2u1. And you that QC by 2u1 is non-dimensional. Then for alpha dot we write. Alpha
dot c by 2u1 right then delta e with the same theory same understanding that you need to keep this
argument non-dimensional. So for u you make it u by u1, for q its a conventional thing q c by 2u1
somebody ask why two take it as convention q c by 2u1 as long as dimension are dimensionless
ok.
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So if I write like this now from here I can write dFza by du by u1 into u by u1, dFza by d alpha
into alpha, dFza by qc by 2u1, 2 qc by u1 and dFza by d alpha dot c by 2u1 then dFza by d delta e
into delta e correct. So what is now? What is important now? Important is. Can I get quick estimate
or formulation to evaluate this derivatives at steady state? That is the catch point at steady state
Let’s first attack dFza, du by u1. Before we start doing it, we know fz means aerodynamic
perturbed force along z direction ok. So let us do that. so I can write f a is equal to minus CL into
half rho U1 plus u whole square s. what is this.
1
𝐹𝑧𝑎 = −𝐶𝐿 𝜌(𝑈1 + 𝑢)2 𝑆
2
1 𝑢 2
𝐹𝑧𝑎 = −𝐶𝐿 𝜌𝑈12 𝑆 (1 + )
2 𝑈1
This I am trying to find out dFza by du by u1. If you recall this is the aircraft. This is u1. And some
perturb, because of perturbation this is U, the total speed is u1 plus u. so what will be the total
force will be half rho v square which is u1 plus u, s into CL right. So now what I do, I write fz a is
equal to minus CL into half rho u1 square s into one plus u by u1 square. No problem 1 plus u by
u1is square square fine. So know I have to find out dFza by du by u1.
𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑎 𝑢 𝑢 2 𝜕𝐶𝐿
𝑢 | = −𝑞 𝑆𝐶 . 2 (1 + ) − 𝑞 𝑆 (1 + )
𝜕 (𝑢 )
∞ 𝐿
𝑈1 ∞
𝑈1 𝜕 ( 𝑢 )
1 𝑠𝑠 𝑈1
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So first I do like this. When you say minus q infinity s this is half rho v square s and then CL and
then derivative of this then it will be 2 into 1 plus u by u1 right. Then second is minus 2 infinity s
1 plus u by u1 square into dCL by du by U1 no objection. So know I put condition at steady state.
When I say at steady state what does it mean, means the perturbed quantity should be zero. So this
becomes minus q1S is CL1 into , so this will become zero.
𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑎 𝜕𝐶𝐿
𝑢 | = −𝑞∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿 . 2 − 𝑞∞ 𝑆 𝑢
𝜕 (𝑢 ) 𝜕 (𝑈 )
1 𝑠𝑠 1
So minus q 1s into this is zero this goes into d CL by du by u1. So, what is the final expression?
Final expression is as simple as dFza by du by u1 equal to minus q1s 2 I can put here or I can put
out side. 2CL 1 plus CLu. You could see dFza by du by du1 is as simple as this. Let us see ho
many things we understand. What is q1? Q1 is the dynamic pressure at steady state. If it is cruise
it is half rho v cruise square. CL1 is at cruise CL1 is will be 2W by S rho v cruise square that is
lift equal to weight. What is CLu? Let us understand this is CLu. This is important.
𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑎
𝑢 = −𝑞1 𝑆{2𝐶𝐿1 + 𝐶𝐿𝑢 }
𝜕 (𝑢 )
1
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Let as focus on CLu and by definition it is dCL by du by u1 right. Remember we have already
done something CDu ok. Let us see here if I plot CL versus mach number we’ll find the plot will
go something that again 0.6 to 0.7 constant, will goes take a dip at transonic and go like this ok.
Could you see this if I darken it go like this, roughly like this. And this point is in an around 1. It
could be point 98. It could be point1.2 depending upon the shape nose shape typically.
Now if I see here if I try to tell you what is the DCL by DM up to 0.6 or 0.7 again this is zero but
for one region, region one it is DCL by DM is positive for region one and DCL by D M is less
than zero for region two. At react supersonic speed DCL by DM is less than zero. At subsonic or
upto 0.6 to 0.7 dCL by dM is almost zero and between 0.6 to 1.1 or 1.2 around this religion slope
tries to remain positive ok.
𝜕𝐶𝐿
= 0;
𝜕𝑀
𝜕𝐶𝐿
> 0 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
𝜕𝑀
𝜕𝐶𝐿
< 0 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 2
𝜕𝑀
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This once you Understand this will try to interpret CLu. This dCL by du by u1 I can write as dCL
by du by a, by u1 by a, we are trying to investigate and understand dCL by du by u1 which I can
write dCL by u by a. where a is offcourse velocity of sound right ok. And I preassume that you
understand mach number is velocity of vehicle by velocity of sound. So this I can write as M1 into
dCL by dm. this is CLu, is equivalently I can see this through this expression, its not CDu its CLU
ok right CLU I can divide by ‘a’ so I get M1, dCL by dM is CLu, for now just now I showed you
a representative of CL versus mach number and it is almost like this ok.
And you know that up to 0.6-0.7 this DCL by DM is zero, so CLu will be zero up to 0.6 or 0.7
mach then CLU will be positive up to say 0.6-1.0 and CLu will be negative. at high supersonic
speed extremely important, that is what is CLu, so you could see that as we going to apply this
for a high speed how there is derivatives will play important role, it will just change its sign from
subsonic to supersonic ok high subsonic to supersonic so you understood what is .dFza by du by
u1 so now you will do.
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dFza by d alpha ok what is this? If we recall when we draw this diagram to calculate the dFza by
d alpha. This is ‘x’, this is alpha right. This is CL and here is CD and of course this is alpha so I
can right Fza equal to you could see Z direction is downward. So, Fza I can write as minus D, Sin
alpha minus L cos alpha right are if I don’t write CD, I write Drag (D), you’ll understand better so
and the z is particularly down.
𝐹𝑧𝑎 = −𝐷 sin 𝛼 − 𝐿 cos 𝛼
So, what will happen Lcos alpha will come here which is the opposite direction of ‘z’ so minus
Lcos alpha similarly you’ll find D you could see one component here and one component upward,
so this is D sin alpha again its upward direction so minus D sin alpha as simple as that right. So
this I can write as Fza as minus q infinity S [CD sin alpha plus CL cos alpha] what are these alpha,
alpha is the perturbed angle of attack, donot forgot this alpha is the perturbed angle of attack ok
this is fine. what is our aim, our aim is to dFza by dalpha will be what, will be minus q infinity S
[CL alpha plus CD1] and I put it one.
𝐹𝑧𝑎 = −𝑞∞ 𝑆[𝐶𝐷 sin 𝛼 + 𝐶𝐿 cos 𝛼]
And I expect you should be able to derive this relationship, this is Class 10 th problem you have
to take derivative. One derivative ith respect to CD and one derivative with respect to sin alpha
like that and put at steady state, at steady state alpha perturbed is zero so you should get dFza by
alpha as minus q1 s ( CLalpha plus CD1) correct yes ok any problem. You should not have any
problem. Let’s be very point blank You have to put an effort simply Class 10th or 11th you take a
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derivative, put alpha equal to zero you’ll get this answer. So this part is also taken care, now we’ll
talk about the third term.
𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑎
| = −𝑞1 𝑆[𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 𝐶𝐷1 ]
𝜕𝛼 𝑠𝑠
dFza by dqc by 2u1 right. Let us understand what is this. What is q, q is the perturbed pitch rate
right. Now think of this airplane. This is the tail, this is the wing and let’s see somewhere here is
the cg, if there is a ‘q’. vertical tail. You know that the q is the perturbed pitch rate.
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As this airplane goes for a ‘q’ then there is the q into lt relative airspeed I put it at the aerodynamic
center. And since this is ‘lt’ tail moment term I can write delta alpha is q lt by u1. And if you want
to take moment then I will take help of ‘lt’. if this is the delta alpha then what is the delta lift. Delta
lift will be half rho V square at tail, S-tail CL alpha tail into delta alpha which is q lt by u1. So
what is delta CL. You know that for delta CL I have to divide it by half rho V square freestream
so this will be eta into st by sw CL alpha tail into q lt by u1.
1 𝑞𝑙𝑡
2 𝑡 𝑈1
𝑆𝑡 𝑞𝑙𝑡
ΔC𝐿 = 𝜂 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ( )
𝑆𝑤 𝑈1
(Refer Slide Time equal to 18:27)
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Now it is interesting to see that we will find out CLq. You know what CL alpha is. CL alpha is
dCL by d alpha. Alpha is non-dimensional. We will now write CLq, dCL by dq c by 2u1 because
‘q’ is a dimensional quantity so qc by 2u1 is non-dimensional. So we define CLq as dCL by dqc
by 2u1 ok. No problem on that. So see delta CL is this. So CLq for linear part I can write delta
CL by qC by 2U1 that will be eta St by Sw CL alpha tail qlt by U1divided qc by 2U1. What do
you get, q get cancelled, U1 gets cancelled, so CLq is nothing but eta St by Sw or S ref CL alpha
tail lt by c and some to term ill come here, so this is the CLq.
𝑆 𝑞𝑙
Δ𝐶𝐿 𝜂 𝑆 𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ( 𝑈 𝑡 )
𝑤 1
𝐶𝐿𝑞 = 𝑞𝑐 = 𝑞𝑐
2𝑈1 2𝑈1
𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡
𝐶𝐿𝑞 = 2𝜂 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ( )
𝑆𝑤 𝑐
So if the airplane is rotating like this then the force will be in upward direction so it will be in the
opposite of ‘z’ direction. If I want to use the expression in the ‘z’ direction it will be negative i.e
we write now this CLq if ‘q’ is positive then CLq as per the sign we have selected greater than
zero because the lift force will be upwards. As it is going down you could see that if this is the tail
as ‘q’ is positive like this the relative air is coming like this angle of attack is increasing. The force
is in the lift direction but which is opposite to z direction. So we’ll write Fz because of ‘q’ is minus
half rho V square S into CLq into qc by 2U1, is it clear. Fz is half rho V square S into CLq into qc
by 2U1 because this part complete is CL due to ‘q’ i.e dCL by dq into qc by 2U1. when I write
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CLq it means it is dCL by dqc by 2U1, so naturally dFza by dqc by 2U1 is simply equal to minus
q1 S CLq as simple as that.
1 𝑞𝑐
𝐹𝑧𝑎 = − 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑞 ( )
2 2𝑈1
𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑎
𝑞𝑐 = −𝑞1 𝑆 𝐶𝐿𝑞
𝜕 (2𝑈 )
1
So this term is so straightforward this term is equal to minus q1 S CLq. Now we have here this
term is also simple, I can write Fza, right again you see if this is the tail and this is the elevator, if
delta e is positive that will give a force in the upwards direction lift which is again opposite to ‘z’
direction so I have to write Fza as minus half rho V square S CL delta e into delta e. because this
is the CL because of delta e minus sign because delta is positive if it is down the lift is in the
opposite direction of ‘z’ so this minus sign. So what is your dFza by d delta e , this is nothing but
minus q1 S CL delta e and you know very well how to calculate CL delta e and you know that
expression already done. CL delta e you can check your notes in the control part, CL elta e is CL
alpha tail into tau into eta into St by Sref you can cross check.
1
𝐹𝑧𝑎 = − 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
2
𝜕𝐹𝑧𝑎
= −𝑞1 𝑆 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒
𝜕𝛿𝑒
𝑆𝑡
𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝜏𝜂
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓
Lets come back to this to kno what is fz, I needed to know this this, this derivatives. Today you
have finished this and this what is left is alpha dot derivative right. we will take a separate Class
on alpha dot and we try to understand this.
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Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Lecture-47
Perturbed Force: fz continued
Good morning friends, you must be tired of seeing those expressions and it is beneficial that we
again ask ourself what are you doing what are you doing we are trying to develop a mathematical
model which we will be using to characterize an airplane in terms of whether it is dynamically
stable or not. As far as static stability is concerned, we have seen what are the conditions.
But now you are doing a more generic way, we trying to develop equation of the motion and
trying to see that can I use this to comment on the dynamic stability of the airplane and you know
very well dynamic stability includes static stability for most cases and for an airplane.
It is very true then what was your approach, the approach was we developed longitudinal perturbed
equations of motion and what exactly we mean by that we said ok. This is my airplane, let’s say
cruise is my equilibrium right and about cruise I’ll be giving a disturbance small disturbance and
you try to see what happens, please understand the airplane is going like this and at cruise if I give
a disturbance then we are talking about longitudinal case that means it could have this motion, it
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could have a this motion, it could have this motion so there will be a perturbation in pitching
motion.
So we donated that by small q there will be perturbation in the speed so we denoted it by small u,
then perturbation in vertical velocity we denoted that by small ‘w’ ok so [u, q, w] these are the
perturbed quantities and also we know that as this airplane is doing pitching like this and as so
doing plunging like, there will be a change in alpha we call rate of change of alpha become is
important and we also note down that alpha dot also will play important role.
Important role where, when I am trying to find out fx, fz and the pitching moment we said because
of this small disturbance this ‘u’ will be there perturbed u, perturbed q pitch will be there, perturbed
w component of the aircraft will be there and also alpha dot will be there because you understand
if your body is just moving like this it is introducing a alpha dot right.
because alpha is the angle between the velocity vector in vertical component right so this alpha
dot also will be there and it is doing like this as it is doing like this there will be q as well as alpha
dot plus what rate it is moving so it is very obvious that you should include alpha dot and then we
said ok I’ll write it as function of [u, q] and then of course there is delta e also alpha, alpha dot
and delta e note down here we have written w but here we have written alpha because you know
alpha is nothing.
But w by u1 so if there is w there will be alpha that is if I take this body like this and if there is
alpha here perturbed alpha then there will be component of this velocity which is w along z
direction right during perturbation. Because we have used stability axis which is only at steady
state .that direction is fixed under the condition of steady state that is at steady state whatever the
velocity vector is there x axis is there or when there is a perturbation then there will be a perturbed
alpha so we are talking about the perturb alpha this perturb w that is component along the z
direction ok similarly here you see I could write f(u) , q , alpha , alpha dot , delta e. In general I
will write u , q , alpha , alpha dot , delta e and one more thing you realize please note that in the
earlier I have not put alpha dot will explain you, we do some approximation but coming back to
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this we understand that we want to ensure these arguments are non-dimensional so we said instead
of u.
We will write u by u1, instead of q , we will write qc by 2 u1 the instead of alpha dot we will write
the alpha dot c by 2u1 because they are non-dimensional ok. All are non-dimensional. similarly
here again u by u1 qc by 2 u1 then alpha dot again alpha dot c by 2 u1 similar story here, this is q
c by 2 u1, alpha dot c by 2 u1, because simply q and alpha dot they have dimension radians per
second right ok fine once we agree to this then we made an assumption that for a normal airplane
small disturbance I may eliminate alpha dot c by 2u1 effect on effects for most of the airplane.
𝑢 𝑞𝑐 𝛼̇ 𝑐
𝑓𝑥 = 𝑓 ( , , 𝛼, ,𝛿 )
𝑢1 2𝑢1 2𝑢1 𝑒
𝑓𝑧 = 𝑓 ( , , 𝛼, ,𝛿 )
𝑢1 2𝑢1 2𝑢1 𝑒
𝑚 = 𝑓( , , 𝛼, ,𝛿 )
𝑢1 2𝑢1 2𝑢1 𝑒
So we wrote fx is equal to function of u by u1, then qc by 2 u1, alpha, delta e right again further
for normal conventional airplane we will see by experience, by results is this effective is also not
that much, but have you understood what is this effect because of q and what is this effect because
of alpha dot we will be discussing this today also right but at this point of time, we are assuming
that this effect is also not predominant so, fx we wrote as f function of u by u1, alpha and delta
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e ok and then we wrote this expanded this by d fxa by du by u1 and u by u1 plus d fxa by d alpha
into Alpha then d fxa by d delta e into delta e, right and this is the fx.
𝑢
𝑓𝑥 = 𝑓 ( , 𝛼, 𝛿𝑒 )
𝑈1
𝑓𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑈1 + 𝜕𝛼 𝛼 + 𝜕𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
𝜕 (𝑈 )
1
What is fx? Fx is the perturbed aerodynamic force and then we know how to evaluate this. You
are very clear, this has to be evaluated at steady state and we have derived this expression and then
we know explicitly, what is the form of fx right that we have done ok. Note down here this q and
alpha dot (𝛼̇ ) it needs a attention, it need a discussion we’ll be doing before we go further. Similar
thing we need for fz ok. Here, although in first lecture or day before yesterday lecture. I have
eliminated the alpha dot c by 2U1 (𝛼̇ 𝑐⁄2𝑈1 ) but let us skip it so that you also get some feel.
𝑓𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑈1 + 𝜕𝛼 𝛼 + 𝜕𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
𝜕 (𝑈 )
1
what is happening? remember alpha dot will have more effect on ‘fz’ in terms of lift rather than
on drag. Although for all airplane most the airplane we may still neglect this, but just see you that
you are handy with handling alpha dot derivate I will be keeping it here, as for moment is
concerned u by u1, q very important because you know that Cmq (𝐶𝑚𝑞 ) will be very very
important derivative from the dynamic stability point of view, then alpha is there, alpha dot c also
will be very important and delta e.
𝑓𝑧 = 𝑓 ( , , 𝛼, ,𝛿 )
𝑢1 2𝑢1 2𝑢1 𝑒
𝑚 = 𝑓( , , 𝛼, ,𝛿 )
𝑢1 2𝑢1 2𝑢1 𝑒
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So we will be developing expressions for all these derivatives. Now till yesterday when we used
the fz what we have done, if I am not mistaken, we have written fz is equal to d fza by d u by u1
into u by u1 plus d fza by d alpha into alpha plus d f z a by d q c by 2 u1 into q c by 2 u1 plus
now we will be adding d fza by d alpha dot c a by 2u1 into alpha dot c by 2 u1 plus d f z a by
d delta e into delta e so we are assuming that fz will function of u, q, alpha and alpha dot and delta
e right.
𝜕𝐹𝑧𝐴 𝑢 𝜕𝐹𝑧𝐴 𝜕𝐹𝑧𝐴 𝑞𝑐 𝜕𝐹𝑧𝐴 𝛼̇ 𝑐 𝜕𝐹𝑧𝐴
𝑓𝑧 = 𝑢 𝑈1 + 𝜕𝛼 𝛼 + 𝑞𝑐 2𝑈1 + + 𝛿
𝜕 (𝑈 ) 𝜕 (2𝑈 ) 𝛼̇ 𝑐 2𝑈1 𝜕𝛿𝑒 𝑒
𝜕 (2𝑈 )
1 1 1
I might not have used alpha dot in the last lecture but now you are relaxing, you are expanding
because you have become comfortable in handling this. So if want to know fz what I need to know.
what is the expression of d f z by d u by u1 which have been done what is the d f za by d alpha
we have done. we will just check for this one and this one and this also we have already done in
the last lecture.
So the today first we will do the d fza by d qc by 2u1 and d fza by d alpha dot c by 2 u1 ok, so let
us focus on that. I have already mention.
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about this d fza by d qc by 2u1 but let’s see, we’ll revisit it again. let us check the airplane this is
the airplane ok and this is the tail and here is the wing and let say this is the cg of the airplane
right what we are trying to find out. We are trying to find out what is that gradient partial derivative
d fza and d q and of course q c by 2 u1 is the non-dimensional of this.
The basic understanding is if I give a positive q, whether there will be change In the force in the z
direction ok for a small perturbation. Now you see if I give a perturbation q, small q then what will
happen, this man will go down so there, you know that q into lt will be the relative speed right.
similarly as this is the cg so this portion goes down so there will be also a some sort of a relative
air velocity this portion also, all this portion also ahead of cg, so you could see one thing as it goes
down there is force CL additional CL will come in the vertical direction
Which will be proportional to q and as it is going up there will be some force coming down like
this right but for an airplane this portion is predominant as for the force is considered between this
and this ok. what we do now because you understand and another thing, this lt is far larger ok
compared to any center of pressure. if I take for whatever the forces or pressure distribution is
generated because of q this length is smaller compared to this length and this is not that lifting as
compared to the tail, so tail will have more tail alpha so that naturally that force will be more and
if I want to just check.
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What is d CL by d qc by u1, you just take the tail contribution because we are assuming that the
tail contribution is more significant, some ten percent you can add for fuselage etc contribution ok.
how do I find it out so very simple because of q what is the delta alpha at tail additional it is q*lt
by u1 approximately right? So what is force on the tail L-tail will be half rho v square at tail into
S tail and CL alpha tail into alpha, alpha is q*lt by u1 ok.
𝑞𝑙𝑡
(Δ𝛼 )𝑡 ≡
𝑈1
1 𝑞𝑙𝑡
𝐿𝑡 = ( 𝜌𝑉 2 ) 𝑆𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡
2 𝑡 𝑈1
So then you are expert now what is delta CL. delta CL is will be l t by half rho v square freestream
into S reference so this will become eta tail, S tail by S reference into CL alpha tail into q lt by u1
and what will be sign we could see that, if it is going down like this, relative air is like this, so
alpha induced is positive so delta CL will be the lift direction so as per the convention that is the
lift direction is opposite to the z direction right for the small alpha so whatever you get here,
remember as far as CL is concerned it is positive.
𝐿𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝑞𝑙𝑡
Δ𝐶𝐿 = = 𝜂𝑡 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡
1 2 𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑈1
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆
But when we will be transferring it into z direction then it becomes negative. we will watch out
for that ok
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so now this is delta CL so we have delta CL is equal to Eta, St by S reference into CL alpha tail
and q lt by u1 and you know d CL by d qc by 2 u1. We have to find out, since it is linear everything
is linear so I simply can write CLq this divide by the q c by 2 u1 and that will be q c by 2 u1, so
U1, U1 gets cancelled, q, q gets cancelled so I get d CL by d qc by 2 u1 is equal to two Eta tail s
tail by s reference which is wing cl alpha tail then lt by c ok .
You could check here q and q gets canceled so Eta then ST by S, CL alpha tail, lt by the c bar and
two goes upwards this is the expression for CLq ok.
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡
𝐶𝐿𝑞 = 𝑞𝑐 = 2𝜂𝑡 𝐶𝐿 ( )
𝜕 (2𝑈 ) 𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝛼𝑡 𝑐̅
1
663
If this is the expression for the CLq if I want to find how much delta CL is coming because of q
what should be the answer? It is the CLq into qc by 2u1 that we should understand. it is not CLq
into q because CLq we have defind as d CL by d qc by 2U1 that’s is important ok. so this is you
have understood what is CLq now, we not leave it here we’ll also write for completion what we
do we’ll at one stretch we will also try to see what is Cmq. This will come ok.
This is the pitching moment change in pitching moment because of q, like change in CL because
of q. So this is also defined as d Cm by d qc by 2u1 ok. So let us derive this expression because
we have come so close to force, moment is very simple so what will be Cmq .Cmq will be nothing
but minus lt by c into CLq that is two Eta, S-tail (𝑆𝑡 ) by S reference (𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) into CL alpha tail into
lt by c right. This is CLq, for example if I want to find moment this is the delta L into lt will be the
moment. But we have to ensure, that I should put minus sign.
𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝐶𝑚𝑞 = 𝑞𝑐
𝜕 (2𝑈 )
1
𝑙𝑡 𝜂𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡
𝐶𝑚𝑞 = − 2 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ( )
𝑐 𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑐
Why put minus sign because positive CL will be negative pitching moment and sign convention
are from us right. so then you get an expression for Cmq as minus two, two Eta St by S into l t by
c whole square right into CL alpha t and of course there is a minus sign, let me write correctly
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minus two eta St by S and lt by c whole square. so we know the expression of Cmq, we know the
expression of CLq.
𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡 2
𝐶𝑚𝑞 = −2 𝜂𝑡 ( ) 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑐
The Cmq sign why it is negative that is very well known, if this is C.G and this is the tail if I am
giving a q like this so it is going down, so negative value is like this. The delta CL is here and delta
CL will be give moment about CG nose down. So that is why this minus sign is here. So we now
know what is the expression CLq and Cmq. Similarly we’ll try to know the expression for the CL
alpha dot and Cm alpha dot then again we will come back to the perturbed equation.
We have understood Cmq and CLq this is done. Now we are focusing on Cm alpha dot and CL
alpha dot and you know CL alpha dot by definition, we have said d CL by d alpha dot c by 2 u1
and Cm alpha dot is d Cm by d alpha dot c by 2 u1 and you know why this c by 2 u1 because alpha
dot has a dimension we want to convert into the non-dimensional quantity and these are in text
book are covered under alpha dot derivative right.
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝐶𝐿𝛼̇ = ; 𝐶𝑚𝛼̇ =
𝛼̇ 𝑐 𝛼̇ 𝑐
𝜕 (2𝑈 ) 𝜕 (2𝑈 )
1 1
Let understand one thing very fundamental if this is the wing ok and this is the tail. Wing and tail
as the airplane sees alpha in this case the perturbed alpha please understand it doesn’t develop lift
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instantaneously it takes some time to build the lift distribution understood this, so there is a time
component, although we assume if it is alpha, lift is CL alpha into alpha but it takes time.
Takes time to build that lift so there is a time component here and second thing so I write the
buildup of lift on the wing and text book they also talk about indicial lift right. then second is very
important you remember, because of finite wing right there will be vortices which will be traveling
like. They introduce downwash at the tail they introduce downwash at the tail so vortices or vortex
which is wing, from wing introduces.
downwash at tail right and what does this do, this downwash say epsilon (𝜖 ) it reduces alpha at
the tail right so something alpha t minus or alpha1 minus epsilon so it gets reduced. Now you could
see that if there is a time component in epsilon right it is not that something fixed number it is
changing with time then the angle of attack at the tail also becomes function of time ok.
Even at steady state but you have to be careful when I give this statement. what I am meaning is
please understand this vortices will travel right approximately equal to the speed of the aircraft
there are debates, there are theories which says fifty percent (50 %) speed but I am assuming that
it travels with the same speed of the airplane so that means suppose I am analyzing at time ‘t’
right. what is happening at time ‘t’ this epsilon (𝜖 ) reduction will not be seen by the airplane
because reduction in alpha will at tail will happen when will happen after some time .
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Because this vortices will travel after sometime to the tail then only the downwash angle will be
seen by the tail at time ‘t’ that means what is happening. how much time it will take? Roughly it
will take lt by u1. ‘lt’ is the distance from the AC of the wing to AC of the tail. I call it lt prime
(𝑙𝑡′ ), lt is the distance between the cg of the airplane and ac of the tail but this is ac of the wing to
ac of the tail to be more precise. So what is happening what is the understanding if I am looking
at the time ’t’ then the downwash seen by the tail will happen later at time.
𝑙𝑡′
𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
𝑈1
lt by u1, that means for that time the downwash is not seen by the wing because if I start thinking
at time ‘t’ the vortices are generated from the wing, so at the time ‘t’ this effect have not been felt
by the tail correct. That means when I am analyzing for a time ‘t’ this is actually seeing more angle
it is not seeing the epsilon. That more angle will give me a downward moment pitching movement
and that is Cm alpha dot and the force is CL alpha dot is it clear. Please understand again I am
focusing the phenomena at the time ‘t’ at time ‘t’ I want to know what is the angle of attack at the
wing. what is angle of attack at the tail.
So, at the time ‘t’ vortices will be generated, but it will take around lt prime by u1 time to reach
tail to give any downwash correct that means at time ‘t’ the downwash effect is not seen by the
tail. The tail has more angle of attack, correct because tail will see the reduced angle of attack only
after time lt by u1. so at time ‘t’ when I am analyzing it is actually practically having more angle
of attack than what we are thinking that it should be minus epsilon, so that more angle of attack
will give a pitching moment down or a force upward so this will be associated to CL alpha dot and
this is moment will be associate to Cm alpha dot. this is the physics.
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Let see how to develop the model. Ok we’ll discuss this again in ‘Mann ki Baat’. I know there will
be confusion doesn’t matter we’ll again discuss these things in ‘Mann ki Baat’.
So, this Cm alpha dot is generally termed in text book as lag in downwash effect you understand
this why this lag is there because at time ‘t’ when we focusing at the wing then its takes ‘lt’ by u1
to reach to tail to have the downwash.
So, there is the lag and downwash is at lag. So, you know delta alpha will be how much that will
be d alpha by dt into delta t and delta t is nothing but d alpha by dt lt by u1 right and what is delta
epsilon, d epsilon by d alpha into delta alpha and that is equal to d epsilon by d alpha into alpha
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dot into lt by u1 right. so this delta epsilon the angle of attack at the tail leads more by this epsilon
because it has not happened at time ‘t’. you have seen this delta epsilon is that angel which will be
realized by tail only after a time lt by u1 that means at time ‘t’ this is the extra angle it has got so
I will write pitching moment or delta pitching moment.
𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝛼 𝑙𝑡
Δ𝛼 = Δ𝑡 = ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑈1
𝑑𝜖 𝑑𝜖 𝑙𝑡
Δ𝜖 = Δ𝛼 = ( ) 𝛼̇ ( )
𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝛼 𝑈1
And as minus CL alpha tail into d epsilon by d alpha into alpha dot into lt by u1 that is CL alpha
into alpha because this is the angle of attack more at the tail because the downwash has not reached.
Or the vortices have not reached so downwash is not effective so angle of attack is more by this
much and this into q tail into S-tail into ‘lt’ will be the pitching moment isn’t it. Half rho v square
tail, S-tail, CL alpha tail into alpha into moment arm is the pitching moment.
𝜕𝜖 𝑙𝑡
Δ𝑃𝑀 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ( ) 𝛼̇ ( ) 𝑞𝑡 𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡
𝜕𝛼 𝑈1
No problem, now you are expert, so delta Cm will be what? delta Cm will be delta pitching moment
divide by half rho V square S c bar .so, delta Cm is delta pitching moment by half rho V square S
c in this case V is nothing but u1 square. So now if I do that what will happen this ‘qt’ and half
rho u1 square, so delta Cm if I write this divided by this term this will become eta tail, so minus
sign is there and then St by S into lt by c bar this is there and of course you have CL alpha tail.
D epsilon by d alpha into alpha dot, lt by u1 right let us check. This is pitching moment divided
by half rho u1 square S c, so half rho u1 square and q tail, this I have given by eta t (𝜂𝑡 ) this is
ratio St by S taken care and lt by c bar, taken care. lt by c taken care. now what is happening we
are left with CL alpha tail which is here d epsilon by d alpha here, alpha dot here, lt by u1 here.
What is cm alpha dot. Let us write here
Δ𝑃𝑀
Δ𝐶𝑚 =
1 2
2 𝜌𝑈1 𝑆𝑐̅
𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡 𝜕𝜖 𝑙𝑡
Δ𝐶𝑚 = −𝜂𝑡 ( ) 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ( ) 𝛼̇ ( )
𝑆 𝑐̅ 𝜕𝛼 𝑈1
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so if delta Cm is equal to minus eta St by S, lt by c, right CL alpha tail, d epsilon by d alpha into
alpha dot (lt by u1) then Cm alpha dot is nothing but delta Cm by alpha dot c by 2u1 because we
are taking all linear so if I divide it by what we call alpha dot c by 2 u1 what we will get, we’ll get
Cm alpha dot equal to see here u1 and u1 will go. First of all two will come there, alpha dot and
alpha dot will go, 2 Eta St by S, lt by c whole square, in to CL alpha t, d epsilon by d alpha ok. So
this is the expression for Cm alpha dot. how to get the value for Cm alpha dot? you know what
you need is d epsilon by d alpha, and you know d epsilon by d alpha I can get for low speed by a
simplified expression and also there are empirical chart.
𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡 𝜕𝜖 𝑙𝑡
Δ𝐶𝑚 = −𝜂𝑡 ( ) 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ( ) 𝛼̇ ( )
𝑆 𝑐̅ 𝜕𝛼 𝑈1
Δ𝐶𝑚
𝐶𝑚𝛼̇ =
𝛼̇ 𝑐
2𝑈1
𝑆𝑡 𝑙𝑡 2 𝜕𝜖
𝐶𝑚𝛼̇ = −2𝜂 ( ) 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 ( )
𝑆 𝑐̅ 𝜕𝛼
So, you have understood what is Cm alpha dot so you can easily see what is CL alpha dot say. If
you just see how much is the force generated, for that matter I leave it to you and you try to find
out the expression for CL alpha dot ok clear.
It’s very simple you see delta epsilon is there. You’ll find lift, lift is equal to half rho v square at
tail, S-tail, CL alpha tail into epsilon, delta epsilon this expression is given by this then follow the
670
definition of CL alpha dot and find it out ok , this I may give you an assignment also and I expect
you to do this things, thanks.
671
Prof. A. K. Ghosh
Department Of Aerospace Engineering
Lecture-48
Perturbed Pitching Moment
You have seen how to understand what cm alpha dot? What is Cm? What is cl alpha dot? And you
could very well appreciate the sign of Cm is negative and Cm alpha dot is also will be negative
because alpha dot is coming because there is lag in downwash primarily. So actually, the tail at
time ‘t’ see more angle of attack. Because the downwash is happening only at a time later than
time ‘t’ by lt by u1. So that will also give a nose down moment.
So Cmq (𝐶𝑚𝑞 ) and, Cm alpha dot (𝐶𝑚𝛼̇ ) both are negative. Cmq and Cm alpha dot are less than
zero ok. Now we comeback to this perturbed force fz equation. We have seen this fz by du by u1,
we have developed that expression and that was given as q1S into 2CL1 plus CLu
−𝑞1 𝑆(2𝐶𝐿1 + 𝐶𝐿𝑢 ). We have done in last lecture we have done this also at steady state this
expression is this, this I am revising this dfz by dq here it will be what? Let us understand this.
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𝜕𝐹𝑧𝐴 𝑢 𝜕𝐹𝑧𝐴 𝜕𝐹𝑧𝐴 𝑞𝑐 𝜕𝐹𝑧𝐴 𝛼̇ 𝑐 𝜕𝐹𝑧𝐴
𝑓𝑧 = 𝑢 | 𝑈1 + 𝜕𝛼 |𝑆𝑆 𝛼 + 𝑞𝑐 | 2𝑈1 + | + | 𝛿𝑒
𝜕 (𝑈 ) 𝜕 (2𝑈 ) 𝛼̇ 𝑐 2𝑈 1 𝜕𝛿𝑒
𝜕 (2𝑈 ) 𝑆𝑆
1 𝑆𝑆 1 𝑆𝑆 1 𝑆𝑆
𝜕𝐹𝑧𝐴
𝑢 = −𝑞1 𝑆(2𝐶𝐿1 + 𝐶𝐿𝑢 )
𝜕 (𝑈 )
1
𝜕𝐹𝑧𝐴
= −𝑞1 𝑆(𝐶𝐷1 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 )
𝜕𝛼
This is the expression I have written very obvious for you know fza because of q will be what?
That will be half rho V square S into CLq into qc by 2u1 right. Only q right, it’s the partial
derivative this d CL by d qc by 2u1 so this is the value so dfz a by dq c by 2u1 will be equal to
nothing but q1 that’s evaluated as a steady state.
1 𝑞𝑐
𝐹𝑧𝐴 (𝑞 ) = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑞
2 2𝑈1
𝜕𝐹𝑧𝐴
𝑞𝑐 | = 𝑞1 𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑞
𝜕( )
2𝑈1 𝑆𝑆
So, this is remaining at q1 and then CLq ok q1 and CLq and of course there is S. And that is exactly
is this expression. Very simple right similarly if you want to find out. Let me see this, this is done.
dfza by d alpha dot c by 2u1 so again fz only because of alpha dot holding others constant. because
when we are trying to find out partial derivatives. So, this will be half rho V square S CL alpha
dot into alpha dot c by 2u1 right.
1 2 𝛼̇ 𝑐
𝐹𝑧 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶𝐿𝛼̇
2 2𝑈1
So d fza by d alpha dot c by 2u1 will be nothing but q1 because this is evaluated as steady state so
half rho V square at steady state is q1 into S into CL alpha dot right. So, there is a slight mistake
you could see that. We must understand this expression and this expression what is the mistake?
You could see here please note down here as per as number is concerned q1 S CLq fine. But what
we are trying to find out, we are trying to find out dfza and I have been telling you that z axis is
pointing downward and, lift is upward.
So these will this force will be towards lift direction because if q is positive the force is toward
upward direction. But which is opposite to z. So I have to put a minus sign here for CLq right
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coming back to alpha dot. What is happening why alpha dot is coming because there is a delay in
downwash to come here because of vortices takes time so actually it is having at time ‘t’ more
angle right.
𝜕𝐹𝑧𝐴
| = −𝑞1 𝑆𝐶𝐿𝛼̇
𝛼̇ 𝑐
𝜕 (2𝑈 )
1 𝑆𝑆
So that will give a force positive upward but, z is downward so I have to put a minus sign here.
Please be careful about it, although both of these derivatives will not make much of a difference
in dynamic stability for the most of the airplane. But we should very clear about our convention.
We write Fza bracket q (𝐹𝑧𝐴 (𝑞 ))means do not get mislead this is for q perturbation ok. That
means holding other perturbation to zero because we want to find out partial derivative ok.
So this sign is very important please develop this habit of asking yourself whether I am giving
correct sign or not ok. So this is over, this is over, this is over and this is over now I can easily
expand fz using this expressions correct. Let us see what happens
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If I do that, you know the equation of motion is fz minus mg theta sin theta 1 equal to m w dot
minus q U1 right. We have to substitute fz using this expression and using the values or expression
for all this term. For example, for dfz by du1 we’ll put minus q1S into 2CL1 plus CLu right. For
dfz by d alpha we’ll put minus q1 S into CD1 plus CL alpha like that. For dfz by dq we’ll also put
like CLq into qc by 2U1.
𝑓𝑧 − 𝑚𝑔𝜃 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑚(𝑤̇ − 𝑞𝑈1 )
𝜕𝐹𝑧𝐴
𝑢 = −𝑞1 𝑆(2𝐶𝐿1 + 𝐶𝐿𝑢 )
𝜕( )
𝑈1
𝜕𝐹𝑧𝐴
= −𝑞1 𝑆(2𝐶𝐷1 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 )
𝜕𝛼
So, if I do that then I get an equation m w dot minus q U1 is equal to minus mg theta sin theta 1
ok.so, plus q1*S into minus CLu plus 2 CL1 ok into u by U1. Similarly, minus q1*S into CL alpha
plus CD1 into alpha. We are just substituting those values similarly minus q1 S CLalpha very
good. Then minus q1s CLq into qc by 2u1. Similarly, minus q1*S CLalpha dot into alpha dot c by
2u1 and that minus q1*S CL delta e into delta e. So that because my second equation.
𝑢 𝑞𝑐
𝑚(𝑤̇ − 𝑞𝑈1 ) = 𝑚𝑔𝜃 sin 𝜃1 + 𝑞1 𝑆 (−(𝐶𝐿𝑢 + 2𝐶𝐿1 )) − 𝑞1 𝑆(𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 2𝐶𝐷1 )𝛼 − 𝑞1 𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑞
𝑈1 2𝑈1
𝛼̇ 𝑐
− 𝑞1 𝑆𝐶𝐿𝛼̇ − 𝑞1 𝑆𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
2𝑈1
But we need not to get disturbed by seeing this equation. I am sure you understand now you are
clear about each and every term of this expression. ‘w’ is perturbed w dot, q is the perturbed pitch
rate. theta (𝜃)is the perturbed pitch is angle. U1 is the steady state velocity. CLu you know, CL1
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you know, CL1 means lift equal to weight from that we find CL because we have assumed cruise
to be our equilibrium. We are giving the disturbances.
We are giving small disturbance more precise about cruise ok. So, this expression is known to you
so this is fantastic one equation you have got through fx equal to another you got through fz, fx is
basically forces along the x direction and fz is plunging in this direction. Now what is left is the
moment equation ok. We will finish the moment part now. So you have seen we are trying to
develop equation of motion perturbed equation of motion.
For longitudinal case, where we have already seen the equation along the x axis has been
completed, along z axis has been completed along x is this and along z is plunging. Now what is
remaining is pitching. Because you know we are talking about longitudinal perturbation. That is
the perturbation this man, aircraft will do like this in the process it will go up and down and their
velocity along ‘x’ also will reduce.
We are not talking about any lateral motion, because we are talking about longitudinal case. We
are assuming that the aircraft remains in the vertical plane and that is possible only when we give
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small disturbances ok. So last equation was pitching moment ‘m’ is equal to Iyy q dot ok. And we
are trying to find out how this moment can be modeled. like how fx, fz were modeled.
𝑚 = 𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝑞̇
And in terms of motion and, control variable. Delta e means control variable. So similarly, we
want to model pitching moment perturbed pitching moment in terms of motion variable and
control variable very simple.
Now you are expert m you write function of alpha or let’s say u by u1, alpha, q, alpha dot, delta e
ok. What is next so m you write as dM by du by u1 into u by u1 plus dM by d alpha into alpha
plus dM by dqc by 2u1 into qc by 2u1 then dM by d alpha dot c by 2u1 into alpha dot c by 2u1
plus dM by d delta e into delta e ok. These are the equation or this is expression for postulating
pitching moment which is the perturbed pitching moment and assumption is this pitching moment
will depend upon perturbed u alpha q dot alpha dot delta e.
𝑢
𝑚 = 𝑓 ( , 𝛼, 𝑞, 𝛼̇ , 𝛿𝑒 )
𝑈1
𝜕𝑀 𝑢 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑀 𝑞𝑐 𝜕𝑀 𝛼̇ 𝑐 𝜕𝑀
𝑚= 𝑢 + 𝛼 + 𝑞𝑐 + + 𝛿𝑒
𝜕 (𝑈 ) 𝑈1 𝜕𝛼 𝜕 (2𝑈 ) 2𝑈1 𝜕 ( 𝛼̇ 𝑐 ) 2𝑈1 𝜕𝛿𝑒
1 1 2𝑈1
For Small disturbance for conventional airplane this is ok. I repeatedly say as we going for high
performance airplane, the argument may go on changing. There may be delta e dot there could be
be alpha q. So many thing can happen right but we are taking simple thing to understand the basic
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principles, basic techniques. And how do I use those equation to get basic parameters that’s more
important for us. So, let us understand we have to find out this dM by u by u1, thus should be at
steady state ok. So let us first find out this dM by du by u1.
So, you know that moment will be or I write moment will be equal to half rho u1plus u because
we are trying to find out for perturbed u. So, what is the assumption if the airplane was moving
with u1 and because of perturbation which is u and total velocity u plus u1. We are assuming again
here that everything is linear. So this is half rho v square s into Cm of course there should be
another length term so c bar.
1
𝑀 = 𝜌(𝑈1 + 𝑢)2 𝑆𝑐̅𝐶𝑚
2
So half rho v square S c bar into Cm. so now we want to find out dM by du by u1 you know
technique is as simple as that half rho u1 square S and one plus u by u1 square. And here I write c
bar here and Cm. So, this I can write in better form I write as half rho V square S c bar into 1 plus
u by u1 square into Cm. What I am trying to find out dM by du by u1. So, what I do, I write dM
by du by u1 nothing first time I am doing.
1 𝑢 2
𝑀 = 𝜌𝑈12 𝑆 (1 + ) 𝑐̅𝐶𝑚
2 𝑈1
1 𝑢 2
𝑀 = 𝜌𝑈12 𝑆𝑐̅ (1 + ) 𝐶𝑚
2 𝑈1
This is q infinite S c bar and this is two into one plus u by u1 into Cm plus q infinite S c bar into
DCM by du by u1 into one plus u by u1 square. First I am taking derivative with respect to u by
u1 is first this term this two has come here and then second is Cm. now what is the understanding
this should be evaluated at steady state and at steady state you know u is zero. Perturbed u is zero
at steady state.
𝜕𝑀 𝑢 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝑢 2
𝑢 | = 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝑐̅ 2 (1 + ) 𝐶𝑚 + 𝑞∞ 𝑆𝑐̅ 𝑢 (1 + )
𝜕 (𝑈 ) 𝑈1 𝜕 (𝑈 ) 𝑈1
1 𝑆𝑆 1
So what do I get, I get dM by du by u1 as q infinity S, 2 will be here c bar into Cm plus q infinite
SC bar into dCm by du by u1 ok. But since I am evaluating at steady state not only I put ‘u’ equal
to zero but also I should know this dM or q infinity is q1 dynamic pressure at steady state, Cm1 at
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steady state this becomes one and, this is evaluated at steady state fine. What is Cm1 for an airplane
Cm at steady state is how much? It will be zero.
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝑢 | = 2𝑞1 𝑆𝑐̅ 𝐶𝑚 + 𝑞1 𝑆𝑐̅ 𝑢
𝜕 (𝑈 ) 𝜕 (𝑈 )
1 𝑆𝑆 1
Cm1 is zero that is trim ok. Then what is dM by du by u1 or dCm ok this is important this term
𝑢
[𝜕𝐶𝑚 ⁄𝜕 ( )] because. This man goes at steady state, Cm1 is zero. For cruise that is phase about
𝑈 1
which we are giving small disturbances right, so dCm by du by u1, I can write this as M1 into d
Cm by dM you know how. You are all expert now we have done it earlier also I have divided here
by ‘a’ divided here by ‘a’, ‘a’ is the speed of sound so this becomes dCm by dM and u1 by a is M1
which comes here right.
𝑢 = 𝑀1 𝜕𝑀1
𝜕 (𝑈 )
1
So now understand d Cm by du by u1 is nothing but M1 d Cm by dM and this is very very important

parameter. This is extremely important parameter what is d Cm by dM? Remember if this is the
tail right, the A.C of the tail is somewhere here this is c by 4. But at subsonic speed right as we go
supersonic high speed this A.C goes backward. This d Cm by dM is extremely important and I
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was trying to explain that you know at low speed the A.C of the tail, this is tail assume that the
C.G is somewhere here of the aircraft.
A.C of the tail is here. As we increase the speed, go supersonic A.C of the tail moves backward it
tries to approach around fifty percent of the chord (mean aerodynamic chord). So, what is
happening as I am increasing the Mach number this ‘lt’ is going on increasing because A.C of the
tail is moving backward right. So the distance from C.G which is ‘lt’ is increasing that increase in
‘lt’ will give additional moment delta Cm pitch down moment. And what will happen as I am
trying to accelerate if I don’t model, understand this phenomenon as I have to accelerate to
supersonic there will be pitching moment and airplane will try to go like this.
This called tuck under phenomenon and lot of accident happens when you are not able to
understand what this phenomenon tuck is under this clear. So d Cm by dM is extremely important
you could see that as I am increasing my speed to supersonic, there’s additional pitching moment
d Cm which is coming because the A.C of the tail is moving backward and this d Cm by dM is
negative and it gives a pitch down moment and hence the tuck under phenomenon.
𝜕𝐶𝑚
< 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐
𝜕𝑀
So, this is extremely important we must evaluate this when we are trying to do analysis or dynamic
stability especially in supersonic Mach number ok. So, what we have seen now, we have seen dM
by du by u1 is nothing but our aim was to find out dM by du by u1 and we have seen this equal to
2 q1 S c bar Cm1 plus q1 S c into d Cm by du by u1 and which is nothing but this M1 into d Cm
by dM this is nothing but M1 into dCm by dM and this is negative at supersonic speed that is.
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝑢 = 2𝑞1 𝑆𝑐̅ 𝐶𝑚 1
+ 𝑞1 𝑆𝑐̅ 𝑢 ; 𝑢 = 𝑀1
𝜕 (𝑈 ) 𝜕 (𝑈 ) 𝜕 (𝑈 ) 𝜕𝑀
1 1 1
So that is the derivative by dM by du by u1 and you know our trim is at cruise then Cm1 is
definitely is zero. This is one term we have evaluated ok. Now we have to evaluate. You please
understand this derivation then in one lecture we will write all the derivatives neat and clean and
then put them into equation and get a nice equation. At this point every derivative note down this
is the meaning of this, this is the physical significance of this that is more important don’t get lost
into these big big expressions.
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So we have seen dm by du by u1 we have evaluated. So dM by d alpha will be what. Very simple

you know that how to do it. M is half rho u1 square S c bar into Cm so we are talking about alpha
derivative right.
1
𝑀 = 𝜌𝑈12 𝑆𝑐̅𝐶𝑚
2
So dM by d alpha will be q1 S c bar d Cm by d alpha right. So, that also you get, now we want to
find out dM by d qc bar by 2u1 very simple this is q derivatives ok. M will be half rho u1 square
S c bar into Cmq into qc by 2u1. So dM by d qc by 2u1 will be equal to q1 because I am evaluating
at steady state, so this is Cmq.
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝐶𝑚
= 𝑞1 𝑆𝑐̅
𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛼
1 𝑞𝑐
𝑀 = 𝜌𝑈12 𝑆𝑐̅𝐶𝑚𝑞
2 2𝑈1
𝜕𝑀
𝑞𝑐 = 𝑞1 𝑆𝑐̅𝐶𝑚𝑞
𝜕 (2𝑈 )
1
Similarly alpha dot derivative M I will write as half rho u1 square S c bar into Cm alpha dot into
alpha dot c by 2u1. So dM by d alpha dot c by 2u1 will be equal to q1 S c bar Cm alpha dot.
Similarly control derivative if I want to find out delta derivative elevator, so I will write M is equal
to half rho u1 square S c bar Cm delta e into delta e right.
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1 𝛼̇ 𝑐
𝑀 = 𝜌𝑈12 𝑆𝑐̅𝐶𝑚𝛼̇
2 2𝑈1
𝜕𝑀
= 𝑞1 𝑆𝑐̅𝐶𝑚𝛼̇
𝛼̇ 𝑐
𝜕 (2𝑈 )
1
1
𝑀 = 𝜌𝑈12 𝑆𝑐̅𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
2
𝜕𝑀
= 𝑞1 𝑆𝑐̅𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
𝛼̇ 𝑐
𝜕 (2𝑈 )
1
So dM by d delta e, at steady state will be q1, this dynamic pressure steady state is q1 S c bar Cm
delta e. q1 is the dynamic pressure at steady state ‘1’ means at steady state. So you see very simple
we have all the expressions with you. dM by du by u1 you have, you have dM by d alpha you have
dM by d qc by 2u1 we have dM by d alpha dot c by 2u1, dM by d delta e and you also know how
to estimate Cm alpha dot you know how to estimate Cm delta e.
We have written M is equal to dM by du by u1 into u by u1 plus dM by d alpha into alpha plus dM

by d qc by 2u1 into qc by 2u1 plus dM by d alpha dot c by 2u1 into alpha dot c by 2u1 plus dM by
d delta e into delta e ok. We have developed expression for all these derivatives for example if I
take dM by d delta e which is nothing but q1 S c bar Cm delta e and we know the expression of
Cm delta e we might have seen in initial lecture.
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𝑚= 𝑢 + 𝛼 + 𝑞𝑐 + + 𝛿𝑒
𝜕 (𝑈 ) 𝑈1 𝜕𝛼 𝜕 (2𝑈 ) 2𝑈1 𝜕 ( 𝛼̇ 𝑐 ) 2𝑈1 𝜕𝛿𝑒
1 1 2𝑈1
𝜕𝑀
= 𝑞1 𝑆𝑐̅𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
𝜕𝛿𝑒
We will have the expression for Cm delta e, you see dM by delta e is q1 S c bar Cm delta e and
we have already done, that Cm delta e is nothing but minus CL alpha tail into Vh eta t into tau so
what is the message. Given the configuration of the airplane and given the flight regime and the
altitude and speed regime I can easily find out these derivatives which are evaluated at steady state.
What I need information.
𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 = −𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝑡 𝜏
What is that dynamic pressure at which the airplane at trim, S and c are from the aircraft, for Cm
delta e what I want CL alpha tail I know, Vh tail volume ratio I know, eta t (𝜂𝑡 ) may be 0.91 and
tau also I know.
So all these value for example for Cm alpha dot also we have shown you the expression I can find
Cm alpha dot, I can find Cmq all the things I can find out, in a nutshell what I am saying all the
expressions or values of this derivatives will be known ok right.
And once I know that I know this is equal to Iyy q dot right. ‘m’ equal to Iyy q dot. So I can easily
write the equation q dot in the form
𝑢 + 𝛼 + 𝑞𝑐 + + 𝛿𝑒 = 𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝑞̇
𝜕 (𝑈 ) 𝑈1 𝜕𝛼 𝜕 (2𝑈 ) 2𝑈1 𝜕 ( 𝛼̇ 𝑐 ) 2𝑈1 𝜕𝛿𝑒
1 1 2𝑈1
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q dot equal to M u into u plus M alpha into alpha plus M q into q plus M alpha dot into alpha dot
plus M delta e into delta e. Like we have written for the x direction, for z direction also we’ll write
like that and then once. We found the equation we will be actually solving them to get what exactly
we are looking for ok.
𝑞̇ = 𝑀𝑢 𝑢 + 𝑀𝛼 𝛼 + 𝑀𝑞 𝑞 + 𝑀𝛼̇ 𝛼̇ + 𝑀𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
What we are trying to do is we’ll develop q dot we have already developed q dot we already
developed w dot in terms of dimensional derivatives. This is of Mu, M alpha they are dimensional
derivative. I have shown similar thing for other cases dimensional derivatives for example M alpha
is dimensional but Cm alpha is non-dimensional. Once I write these three equation like this then I
will know how to solve this equation for a different control input delta e and see their response
and check whether the airplane is dynamically stable or not.
So that will be our next task so far we struggled we worked very hard to develop this expression
and explicitly bringing out. What are these expressions what are the partial derivatives and what
are the important points you should understand as a designer right? So next class we will
summarize them we synthesis them and get a neat equation, how to solve it to get stability
characteristic at this point I must tell you if you have time just go through Laplace transform right
ok. That will help. Thank you.
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Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Lecture-49
Longitudinal dimensional stability and derivatives
Good morning, everybody. We are continuing small perturbation, equations of motion for
longitudinal case.
And if you recall, we knew that mu dot equal to minus mg cos theta 1 plus fx was the equation
along the x direction. Similarly, mw dot minus U1 q equal to minus mg theta sin theta 1 plus fz
was the second equation and the pitching moment equation was Iyy q dot equal to m. And what
are these f x, f z and m? They are the perturbed aero dynamic forces f x, f z and perturbed
aerodynamic moment m.
𝑚𝑢̇ = −𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃1 + 𝑓𝑥
𝑚(𝑤̇ − 𝑈1 𝑞 ) = −𝑚𝑔𝜃 sin 𝜃1 +
𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝑞̇ = 𝑚
How do they generate? Suppose the airplane is at steady state, let’s say cruise is our case. Then, if
I disturb it, small disturbance if I give then naturally it will have pitching motion, there is change
in the velocity. So accordingly, moment as well as forces along X Z directions also will change,
moment will change and these are perturbed moment. What is our aim? We want to see as the
disturbance vanishes whether this perturbed quantity u w and q becomes to zero or not.
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So that in a way the airplane has come back to its own equilibrium right. So its dynamically stable.
What was our approach? Approach was we wrote f x function u by U1, alpha then q, alpha dot etc.
And once we did this for fx, fz, m we got some dimensional derivatives and then we wrote this
equation as to be more precise, what we did was we for fx using those stability derivatives, we
wrote this as q1 S minus CDu plus 2 CD1, u by U1 then minus CD alpha minus CL1 into alpha
then minus CD delta e into delta e.
𝑢
𝑚𝑢̇ = −𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃1 + 𝑞1 𝑆 {−(𝐶𝐷𝑢 + 2𝐶𝐷1 ) − (𝐶𝐷𝛼 − 𝐶𝐿1 )𝛼 − 𝐶𝐷𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 }
𝑈1
And for fz we wrote like this, we derived these expressions. q1 S and then minus CL alpha plus 2
CL1 into u by U1 minus this should be here, it should have this sort of a curly bracket, because q1
is common here. So this is u by U1 minus CL alpha plus CD 1 into alpha minus CL alpha dot into
alpha dot c by 2 U1 then minus CLq into qc by 2U1 minus CL delta e into delta e and for this equal
to moment, the pitching moment is expanded as q1 S c bar because now its moment so c bar will
be there. Cmu you realize Cm is very important derivative especially for supersonic case and then
plus Cm alpha into alpha plus Cm alpha dot into alpha dot c by 2U1 plus Cm q then q c by 2 U1
plus Cm delta e into delta e, okay. And then we did little bit of algebraic adjustment. We divided
each term by m. So, I have got a u dot here, I divided each term by m. I got w dot here and each
term by Iyy.
𝑚(𝑤̇ − 𝑈1 𝑞 ) = −𝑚𝑔𝜃 sin 𝜃1
+ 𝑞1 𝑆 {−(𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 2𝐶𝐿1 ) − (𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 𝐶𝐷1 )𝛼 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼̇ − 𝐶𝐿𝑞 − 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 }
𝑈1 2𝑈1 2𝑈1
𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝑞̇ = 𝑞1 𝑆𝑐̅ {(𝐶𝑚𝑢 + 2𝐶𝑚1 ) + 𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝛼 + 𝐶𝑚𝛼̇ + 𝐶𝑚𝑞 + 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 }
𝑈1 2𝑈1 2𝑈1
And then we wrote this equation as u dot equal to minus g cos theta one plus Xu into u plus X
alpha into alpha plus X delta e into delta e and Xu, X alpha, X delta e we define as the dimensional
derivative. Similarly, w dot minus U1q is equal to minus g theta plus Zu into u plus Z alpha into
alpha plus Z alpha dot into alpha dot plus Zq into q plus Z delta e into delta e.
𝑢̇ = −𝑔 cos 𝜃1 + 𝑋𝑢 𝑢 + 𝑋𝛼 𝛼 + 𝑋𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
𝑤̇ − 𝑈1 𝑞 = −𝑔𝜃 + 𝑍𝑢 𝑢 + 𝑍𝛼 𝛼 + 𝑍𝛼̇ 𝛼̇ + 𝑍𝑞 𝑞 + 𝑍𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
Note down this Xu, X alpha, X delta e or Zu, Z alpha, Z delta e etc are dimensional derivative.
That is why I don’t mind that Z alpha into alpha. Then I have that q dot equal to Mu into u, M
alpha into alpha plus M alpha dot into alpha dot plus Mq into q plus M delta e into delta e ok. All
these things we have done. Now the question comes what to do next, right. Before we go for next
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step we realize that all this Xu, X alpha, Zu, Z alpha etcetera, all these derivatives are dimensional
derivatives or dimensional stability derivatives.
𝑞̇ = 𝑀𝑢 𝑢 + 𝑀𝛼 𝛼 + 𝑀𝛼̇ 𝛼̇ + 𝑀𝑞 𝑞 + 𝑀𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
This is important, for example if I take M alpha the corresponding non-dimensional derivative is
Cm alpha okay. If it is alpha dot then the corresponding non-dimensional derivative is Cm alpha
dot okay. So once we have this, this is the equation of motion where I have got u as the perturbed
u, ‘w’ as the perturbed w and q as the perturbed q okay.
Now for completion what I will do, I will also post the exact expression of Xu, X alpha, X delta
etcetera for your ready reference, which I will not write here but, you know very well. What is
Xu? You need not require anybody’s help. Xu will be simply divide this equation by u by m sorry.
So, Xu will be q1 S by m into minus CDu into u by U1. So U1 will come Xu will be very simply
you can see which we have shown last time also.
Xu will be minus q1 S by m into minus 1 into CDu or let me write like this q1 S minus CDu plus
2 CD1 divided by U1 that will be Xu. Because if I divide by m here, so I get q1 S by m minus this
bracket term into u by U1. So U1 I have taken in denominator. So, this become Xu, so this term
Xu into u is with this complete term divide by m ok. So please do it yourself and you can see it’s
nothing big mathematics or mathematical expedition as simple as dividing by m ok.
𝑞1 𝑆 𝐶𝐷𝑢 + 2𝐶𝐷1
𝑋𝑢 = [− ]
𝑚 𝑈1
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Let us come back here these, are the three perturbed equations of the motion. So what to do next,
what is our aim? Our aim is to solve this equation and try to find out the stability characteristics of
the system in longitudinal mode ok. So we will do that. Now we will do another trick because we
know this is linear system because we are talking about small perturbation system.
So, we will use Laplace transform and that is defined as F(s) is zero to infinity e to the power – s
t (𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ), f(t) dt, so this is the Laplace transform. It transform time domain into frequency domain
ok. What is the advantage? You’ll see, if you recall Laplace, if this is the operator. Laplace of x
dot is nothing but s x of s minus x of zero which is the initial condition for a linear system we can
neglect the initial condition but for stability point of view for linear system.
∞
𝐹(𝑠) = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡

0
𝐿(𝑋̇) = 𝑆𝑋 (𝑠) − 𝑋(0)
It does not depend upon the initial condition. So, we don’t really care for it. If I see it here, what
is happening? This is a first order differential form x dot. Now this is the X(s). So now this has
become almost linear form, it is the algebraic form it will come. If I take Laplace transform here.
What you happened for u dot it will be SU(s) equal to minus g cos theta 1 into theta of s (𝜃(𝑠))
right.
688
Now we do Laplace transform on this equation and then you’ll see, of course we have done some
mistake here, here there should be theta, perturbed theta plus Xu into u of s plus X alpha into alpha
of s plus X delta e into delta e of s. You see here. If I take, if I understand the Laplace of x dot is
SX(s) then Laplace of u dot will be? what will be Laplace of u dot will be SU(s) that is u in Laplace
transform of u, u(t) minus U(0). We said we don’t care about initial condition because we are
studying the stability aspect of the linear system. It doesn’t depend upon the initial conditions.
𝑆𝑈 (𝑠) = −𝑔 cos 𝜃1 𝜃 (𝑠) + 𝑋𝑢 𝑈(𝑠) + 𝑋𝛼 𝛼 (𝑠) + 𝑋𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 (𝑠)
𝐿(𝑢̇ ) = 𝑆𝑈 (𝑠) − 𝑈 (0)
So u dot became Laplace of u dot become SU(s). So here u dot is SU(s) minus g cos theta and
theta is here theta of s then Xu *U(s). X alpha into alpha plus X delta e into delta e of s. Similarly,
you can do it here take this Laplace transform second equation, third equation and then you can
write finally a neater form of equation in matrix form this will become once you take the Laplace
transform of all the three equations.
Let me write what will you get you will get S minus Xu into U(s) then minus X alpha into alpha
of s plus g cos theta 1 into theta of s right equal to X delta e into delta e of s right. We’ll not directly
write matrix form now. First we’ll write the equation in standard form then you convert it into
matrix from. The second will be minus Zu into u of s then s U1minus Z alpha dot minus Z alpha
into alpha of s.
The third term will be a big term will come minus Zq plus U1, s plus g sin theta 1 into theta of s
equal to Z delta e into delta e of s. And the third equation will become minus Mu into U(s) minus
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M alpha dot s plus M alpha into alpha of s then s square minus Mq s into theta of s equal to M
delta e into delta e of s you could see that we have not used q of s we are not getting anywhere this
term q of s why because we know q is equal to theta dot right.
(𝑆 − 𝑋𝑢 )𝑈(𝑠) − 𝑋𝛼 𝛼(𝑠) + 𝑔 cos 𝜃1 𝜃(𝑠) = 𝑋𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 (𝑠)
−𝑍𝑢 𝑈(𝑠) + {𝑆 (𝑈1 − 𝑍𝛼̇ ) − 𝑍𝛼 }𝛼 (𝑠) + {−(𝑍𝑞 + 𝑈1 )𝑠 + 𝑔 sin 𝜃1 }𝜃(𝑠) = 𝑍𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 (𝑠)
−𝑀𝑢 𝑈(𝑠) − (𝑀𝛼̇ 𝑆 + 𝑀𝛼 )𝛼 (𝑠) + (𝑠 2 − 𝑀𝑞 𝑠)𝜃(𝑠) = 𝑀𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 (𝑠)
So, of q(s) will be equal to s theta of s under small disturbance approximation these things are fine
ok. Now we will make a trick and try to make it in a matrix form. So what is the best way to do is
you simply put here matrix sign like this take out this U(s) from here take out this alpha s, alpha
s from here theta s, theta s from here and then you write this, take this also out ok.
You write this as u of s alpha of s delta e of s and this is equal to X delta e into delta e of s Z delta
e into delta e of s and M delta e to delta e of s right. I will be sending you, texting you all these
small, small algebraic manipulation or adjustments because you understand blackboard it will
become too heavy to handle this.
(𝑆 − 𝑋𝑢 ) −𝑋𝛼 𝑔 cos 𝜃1 𝑈 (𝑠 ) 𝑋𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 (𝑠)
[ −𝑍𝑢 {𝑆(𝑈1 − 𝑍𝛼̇ ) − 𝑍𝛼 } {−(𝑍𝑞 + 𝑈1 )𝑠 + 𝑔 sin 𝜃1 }] [ 𝛼 (𝑠) ] = [ 𝑍𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 (𝑠) ]
−𝑀𝑢 −(𝑀𝛼̇ 𝑆 + 𝑀𝛼 ) (𝑠 2 − 𝑀𝑞 𝑠) 𝛿𝑒 (𝑠) 𝑀𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 (𝑠)
So, what is this? This is the equation in the form aX is equal to b and this is a linear system you
know and you know for the linear system whether the airplane is stable or not. That can be easily
690
decided by studying its characteristic equation that is the punch statement. Number one is Linear
system and for a linear system if we want to find out whether it is stable or not. Best way you do
is find its characteristic equation and, find the roots of characteristic equation and then you can
comment whether the system is stable or not dynamically stable or not. So we will do that and if I
now see.
Now again I will use my or our hour matrix understanding so I can find out that what is the
determinant.
Determinant of this matrix equal to zero will give me characteristic equation right. So what is the
determinant if I put the determinant I will get equation in this form AS4 plus BS3 plus CS2 plus DS
plus E equal to zero. Do you see what do I mean what is the determinant of this, you now how to
find determinant so first term will be S minus Xu right into this minus this so then second term
will be this.
det[ ] = 0 ∶ 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴𝑆 4 + 𝐵𝑆 3 + 𝐶𝑆 2 + 𝐷𝑆 + 𝐸 = 0
This I eliminate this minus this like that I can find the determinant and I can club them in the form
of A, B, C, D, E as constants and I can write this equation in this fashion. For the completion I will
just give you one value of this coefficients. Let us say if I do the determinant part of it and put it
to zero. What is the ‘A’ I will get, you see soon you will get and you can do yourself we will not
do on the blackboard here. A will be U1 minus Z alpha dot.
691
Similarly, B will find that will be minus U1 minus Z alpha dot into Xu plus Mq minus Z alpha
minus M alpha dot into U1plus Zq like this you know similarly C, D, E, F and all. And I will write
the expression of E also here. I will erase this part as I told you this thing you have to do once, that
all after that you forget and try to understand what is the physical interpretation of it.
𝐴 = 𝑈1 − 𝑍𝛼̇
𝐵 = −(𝑈1 − 𝑍𝛼̇ ){𝑋𝑢 + 𝑀𝑞 } − 𝑍𝛼 − 𝑀𝛼̇ (𝑈1 + 𝑍𝑞 )
𝐸 = 𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 {𝑀𝛼 𝑍𝑢 − 𝑍𝛼 𝑀𝑢 } + 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃1 [𝑀𝑢 𝑋𝛼 − 𝑋𝑢 𝑀𝛼 ]
If I see the expansion, E will come like this. E will come as g cos theta 1 into M alpha Zu minus
Z alpha Mu plus all this is like this plus g sin theta 1, Mu X alpha minus Xu, M alpha. This will if
you expand you will get it ok.
692
Let us focus here once you have got such a characteristic equation which is of 4th, raised to the
power cube 2, 1 right. There are numerical ways of finding this root, you can solve this equation
numerically and find what are the values of this root. And depending upon roots you can comment
on this is stable or not right.
693
Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Lecture-50
Dynamic Stability
In Routh criteria, we can apply to check whether these things are stable or not. One of the
conditions is that all the coefficients A, B, C, D, E should be greater than zero. There are other
conditions also, we will come. But First, we’ll take A, B, C, D, E greater than zero, that means
when you expand this matrix and put the aerodynamic values, coefficients etc., etc., then you see
what is the value of A, B, C, D, E, one thing we have to ensure that if it is dynamically stable, then
all the signs of A, B, C, D, E should be greater than zero.
One of those cases I will take, what do you mean what additional information we get when you
say E greater than zero, okay. That is the case now I will be studying, okay. We will talk about
little bit of Laplace transform and little bit of Routh criteria in our subsequent Mann Ki Baat
session but we have to complete this part. So I am just for time being we will take that Routh
criteria, one of the condition is A, B, C, D, E greater than zero and we are trying to look for the
significance of this sort of huge, huge expression, what is the meaning of this expression, how best
we can take care of it.
694
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎
𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸 > 0
So, we are taking a case where E greater than zero means what. E greater than zero let’s say theta
1 equal to zero okay. And we are not considering thrust part, which we not considering you know
it can be easily done in similar way. Theta 1 is zero then I have got E equal to M alpha, Zu minus
Z alpha Mu greater than zero. We need to understand if theta 1 is zero this is 1 and g is always
positive, so E greater than zero means M alpha Zu minus Z alpha Mu greater than zero correct.
𝐸>0
𝐸 = 𝑀𝛼 𝑍𝑢 − 𝑍𝛼 𝑀𝑢 > 0
So this is the condition. Question is what does this tell us? Let’s go back what was M alpha. M
alpha was defined as q1 s c bar Cm alpha by Iyy and then second term is Zu, what is this Zu
expression is minus q1 S CL alpha plus CD 1 by m and what is your Z alpha Z alpha is minus q1
S CL alpha plus CD1 by m and what is Mu. Mu was read to be q1 S c bar Cmu plus Cm 1, two
Cm1, Iyy U1, right.
𝑞1 𝑆𝑐̅𝐶𝑚𝛼
𝑀𝛼 =
𝐼𝑦𝑦
𝑞1 𝑆(𝐶𝐿𝑢 + 2𝐶𝐿1 )
𝑍𝑢 = −
𝑚𝑈1
𝑞1 𝑆(𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 𝐶𝐷1 )
𝑍𝛼 = −
𝑚
695
𝑞1 𝑆𝑐̅(𝐶𝑚𝑢 + 2𝐶𝑚1 )
𝑀𝑢 =
𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝑈1
So, what is the condition E should be greater than zero because you know that for Routh criteria
you take it for granted at this point that all the coefficient A, B, C, D, E for that equation AS4 plus
BS3 plus CS2 plus DS plus E equal to zero, all the coefficient should be greater than zero. So, we
are taking a case where only E is greater than zero that is. I am seeing what does E greater than
zero means to us ok. So now from there we are studying a case where we are saying let’s theta 1
will be zero. What is theta 1? Theta 1 is the theta at the time of cruise okay.
Now again we know what are the expression M alpha, Zu, Z alpha and Mu which we have already
derived and now we will put this here and see what does this finally mean to us okay. So that is lot
of involved, it involved lot of boardwork, so don’t get upset.
So, E greater than zero means you’ll see that M alpha Zu minus Z alpha Mu greater than zero that
means M alpha by Z alpha greater than Mu by Zu, no issues. We are seeing that we are trying to
understand what additional information pertaining to stability we are getting through these
coefficients. We know for dynamic stability all this A, B, C, D, E should be greater than zero so
you are studying a case for E greater than zero. E greater than zero means this expression greater
than zero.
𝐸 = 𝑀𝛼 𝑍𝑢 − 𝑍𝛼 𝑀𝑢 > 0
696
𝑀𝛼 𝑀𝑢
>
𝑍𝛼 𝑍𝑢
Which tells me M alpha by Z alpha greater than Mu by Zu and now I substitute M alpha Z alpha
Mu Zu in this expression and then what will happen you see. M alpha by Z alpha will be nothing
but let me write q1 S c Cm alpha by Iyy that is y that is M alpha q1 S c Cm by Iyy, divided by Z
alpha, Z alpha is minus q 1 S CL alpha plus CD 1 by m right.
𝑀𝛼 𝑞1 𝑆𝑐̅𝐶𝑚𝛼 ⁄𝐼𝑦𝑦
=
𝑍𝛼 − 𝑞1 𝑆(𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 𝐶𝐷1 )⁄𝑚
q1 S CL alpha plus CD 1 by m. if I divide this i get this expression as minus m c bar Cm alpha by
Iyy CL alpha plus CD 1 ok. So, what is the parallel relation M alpha by Z alpha is this ok. Similarly,
we find out what is the second term Mu by Zu.
𝑀𝛼 𝑚𝑐̅𝐶𝑚𝛼
=−
𝑍𝛼 𝐼𝑦𝑦 (𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 𝐶𝐷1 )
so, Mu by Zu when I am doing, I know the expression of Mu so I put q1 S c bar by Iyy U1 into
Cmu plus 2 Cm1 is divided by minus q1 S CLu plus 2CL1 by Mu1. You could see that we have
to substitute the expression for Zu and if you see Zu here. It is wrongly written so let me correct it
and you also correct it should be. Zu should be minus q 1 s CLu plus 2CL1 divided by Mu 1 ok.
𝑞1 𝑆𝑐̅
(𝐶 + 2𝐶𝑚1 )
𝑀𝑢 𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝑈1 𝑚𝑢
=
𝑍𝑢 𝑞1 𝑆(𝐶𝐿𝑢 + 2𝐶𝐿1 )
− 𝑚𝑈1
697
So that was wrongly written please correct it so here it will be q 1 s CLu plus 2CL1 by Mu1. So
once I do that I get an expression is Mu by Zu equal to minus m c bar Cmu plus 2 Cm1 divided by
Iyy, CLu plus 2CL1 please understand you should do it yourself otherwise there is every possible
chance of getting mixed up you know.
𝑀𝑢 𝑚𝑐̅(𝐶𝑚𝑢 + 2𝐶𝑚1 )
=−
𝑍𝑢 𝐼𝑦𝑦 (𝐶𝐿𝑢 + 2𝐶𝐿1 )
Writing this expression is not a simple thing. It’s a real challenge you should get de-focused ok.
So, what is our aim. We are trying to extract maximum information from this relationship which
has come because of the condition through routh criteria that all the co-efficient of that equation
A, B, C, D, E should be greater than zero. So we’re exploring what happens what information we
get from the condition E greater than zero.
So from there we have come here now we know this two expressions one is M alpha by Z alpha
we know this and Mu by Zu is this so now we will write like this that minus m c bar Cm alpha by
Iyy CL alpha plus CD 1. What is this, this is basically your M alpha by Z alpha see m c bar Cm
alpha by Iyy this, this will be greater than Mu by Zu, is this expression and that is minus m c bar
Cmu plus 2 Cm 1 divided by CLu plus 2CL1 into Iyy.
𝑚𝑐̅𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝑚𝑐̅(𝐶𝑚𝑢 + 2𝐶𝑚1 )
− >−
𝐼𝑦𝑦 (𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 𝐶𝐷1 ) 𝐼𝑦𝑦 (𝐶𝐿𝑢 + 2𝐶𝐿1 )
CLu plus 2CL1 Iyy m c bar. now how to simplify this you know this Cm 1 is zero this is at trim
this value is zero at trim. Our trim is cruise this value is zero so. Now further if I manipulate this
expression. we get very interesting result and all this efforts were for that if I further simplify
this.
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I will get minus Cm alpha by CL alpha plus CD 1 is greater than Cmu, minus Cmu by CLu plus
2CL1 you could see here this m & m get canceled c & c gets cancelled Iyy get cancelled. Cm 1 is
zero so this is nothing but Mu, Cmu ok. So that is what is prevailing here Cm 1 is of course is zero
now if I say CD 1 is less compared to CL alpha is very true CD 1 could be 0.025 CL alpha will be
around 5.5 so this is good approximation and then what we will get, we get this is as Cm alpha by
CL alpha less than Cmu by CLu plus 2CL1 you could see this sign has changed to less than because
minus minus sign by multiply minus sign in both sides naturally this becomes less.
𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝐶𝑚𝑢
− >− ; 𝐶 ≪ 𝐶𝐿𝛼
𝐶𝐿𝛼 + 𝐶𝐷1 𝐶𝐿𝑢 + 2𝐶𝐿1 𝐷1
𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝐶𝑚𝑢
<
𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝐶𝐿𝑢 + 2𝐶𝐿1
What is the meaning for Cm alpha by CL alpha let us understand. What is ratio Cm alpha by CL
alpha this is nothing but dCm by dCL right. And what is this, this is you know minus static margin
so what we are getting from here that dCm by dCL should be less than Cmu by CLu plus 2CL1
for dynamic stability the condition is that dCm by dCL should be less than Cmu by CL 1 plus
2CL1.
𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝐶𝑚𝑢
<
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐿𝑢 + 2𝐶𝐿1
Now for a subsonic case, you know for subsonic case this Cmu is equal to zero so naturally we
have this condition dCm by dCL less than zero we are ok with this right. But for supersonic case,
Cmu will be negative right. You know Cmu is negative. Supersonic case Cmu is less than zero
699
that you know because Cmu is nothing but M1 into dCm by dM and what happens as the aircraft
goes supersonic, increase the speed the center of pressure or aerodynamic center of tail goes
backward so as a result tail moment arm increases that gives you nose down moment and give tuck
under effect right.
𝐶𝑚𝑢 < 0 ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐
𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝐶𝑚𝑢 = 𝑀1
𝜕𝐶𝐿
So, this is negative so dCm by dCL is again negative what is the difference in the first case when
Cmu was zero dCm by dCL should be negative its ok statically stable. Second case also dCm by
dCL should be less than zero because this is negative so, again dCm by dCL less than zero so there
is no violation in the static stability however what is the different let us see that.
So, we see here the dCm by dCL equal to or should be less than Cmu by CLu plus 2CL1. We know
Cmu is negative for supersonic case so dCm by dCL less than zero is fine but what is let’s say this
number for supersonic case is A star (𝐴∗ ) I can get the value of Cmu, CLu and CL1 so this is
negative that you know so this will be indeed less than zero.
dCm by dCL ok that is equal to A star where A star is less than zero fine, this is supersonic case.
For subsonic case same relation is giving d Cm by dCL less than zero because Cmu is zero here
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Cmu not equal to zero in fact the less than zero. What is dCm by dCL. dCm by dCL is that you
understand let me erase this part.
𝜕𝐶𝑚
< 𝐴∗ ; 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐
𝜕𝐶𝐿
𝜕𝐶𝑚
= 0 ; 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐
𝜕𝐶𝐿
So what is dCm by dCL we have see dCm by dCL is nothing but minus static margin that is minus
neutral point minus Xcg bar or we can write as Xcg bar minus N0 bar. N0 is the neutral point. For
subsonic case, it’s just simply telling that if this is the N0 ok. The Aircraft will be for subsonic I
am writing right from there what I am saying getting is dCm by dCL should be zero.
𝜕𝐶𝑚
̅0 − 𝑋̅𝑐𝑔 )
= −(𝑁
𝜕𝐶𝐿
That means Xcg could be anywhere as long as it is in this side correct, but for supersonic case
what is dCm by dCL when it takes care of dynamic stability also. We say it is not just less than
zero it is also to be ensured that dCm by dCL is less than A star where A star is negative which is
given by Cmu by CLu plus 2CL1 so that means just putting C.G here ahead of N0 will not be
sufficient we have to ensure that the C.G is such that Xcg minus N0 this separation now will be
governed by this should be less than A star that is this distance ok if I said B, for subsonic case
this B should be less than A star ok. Is this part clear.
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dCm by dCL should be less than A star. Please note that A star is negative this is positive this is
positive and this you can even neglect very small. This is positive this is negative so this values
less than zero this is fine. So that is what you should be very very clear. That for dynamic stability,
supersonic case how Cmu which is nothing but Cmu nothing but M1 dCm by dM plays an
important role through a phenomenon called tuck under which is as speaking, speed is supersonic.
A.C of the tail goes backward so tail moment arm increases and additional nose down moment
comes which is known as tuck under effect ok. So, this is clear. So, in a nutshell, this Cmu plays
important role which restrict the stability margin to ensure it is also dynamically stable and this
will be derived from the condition that E is greater than zero ok. Which is condition for dynamic
stability through Routh criteria ok?
So, we try to revisit this E greater than zero this condition which came from the characteristic
equation AS4 plus BS3 plus CS2 plus DS plus E equal to zero and you know from Routh criteria
one of the conditions is to satisfy is all this co-efficient should be greater than zero and there are
other conditions which will come and by using this condition one case E greater than zero what
does it mean and we got a relationship wonderful relationship.
𝐴𝑆 4 + 𝐵𝑆 3 + 𝐶𝑆 2 + 𝐷𝑆 + 𝐸 = 0 ; 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸 > 0
702
We got dCm by dCL less than Cmu by CLu plus 2CL1 ok and you know from this relationship we
realize that if Cmu equal to zero this implies simply dCm by dCL less than zero which is very
familiar with the slope of dCm by dCL at equilibrium simply as a zero.
<
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐿𝑢 + 2𝐶𝐿1
𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝐶𝑚𝑢 = 0; ⇒ <0
𝜕𝐶𝐿
But high speed if Cmu is not equal to zero then what, then we say at high speed Cmu we know is
nothing but m 1 dCm by d m and which is less than zero then this condition says dCm by dCL
should be less than A star but what is A star. A star is nothing but Cmu by CLu plus 2CL1 typically
let us say this value ok is let’s say minus 0.1. Cmu is negative ok if this is minus 0.1 for sake this
is an example, we are telling to understand this that means then the condition is just not dCm by
dCL less than zero the condition is dCm by dCL.
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐶𝑚𝑢 ≠ 0; 𝐶𝑚𝑢 = 𝑀1 < 0 ; 𝐴∗ = = −0.1(𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝜕𝑀 𝐶𝐿𝑢 + 2𝐶𝐿1
< 𝐴∗ ; < −0.1
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝜕𝐶𝐿
Yes, indeed less than zero but should be less than 0.1 that is the modified condition when you are
taking dynamic stability also into account so the location of neutral point and the C.G becomes
extremely important it has to satisfy this condition as well. Which includes the condition that dCm
by dCL is less than zero but it is dCm by dCL less than this value of this which we say for example
we have taken 0.1? This should be understood very carefully ok.
Why this is important because we have taking care of fact that I know as speed increases the A.C
of the tail goes backward and there is a tuck under phenomenon ok. This is one, and then another
way to be friendly with big big equation is we see that what finally this expressions are meant for
us. Let’s take one example let’s say for a business jet airplane all those derivatives were
computed and after solving we found that value of A, B, C, D, E which are dependent upon the
geometric and aerodynamic coefficient or derivatives.
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Let’s say the A value, value of A is 675.9, B is 1371 and c is 5459 and D is 86.3 and E is 44.78
and let’s say these are all in FPS unit. At this point let us talk about the signs and all. You could
see A, B, C, D, E all are greater than zero. One of the conditions for Routh criteria for its stability
is satisfied ok. Now If I now solve this equation, and try to find out the roots through numerical
methods which is possible. Let’s see that has been done and the roots are lambda 1, 2 roots are
minus 1.008 plus j is complex 2.651 [𝜆1,2 = −1.008 ± 𝑗(2.651)] and another pair of roots 3, 4
which is minus 0.0069 plus minus j, j small j 0.0905 [𝜆3,4 = −0.0069 ± 𝑗(0.0905)].
Typically, you’ll find most business jet airplane, if you get those aerodynamic coefficients and
solve this equation will find it will get segregate that into one pair here one pair here so two second
order system behavior that’s the beauty of longitudinal dynamics, you’ll find for most of the
airplane its response or its response will have two types of excitations one thing is that they are
having complex pair, means they are oscillatory in response ok for stable system.
So oscillatory response that’s why this roots are complex here or here but what is the difference
you see. In the first pair you’ll find this real root. First pair ok this typically we’ll see for most of
the airplane. First pair this is real, negative and it is very large compared to the second pair. Large
compared to second pair. You could see here, here it is minus 1.008 here minus 0.0069.
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What does this real root does or real value of this root does you know that, this real, if real part is
negative that means it will typically a form of e to the power minus ‘nt’ right (𝑒 −𝑛𝑡 ). It will put
envelop for decaying the amplitude will go on decaying. If the real root is positive then it will go
on growing. Root will be go on growing, because this is typically e to the power lamda t (𝜆𝑡). If
lamda 1 (𝜆1 ) is negative the real part is negative which is here both are negative that means both
are trying to cut down the amplitude and it is oscillatory also so if you see the root will typically
look like.
So this envelop will be governed by the real negative root and where ever this root is large negative
they will decay fast compared to the slower one here so I could see here there are two modes are
excited where one is decaying very fast another is taking long time so you get long period. This is
long period and this is short period mode short period mode. Both are behaving like a second order
system both this mode right.
[𝜆1,2 = −1.008 ± 𝑗(2.651)] ∶ 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒
[𝜆3,4 = −0.0069 ± 𝑗(0.0905)] ∶ 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒
Now come back to the airplane what happen if the airplane is moving like this, if you give a
disturbance. In one way it is get excited is it does like this and calm down to equilibrium other is
other could be it goes on doing like this and then finally come back. Second one this one is nothing
but nothing but long period it’s real root is small negative. First one which one is this short period
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is this one. So, we will characterize this lamda 1 lamda 2 as short period root and this are long
period root or we also say phugoid roots.
We will discuss about short period mode and phugoid mode in detail but just see if this beautiful
equation although looks ugly in terms of expression, but how informative is this. Now how do I
handle what information more I should be able to extract from this, if it is second order system?
What I look for is natural frequency I look for its damping ratio. So, let us see can I use this
equation to find short period natural frequency or long period natural frequency and damping ratio
let’s do that.
If I take this since I have seen this is at typical second order response so I write this as characteristic
equation as S2 plus 2 zeta omega n S plus omega n square equal to zero (𝑆 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑆 + 𝜔𝑛2 ). you
know this is typically second order characteristic equation in terms of omega n and zeta and so I
construct this equation from this root this form. So, I write S square minus sum of the roots into S
plus product of the root equal to zero.
𝑆 2 − (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠)𝑆 + 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 0
So if I take this first equation or first root for lamba 1, 2 this equation becomes S square minus
sum of the roots will be what minus 1.008 plus j 2.6…, This plus minus is 2.651 ok this is one root
plus again minus plus minus 1.008 plus minus now j 2.651 ok this becomes the sum of the roots.
So, first root is I miss that the minus sign here plus minus a complex pair, one root is minus 1.008
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plus j 2.651. Second root is minus 1.008 minus 2.651 this sum of the root into S plus you know
product of the root you know how to find out product of the root.
So this will be minus 1.008 plus j 2.651into minus 1.008 minus j 2.651 and that equal to zero if
you do like this, you will get the equation in this form. S square minus sum of the root into S plus
product of the root and compare it with this equation and you will get S square minus this and this
get added so this becomes plus. It is 2 into 1.008 then plus product of the root so that will be minus
1.008 plus 2.651 j ok into minus 1.008 minus 2.651 j, this should be equal to zero. This is nothing
but a plus b into a minus b so you will get equation where 2 into these into S will be there put s
here let’s erase this. S plus
𝑆 2 + (2 × 1.008)𝑆 + (−1.008 + 2.651𝑗)(−1.008 − 2.651𝑗) = 0
𝑆 2 + 2.016𝑆 + 8.0438 = 0
So I know I have to compare this with this equation, so S square and then plus 2 zeta omega n S
for 2 zeta omega n I will write this equal to this compare this and omega n square I compare with
this product should be typically will be minus 1 point a plus b into a minus b so a square minus b
square and j is there so that become a square plus b square little bit typically if I am not mistaken
this value will be minus 1.008 whole square plus 2.651 square so a plus b into a.
A plus j b into a minus j b equal to a square minus j b whole square which is equal to a square plus
b square so you can see that this will be this product will be a square that is minus 1.008 square
plus b square is 2.651 this square this will be equal to zero so I compare omega n square equal to
this term and 2 zeta omega n equal to this term and by solving that I will get omega n equal to
2.836 radian per second and zeta I will get around 0.355. is this clear how to do it.
𝜔𝑛2 = 8.0438 ⇒ 𝜔𝑛 = 2.836 𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄𝑠
2.016
2𝜁𝜔𝑛 = 2.016 ⇒ 𝜁 = = 0.355
2 × 2.836
So, You could see I could use this equation and find out the roots similarly for this also I can find
out in similar way and you are supposed to do it and find that omega n 3,4 will be equal to 0.091
radian per second and zeta equal to 0.076.
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And you could see that the zeta for first one is very high compared to second one that is why
second one is called the phugoid mode long period mode it goes on doing like this. Go on
converting kinetic potential energy among each other and then there is losses and it comes back to
equilibrium. First one is simply like this that’s why zeta is 0.355 compared to 0.076. Same thing
is reflected in omega you see. This is much larger in short period than omega is for phugoid this
you must do one exercise yourself and this is very straight forward thing.
We will solve one or two examples of this so that you are handy this lecture was meant to be give
an idea how to handle this big big equation and get some relevant number here today I will end in
next class I will start from here, I will solve another example so that you get familiar to what we
have been doing.
Thank you.
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Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Lecture – 51
Longitudinal Modes
Good morning, I was just going through the recordings and I realized that we need to go little deep
into it on the mathematical aspects before we try to go further right. let us see what we are doing
we want to study the dynamic stability of the airplane that means we want to study we give a
disturbance and see what is its behavior that is how all the perturbed quantities at behaving if they
are coming back to zero then we say it is dynamically stable right.
This is what? To do that what we have done.

We have developed what we call perturbed equations of motion right. And you know by now that
u dot w dot then your q dot this equation where you have f x perturbed aerodynamic force f z
perturbed aerodynamic force in z direction and perturbed aerodynamic moment ok. Because we
understand at steady state this m will be zero because there is no such motion at steady state
because cruise is our steady state but the moment I give disturbance, it will do all this motion
execute all this motion so there will be perturbed moment.
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Then what we did we know this f x f z and m, they are function of alpha, alpha dot, q, delta e extra
and we expanded it and then we found those dimensional stability derivatives and plug in this
equation to get a matrix? Matrix equation of the form A X is equal to b ok. And then we know the
characteristic equation is determinant of A equal to zero.
And then we got the characteristic equation, it’s the linear system as AS4 plus BS3 plus CS2 plus
DS plus E equal to zero. We also studied a case based on the guidelines that each this system has
to be dynamically stable that means no roots of this equation will lie in the right half plane of, you
see like this is imaginary this is real no root should be here? If any root is here then it will be
dynamically unstable?
So, it will be that all the root should be on the left-hand plane and for that as per criteria the
condition that all the roots will be on the left half plane. Is first is A, B, C, D, E are greater than
zero and then D into BC minus AD minus B square E is should be greater than zero. This is
typically routh criteria. And those who are interested they can read any book we are using this
condition to check the stability of the system. We have also studied one thing that we have taken
simple case E greater than zero and we have obtained very important relationship that is when
Cmu that is d Cm by d M.
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Or Cmu which is nothing but M1 d Cm by d M which is less than zero for subsonic case and we
have seen what is its impact in defining the location of C.G vis-a-vis neutral point. Ok, this we
have done.
Now we are also trying to see if I agree that yes if this is stable. If the roots are in the left half plane
they are somewhere here, and we have been talking about here roots are here so then how do I find
those roots. You can find this root by solving this numerically there were short cut method to solve
this equation. But, what we have seen through one example were for a given airplane the value of
A was 675.9, B was 1371, C was 5459, D was 86.3 and E was 44.78.
You know how to calculate this A,B,C,D,E using the dimensional derivatives or using inertia
property characteristic, mass property characteristics and the aerodynamic derivative extra right.
This formula I have listed and you can refer that. What is important when we try to exactly solve
this equation, we found there are two pairs of root one lamda 1, 2 is minus 1.008 plus minus j into
2.651 in another pair we got this is minus 0.0069 plus minus j 0.0905.
𝜆1,2 = −1.008 ± 𝑗(2.651)
𝜆3,4 = −0.0069 ± 𝑗(0.0905)
This result tells us something more than this number what does it say. It says this fourth order
equation can be product of two second order system right. That is very important and it stands
validated for most of the low speed moderate speed the aircraft right. So what is the meaning of
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this, meaning is instead of handling this fourth order equation we can think of it consist of two
second order system especially I am talking about longitudinal perturbed equation of motion right,
you could see what is this root, this is complex conjugate, complex pair these are all complex pair.
What this complex pair means, means it must be oscillatory motion. And this oscillatory motion
will go on growing or go on reducing its amplitude. Who decide that, that is decided by the real
part as long as real part is negative you know because it is a complex conjugate it will be oscillatory
but since this part is negative.
The amplitude goes on decaying because the amplitude will go proportional e to the power real
into t the real part has to be negative for the amplitude to decay this is the two understanding we
have got. So what is it calls for now that let us see what is the second order system and how do
you model second order system and how can we take advantage of it. And that is exactly why I
thought we’ll give a pause and go to a second order system and try to see little more. Whenever
we talk about second order system you understand it comes to our mind mass spring damper
system.
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Whenever we will try to think of second order system you all know this mass spring damper
system comes to our mind and that we know that equation is very popular equation d square x by
d t square plus C d x by d t plus K x equal to f of t right, this is one dimensional the motion of a
mass which is having spring tight and having a damper this are the popular equation. So know if I
want to find the characteristic equation for this, for homogenous solution.
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2
+𝐶 + 𝐾𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) ∶ 𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The characteristic equation is lamda square plus c by m lamda plus k by m equal to zero
(𝜆2 + 𝐶 ⁄𝑚 𝜆 + 𝐾⁄𝑚 = 0). you are all familiar with this. I divide this by m here and then for x, I
write e to power lamda t (𝑒 𝜆𝑡 ) and then put the derivatives and you will get the characteristics
equation. Those who are not immediately on touch though we find out by putting it will be lamda
t so d x by d t will be lamda e to the power lamda t, d square x by d t square will be lamba square
e power lamda t so you substitute for d square x by d t square this one, for d x by d t put this one
take common and then you get the characteristic equation ok.
𝑥 = 𝑒 𝜆𝑡
𝑑𝑥
= 𝜆𝑒 𝜆𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝑥
= 𝜆2 𝑒 𝜆𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2
And then by solving this equation the quadratic equation we can write lamda t is c by 2 m plus
minus under root c by 2 m square minus k by m. I am sure you are familiar with this right you
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have done it in your some part of the course and you also know that if c by 2 m is greater than
under root k by m then this will give root will be real and negative ok this is clear. If this is c by 2
m is greater than under root k by m then this lamda 1 lamda 2 roots will be real and negative and
if c by 2 m is less than under root k by m then what happens then you get complex conjugates ok
complex conjugate pair, and of course natural question comes to our mind what happens if c by 2
m is equal to k by m.
𝑐 𝑐 2 𝐾
𝜆1,2 =− √
± ( ) −
2𝑚 2𝑚 𝑚
𝐶 𝐾
𝑖𝑓 > √ ⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙, −𝑣𝑒
2𝑚 𝑚
𝐶 𝐾
𝑖𝑓 < √ ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟
2𝑚 𝑚
𝐶 𝐾
𝑖𝑓 = √ ⇒ 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔
2𝑚 𝑚
𝑐
𝜆1,2 = −
2𝑚
𝑥 = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑡)𝑒 𝜆𝑡
So lamda 1 and 2 is minus c by 2 m ok and then the solution for this case will be x of t x(t) will be
equal to c 1 plus c 2 t e to the power lamda t right. I am focusing on this case when c by 2 m equal
to k by m and the roots are negative and repetitive, the solution will be like this c 1 plus c 2 t into
e into this power lamda t but you know as time goes to infinite this product increases but you know
the point is e to power lamda t, when lamda is negative that decays faster.
So, you come your amplitude or x goes on decreasing ok. This is typically critical damping case
the difference in critical damping and over damp case which is here, this is over damp case right
is that in critical damping the time required to come down to equilibrium is much smaller compared
to an over damp case I am not talking about those things those interested they can study it.
What I am interested here is for our sake is that how do I handle the second order equation find
out its natural frequency and damping ratio.
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When we say we have equation x double dot which is my d square x square by d t square plus c
by m x dot plus k by m x equal to f of t right. Let’s say what we do is we know omega n equal to
under root k by m which is natural frequency which is the frequency with damping zero because
in normal case if you see this sort of a equation where we have written lamba 1 and lamba 2.
𝐶 𝐾 𝐾 𝐶
𝑥̈ + 𝑥̇ + 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) ∶ 𝜔𝑛 = √ , 𝜁 =
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 2√𝐾𝑚
You can write omega here omega equal to these are all the text book material we have already
studied. c by 2 m square right. But if damping is zero, c is zero then this is becomes omega n which
is nothing but under root k by m ok that is exactly what I am writing here and also we are doing
one substitution that is zeta equal to c by 2 root k m ok. Zeta is the damping ratio and then if you
substitute here you can write this as x double dot plus 2 zeta omega n x dot plus omega n square x
is equal to zero.
𝑥̈ + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥̇ + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑥 = 0
See for k by m omega n has been written for c by m we have written 2 zeta omega n and x dot is
here and that is how I can write this equation. Once I agree with this now if I take the Laplace
transform what happens it becomes S square X(s) plus 2 zeta omega n S into X(s) we all putting
initial condition is zero plus omega n square X(s) is equal to zero. So, our equation become S
square plus 2 zeta omega n S plus omega n square equal to zero ok.
𝑆 2 𝑋 (𝑠) + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑆𝑋 (𝑠) + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑋 (𝑠) = 0
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𝑋(𝑠){𝑆 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑆 + 𝜔𝑛2 } = 0
So, this equal to zero is our characteristic equation for a second order system in Laplace transform
using definition of zeta (𝜁 ) and omega n (𝜔𝑛 ). So I thought I have gone very briefly but I thought
it worth mentioning this those who are interested can read further so what is the message?
Message is let me write S square plus 2 zeta omega n s plus omega n square equal to zero is the
characteristics equation for a second order system using omega n and zeta, zeta is the damping
ratio. Zeta is defined as damping ratio and omega n is natural frequency ok. Now we come back
to our problem where we got the roots as say one pair of root I got lambda 1, 2 is equal to minus
1.008 plus minus j 2.651 got it. Another of course was lambda 3, 4 is equal to minus 0.0069 plus
minus j into 0.0905. These roots can be also displayed like this.
𝑆 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑆 + 𝜔𝑛2 = 0
𝜁: 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 ; 𝜔𝑛 : 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝜆1,2 = −1.008 ± 𝑗(2.651)
𝜆3,4 = −0.0069 ± 𝑗(0.0905)
(Refer Slide Tine: 16:03)
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Graphically this is typically you understand that one thing for longitudinal case the solution for
that AS4 plus BS3 plus CS2 plus DS plus E is equal to zero (𝐴𝑆 4 + 𝐵𝑆 3 + 𝐶𝑆 2 + 𝐷𝑆 + 𝐸 = 0)
will generally give two pair of roots complex conjugate the moment we say two pair of root
complex conjugate you know this is this corresponds to longitudinal case ok.
And you will find roots are also given like this. This is minus 1.008 so something like this and this
is 2.651 one here one here, this is 2.651. this is imaginary this is real axis this is negative this is
positive and another pair is given somewhere here where this value is how much 0.0069 of course
minus and this much is this value is corresponding 0.09050 so immediately you could see this sort
of roots are displayed.
You immediately know this one complex conjugates, one complex conjugate so there are two pairs
of complex conjugates immediately you know that this is this corresponds to longitudinal case and
one of the pair has larger very large negative real value and another is smaller negative value and
you know larger negative value means it will decay very fast this understanding you should have.
So, know I come back here so if this is this, whether given that format or this format I know second
order system I can immediately form the equation. How can I form I say S square minus sum of
the roots into S plus product of the roots is equal to zero right. So what is the meaning of that S
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square minus sum of the roots, sum of the roots means minus 1.008 and this plus minus this will
get cancelled so again minus 1.008 so this is into S correct plus product. Product means you can
understand this will be minus 1.008 whole square plus 2.651 whole square this will be equal to
zero.
𝑆 2 − (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠)𝑆 + 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 0
𝑆 2 − {−1.008 − 1.008}𝑆 + {(−1.008)2 + (2.651)2 } = 0
So, you will get equation of S square some number S some number equal to zero. Now you
compare this with this to get zeta and omega n. If I do rough calculations, I can write this as
approximately S square plus 2.016 S plus roughly 8 is equal to zero. The moment I get this equation
from these two roots I will compare with this and I can write immediately you could see here that
I could write.
≈ 𝑆 2 + 2.016𝑆 + 8 = 0
2 zeta omega n, S will not be there will is equal to 2.0165 and omega n square (𝜔𝑛2 )will be equal
to 8. So, omega n square equal to 8 means roughly omega n will be equal to 2.836 radians per
second and zeta can find out this equation as 0.355 so simple.
2𝜁𝜔𝑛 = 2.0165
𝜔𝑛2 = 8
𝜔𝑛 = 2.836 ; 𝜁 = 0.355
So, what is the message, message is if you have an aircraft if you all know the geometry from that
equation AS4 plus BS3 plus CS2 plus DS plus E is equal to zero (𝐴𝑆 4 + 𝐵𝑆 3 + 𝐶𝑆 2 + 𝐷𝑆 + 𝐸 =
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0). A, B, C, D, E you can find out from geometry and the aerodynamic derivatives then
numerically solve it. Find two pair of such equation will come and you find out zeta and omega n
only understanding now you should have from this number is what is this happening in the
airplane?
If I give the small disturbance what happens if there is a disturbance the two predominant way the
aircraft can respond one is short period type that is disturbance immediately damps out. Whose
real negative roots will be large that will behave like this and the roots were real negative is
negative but not that large so that is something like this. So typically for an aircraft with
longitudinal characteristic it is dominated by two modes one is short period mode in that mode.
We assume that things happen so fast, the change in the u is negligible but in the phugoid mode
long period mode it almost goes like this, the change in kinetic and potential energy. Classical
books talk about the alpha almost remains constant there is a debate but let’s see you understand
that some sort of kinetic energy and potential energy conversion is there and it takes longer time
to come back to equilibrium.
Which you could see easily from the second equation if I again find out the root for this lamda 3,
4 if I solve that equation which is here, in similar way what we have done here then we will get
values as omega n is equal to 0.091 radian per second. If you solve yourself, you can expect one
question in the exam of this nature 0.076.
You could see that zeta is 0.076, whereas here its 0.355 this is highly damped compare to this and
this is typically this is closer to the short period type excitation and this is like phugoid type
excitation so phugoid and this is short period. We will explain what is phugoid and short period
approximations and I thought we will solve this example and that will give, throw lot of light you
will understand what you are doing.
Don’t get bogged on by how big big equations, these equations once derived is known and you
need not remember this but you try to understand how to utilize those equation right ok. We talked
about short period at phugoid we try see how this 6-DOF derived short period equation of motion
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for longitudinal case you can utilize with appropriate approximation to get omega n and zeta
expression for short period as well as phugoid mode and that we will be in the next class ok. Thank
you.
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Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Lecture-52
Short Period and Phugoid approximations
Good morning friends. We were try to understand the dynamic stability aspects of an aircraft and
we have seen that when we were analyzing longitudinal mode and we get equations of this form
as AS4 plus BS3 plus CS2 plus DS plus E is equal to zero (𝐴𝑆 4 + 𝐵𝑆 3 + 𝐶𝑆 2 + 𝐷𝑆 + 𝐸 = 0). And
you know A, B, C, D, E all they can be computed using aerodynamic derivatives inertial properties
etcetera.
And when I solve this numerically, we get solution for typical aircraft lambda 1, lambda2 (𝜆1 , 𝜆2 )
as minus 1.008 plus minus j 2.651 and similarly minus 0.0069 plus minus j 0.0905. what is
important here is to note is that. These roots are complex conjugate right so it tells you its
oscillatory motion. And whether this oscillation is going to decay or not. Who decides that that is
decided by the real part of the root. And if you could see both the pair real part is negative. That is
their oscillation will damp out we all know for the second order system.
Now there is another difference that you could see that this value is minus one this is 0.0069 so
which one will the decay faster. This will decay faster. So, this excitation all most like the second
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order excitation this will decay faster because you know that for a second order system. If this
decay like this, this envelope is governed by e to the power real part into t and the real part being
negative so naturally this will decay faster as compared to this right.
So, what we have seen for mostly this type of aircraft you’ll find that solution of this equation will
result in two pairs of complex conjugate this one lambda one and lambda two, (𝜆1 , 𝜆2 ) lambda
three and lambda four (𝜆3 , 𝜆4 ). In one pair the real part will be is highly largely negative larger
than other roots the real part. And physically what we understand is when an aircraft is disturbed
it has primarily has two modes of excitation one is short period that is disturb it and it immediately
comes back.
And there will be short period mode you can understand there no much change in the velocity ‘u’
okay. However, this is long period, it takes longer time and it is something called phugoid mode
and it oscillates like this and then comes to the equilibrium. So, we’ll now do a short period
approximation with understanding of this sort of a background and will do this short period
approximation and let me write the equation first.
This is our standard equation S minus Xu minus X alpha then g and then minus Zu then S into U1
minus Z alpha dot minus Z alpha then minus Zq plus u1 into S and minus Mu minus M alpha dot
s plus M alpha then s square minus Mq S this of course into U(s), alpha of S (𝛼(𝑠)), theta of S
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{𝜃 (𝑠)}, equal to X delta e and Z delta e, M delta e, to be more precise you write it like this theta S
by delta e S. We should note down that we are note writing q here.
𝑈 (𝑠 )
𝑆 − 𝑋𝑢 −𝑋𝛼 𝑔 𝛿𝑒 (𝑠)
𝑋𝛿𝑒
𝛼 (𝑠 )
[ −𝑍𝑢 {𝑆 (𝑈1 − 𝑍𝛼̇ ) − 𝑍𝛼 } −(𝑍𝑞 + 𝑈1 )𝑆] = [ 𝑍𝛿𝑒 ]
2 𝛿𝑒 (𝑠)
−𝑀𝑢 −(𝑀𝛼̇ 𝑆 + 𝑀𝛼 ) 𝑆 − 𝑀𝑞 𝑆 𝑀𝛿𝑒
𝜃 (𝑠 )
[𝛿𝑒 (𝑠)]
Because we have understanding that q is equal theta dot for small perturbation. So q(s) is nothing
but S theta of s that was substituted there. So that is fine that’s is part of algebra now we are almost
going towards applying short period approximation, and what is the short period approximation
that during this disturbance or during excitation the ‘U’ remain constant there is no change in the
u perturbation right.
Perturbation u will be zero. Because you could understand this is very short period in very short
time it comes back to equilibrium so that’s not a bad approximation. So why to handle all those
three-by-three matrices, since u and u matrix is not a matter of concern for us. So, what we do we
neglect this, this term first, this one here we neglect this.
And then we get an equation of the form the determinant S U1 minus Z alpha dot minus Z alpha
minus Zq plus U1 S minus M alpha dot s plus M alpha and S square minus Mq*S okay. So, this
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stability matrix form get reduced to this and I am directly writing the determinant. Because I want
to find the characteristic equations and I know the determinant equal to the zero is the characteristic
equation right. So, If I write that, then I get an equation which will be very you will see that very
handy for a designer to design an airplane.
𝑆(𝑈1 − 𝑍𝛼̇ ) − 𝑍𝛼 −(𝑍𝑞 + 𝑈1 )𝑆
| |
−(𝑀𝛼̇ 𝑆 + 𝑀𝛼 ) (𝑆 2 − 𝑀𝑞 𝑆)
Before I go to that please note down here g means I have taken theta one (𝜃1 ) equal to zero which
is fine.I am going like this at steady state. And also when I do it here, if I assume Z alpha dot equal
to Zq and also theta one all are identical is zero and please understand here. We have not
incorporated the thrust term right so no thrust term is included because you know that if you
understand this how to derive this adding thrust terms is no way different than handling the drag
term okay.
So, no thrust term is included please note down this. So, when I write the determinant equal to
zero, I get an equation.
Now we are looking for the characteristic equation and that will be determinant of this equal to
zero and that will be give me a result something. Like this determinant is SU1 S square minus Mq
plus Z alpha by U1 plus M alpha dot S plus Z alpha Mq by U1 minus M alpha that will be equal
zero right. This equal to zero means that this one is zero or this one is zero or both are zero from
this you will get S equal to zero is one solution another is this whole term equal to zero.
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𝑍𝛼 𝑍𝛼 𝑀𝑞
𝑆𝑈1 {𝑆 2 − (𝑀𝑞 + + 𝑀𝛼̇ ) 𝑆 + ( − 𝑀𝛼 )} = 0
𝑈1 𝑈1
S equal to zero is obvious this is some sort of a neutral stability because the airplane whether it
goes straight goes like this or goes like that, as far as aerodynamics is concerned it is same thing
for it right. So, we will not take this solution at all and we will use this equation and then we get
final characteristic equation for short period as S square Mq plus Z alpha by U1 plus M alpha dot
into s plus Z alpha Mq by U1 minus M alpha equal to zero as simple as that okay.
𝑍𝛼 𝑍𝛼 𝑀𝑞
𝑆 2 − (𝑀𝑞 + + 𝑀𝛼̇ ) 𝑆 + ( − 𝑀𝛼 ) = 0
𝑈1 𝑈1
Could you see that when I do short period approximation we have got equations which is second
order equation and these are very much handy in handling this equation because you know if we
want to find out damping ratio and natural frequency I have to only compare it with this form
which you have already derived.
So now if I compare, what do I get. If I compare, I get omega n short period equal to root Z alpha
m q by U1 minus M alpha and zeta short period equal to minus Mq plus Z alpha by U1 plus M
alpha dot by 2 omega n short period. So, this is basically we are getting for the short period. Let
me repeat it if the airplane is flying if there is a excitation from the external disturbances. The
airplanes will have a tendency to get excited primarily in the short period or a phugoid mode.
𝑍𝛼 𝑀𝑞
𝜔𝑛𝑆𝑃 = √ − 𝑀𝛼
𝑈1
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𝑍𝛼
(𝑀𝑞 + )
𝑈1 + 𝑀𝛼
𝜁𝑆𝑃 = −
2𝜔𝑛𝑆𝑃
What is short period mode, disturbance and it is comes back like this another is it comes back to
equilibrium through conversion of potential and kinetic energy but its long period but we are
talking short period which is this. What is the assumption in short period mode and how we have
simplified the equations. We have assumed that the short period mode means ‘u’ will not going
change. So, the three-by-three matrix you have converted into two-by-two matrix by neglecting
‘U’ equations right.
And we have got natural frequency for short period and damping ratio for short period mode okay.
This is very important relationship short period mode we will see in design or designing of SAS
Stability Augment system will often use this as our initial relationship for developing the final
solution. Now we come back to the phugoid approximation.
As for the Phugoid approximation is concerned which is not really very good approximation but
however it gives some good result. And Phugoid approximation what is assumed is that alpha
degree of freedom should be superfluous, what is the meaning of superfluous that. We are
maintaining that during Phugoid mode the approximation which is not very bad approximation but
it is not that bad also it’s not worst approximation it’s not a very good approximation.
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But it gives you some feel, so in the phugoid it is assumed that the angle of attack perturbation that
remains the same the angle of attack remains same, so angular perturbation or in terms of angle of
attack is neglected okay. In the short period it was ‘u’ that was neglected right. With that alpha
remaining constant , these are approximation. If you do that, then you will get an equation for you
is important to just note down this. We can easily find out which one is being omitted. U(s) by
delta e (s) as theta of s by delta e (s) you could see no alpha is here, so its two by two matrix equal
to X delta e and Z delta e and now the characteristics equation becomes very simplified. let us see
for phugoid what are the additional thing we are going to get.
𝑈 (𝑠)
𝑆 − 𝑋𝑢 𝑔 𝛿 (𝑠) 𝑋𝛿
[ ] 𝑒 = [ 𝑒]
−𝑍𝑢 −𝑈1 𝑆 𝜃 (𝑠) 𝑍𝛿𝑒
[𝛿𝑒 (𝑠)]
Please remember this point of the dynamic stability it needs to be treated as a different course
altogether. We may come with a ten hours course for dynamic stability because it’s the huge. But
we are giving you some favor so that you are ready for next course. So, don’t get disturb because
of so many equation and so many interpretations are coming try to make an attempt to understand
it and make yourself ready.
If I do this then I find from this U(s) by delta e(s) is Z delta e into g by U1 of s square minus Xu S
minus Zu by U1 g and theta of s by delta e of s is Z delta e into S minus Xu by U1, S square
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minua Xu S minus Zu by u1 what is U(s) by delta e (s). this is called transfer function from the
short period also you know that is alpha (s) and delta e (s) are transfer function, so these are called
transfer function okay.
𝑈 (𝑠 ) 𝑍𝛿𝑒 𝑔
=
𝛿𝑒 (𝑠) 𝑈 (𝑆 2 − 𝑋 𝑆 − 𝑍𝑢 𝑔)
1 𝑢 𝑈 1
𝜃 (𝑠 ) 𝑍𝛿𝑒 (𝑆 − 𝑋𝑢 )
=
𝛿𝑒 (𝑠) 𝑈 (𝑆 2 − 𝑋 𝑆 − 𝑍𝑢 𝑔)
1 𝑢 𝑈 1
Now if I have to find the roots then what I have to do I have to ensure, this gentleman is zero in
the characteristic equation.
So, If I put that to zero, what happens, I get S square minus Xu S minus Zu by u1 into g equal to
zero. So again, you see this is of the form S square plus 2 zeta omega n S plus omega n square
equal to zero (𝑆 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑆 + 𝜔𝑛2 = 0).
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So, I know omega n is equal is to root of minus Zu by U1 into g, and two zeta omega n equal to
minus Xu that’s all okay. Or zeta phugoid is equal to minus Xu by 2 omega n phugoid. You know
by now what is Zu, what is Xu, all those expressions. Now we’ll do little bit of work on this and
you see that what happen. let as see omega n p (𝜔𝑛𝑝 ) take omega n phugoid and try to extract
meaning of it. See that omega np phugoid is root minus Zu by U1 into g right. And for Zu you
know the expressions, so you’ll put that, this equal to g by u1 is already there and this is q1 S into
CL alpha plus 2 CL1 by mU1 okay which I can approximate it to root of rho g s by m int CL1
what has been done.
𝑍𝑢 𝑔 𝑞1 𝑆(𝐶𝐿𝑢 + 2𝐶𝐿1 ) 𝜌𝑔𝑆

𝜔𝑛𝑝 = √− 𝑔=√ ≈√ 𝐶
𝑈1 𝑈1 𝑚𝑈1 𝑚 𝐿1
1 𝜕𝐶𝐿
𝑞1 = 𝜌𝑈12 ; 𝐶𝐿𝑢 = 𝑀1
2 𝜕𝑀
If you see here, this is CLu this is not CL alpha this is a CLu okay. What is the approximation here
that I have neglected CLu, which is nothing but M1 dCL by dM. I have put it to zero that is
typically I am talking about a subsonic airplane upto mach 0.6. what is q1, q1 is half rho U1 square
so for ql I’ll use this. The moment I use this you should be smart enough this get this expression
okay. This is the expression how do I get from here to here, you’re smart now you know q1 is half
rho U1 square. So, put half rho U1 square here and there u1 square and u1 square will get cancelled
then 2CL1, that 2 will get cancelled an you will get rho g S by m CL1 under root.
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So, omega n phugoid is root of rho g S by m into CL1. what is the CL1, CL1 is nothing but mg by
half rho U1 square. If I put in this expression I get omega n phugoid as g root 2 by U1. We will
see this is CL1 so here under root of rho g s by m and CL1 is mg by half rho U1 square. So, you
could see that , rho gets cancelled m gets cancelled so you’ll get this expression. so what is the
message here? For a phugoid mode you see that its natural frequency in phugoid mode is inversely
proportional to the forward velocity u1 so more u1 its frequency is less okay right.
𝜌𝑔𝑆 𝑚𝑔
𝜔𝑛𝑝 = √ 𝐶𝐿1 ; 𝐶𝐿1 =
𝑚 1 2
2 𝜌𝑈1 𝑆
𝑔√2
𝜔𝑛𝑝 =
𝑈1
It is very very important observation and further you could see for zeta phugoid let us see what
does it mean to us.
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See the expression zeta phugoid we got as minus Xu by 2 omega n phugoid. And this if I put
expression of Xu I get q1S CDu plus 2 CD1 by 2 mu1 omega np. what has been done we have
substituted the expression for Xu and what was Xu. If you see what is the expression of Xu is
minus q1S CDu plus 2 CD1 by mu1 nothing big thing we have done. Although it looks something
big but as simple as straight forward. Now we know omega n phugoid is g by U1 root 2. Please
understand here from beginning we are realizing this,
𝑋𝑢 𝑞1 𝑆(𝐶𝐷𝑢 + 2𝐶𝐷1 ) 𝑔
𝜁𝑝 = − = ; 𝜔𝑛𝑝 = √2
2𝜔𝑛𝑝 2𝑚𝑈1 𝜔𝑛𝑝 𝑈1
assuming no thrust effect, so it’s like a power off case. And I have been always telling that thrust
and drag are similar nature. So, whatever you do it here, you can expand it for thrust also. Now
when omega np is this, if I substitute here and also, I write mg please do yourself q1S CL1 or m
equal to q1S CL1 by g. if I substitute this omega np and for ‘m’ I substitute this expression then I
get.
Zeta p is a very important relation as CDu plus 2 CD1 by 2 CL1 root 2 and if CDu is zero that
means you remember CD versus mach number upto 0.6-0.7 its remains constant and then goes like
this and CDu is nothing but M1 dCD by dM, so upto this point this dCD by DM is zero. So for
subsonic case I can neglect this so zeta p is CD1 by CL1 one by root two. This goes this this
cancels so this expression.
𝐶𝐷𝑢 + 2𝐶𝐷1 𝐶𝐷1 1
𝜁𝑝 = ;
2𝐶𝐿 √2 𝐶𝐿1 √2
1
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What is so important about this expression whay I am using this not so good approximation, but
still I am telling lets do that. One by CL1 by CD1 root two it tell you that if CL by CD which is
essentially true for gliders and all. In general we try to get CL by CD large but you should be
careful by doing that your damping ratio for phugoid mode will become weaker and weaker that
is very important right okay. So, slight excitation will take lot of time to damp out the phugoid
mode. This is very very important okay. so, we have finished it here, now longitudinal part is
concerned what we’ll be doing, we may immediately go for stability augmentation system I have
to design in one lecture.
1
𝜁𝑝 =
𝐶𝐿1
𝐶𝐷1 √2
And then we will give in one lecture the Lateral directional case and which will not complete in
exhaustive manner because enough I am sure by now you may be feeling tired and then we will
wind it up please try derive this relationship. okay thank you very much.
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Prof. A.K.Ghosh
Lecture -53
Pure Pitch Motion
Good morning dear friends. Summer is almost knocking door of Kanpur you could see we have
come back in t shirts of course today is cloudy. We never know after this rain again the temperature
may fall and you should not be surprised if we again back with winter cloths. That is the beauty of
whether. Climate can change and we were all aware that there is the huge changes in the climatic
conditions and this also have the effect of how the aircraft is going to fly.
If you are flying through cloud there will be different type of response the aircraft will have for
same type of control. So, we need to take care of the air plane, considering what is happening
outside and one of the way to handle is appropriately designing the stability of the airplane and
also appropriately designing the control power ok. So far we have developed six DOF equation of
motion we have also used Laplace transform to get the equations in frequency domain.
And we have seen for linear system if I have apply Laplace transform in those differential equation
I can convert into linear algebraic equation and which are easier to solve but that is the part of
computing. What is more important for us is what formation we will get from all those big big
equations.
So before we go and start handling those equations which are developed in frequency domain
where primarily we have developed equation in longitudinal motion and I have seen that it has two
mode predominant mode one is short period that is if disturbance is given within short period it
will come backs to its equilibrium and there is a phugoid mode but almost the angle of attack
nearly remain constant. It is an approximation right.
But what is the important is, its a long period motion it goes like this, there is a apparent conversion
between kinetic energy and potential energy all this things we have done. Now at this point I will
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put hold on it. We will come back to the simple thing before again we will go back there and try
to extract maximum information.
So we will take pure pitch case, pitching motion you know it is about y axis right.
So pure pitch, and pitch you understand it is basically about this is the x and y this is z.
Pure pitch is about y axis and its positive pitch if nose is going up and negative pitch going down
like this, so it has pitch rate q positive q negative ok. And we know by now that CL is function of
alpha, alpha dot, q, delta e right.
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For high maneuverable airplane you can see that, CL will be function of other state variables also
may be their rates with controlled derivatives. Rate of controlled derivatives but we have taken
simplified case where, we are modeling CL as function of alpha, alpha dot q and delta e. Similarly
Cm we express as the function of alpha, alpha dot q and delta e and then we have become expert
we write CL as CL0 plus CL alpha into alpha plus CL alpha dot into alpha dot c by 2 u plus CL
delta e into delta e.
𝐶𝐿 = 𝑓 (𝛼, 𝛼̇ , 𝑞, 𝛿𝑒 )
𝐶𝑚 = 𝑓 (𝛼, 𝛼̇ , 𝑞, 𝛿𝑒 )
You know that when I write any rate derivative because simply alpha dot or q they are radian per
second but you want to use in non- dimensional form. So for q we have written q c by v and for
alpha dot we have written alpha dot c by 2 v. Because alpha dot c by 2 v, and q c by 2 v are non-
dimensional. This part we have cleared. Cm also we write as Cm0 plus Cm alpha into alpha plus
Cm alpha dot into alpha dot, c by 2 u plus Cm delta e into delta e right.
𝛼̇ 𝑐 𝑞𝑐
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝛼 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼̇ + 𝐶𝐿𝑞 + 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
2𝑈 2𝑈
𝛼̇ 𝑐 𝑞𝑐
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝛼 + 𝐶𝑚𝛼̇ + 𝐶𝑚𝑞 + 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
2𝑈 2𝑈
When you talk about pure pitch. Pure pitching means it only theta is changing there is a q ok and
the moment I say theta is changing it has its own effect. Let’s say for an airplane. If I change the
735
theta angle of attack will change so there will be a change in force in the z direction in the x
direction and the airplane center of body may start moving up but here.
When we talk about pure pitch only one degree of freedom, we are talking about we not allowing
the model to go up and down, its only allowing the model to do this theta variation ok this is clear.
Pure pitch is no such motion no plunging is allowed it’s only the angular rotation about y axis is
allowed but in the actual practice for an airplane if I give some sort of deflection of elevator not
only theta will change it will also generate a situation where because alpha change and alpha dot
change it will have motion in the vertical z direction.
That is been neglected in pure pitch only angular motion is taken into account. But typically, if I
try to stimulate this case, I can equivalently say that is in the tunnel in the wind tunnel I have put
this aircraft model right and this is this model is fixed here and bearing such that it will only allow
this motion it will not allow any plunging motion. This is typically I am simulating a pure pitch.
Let us see what does this mean practically.
We remember we define if this is the airplane, we define this is our axis and let’s say this is velocity
vector and this is the horizontal right. What is this angle, this angle is the velocity vector making
with the horizontal and that is the flight path so this is gamma the flight path angle what is this
angle this is the angle between the axis chord and velocity vector this is alpha angle of attack. So
what is this angle?
The angle between the axis and horizontal this is nothing but theta. Where theta is the pitch angle
clear? Gamma was the angle between the velocity vector and horizontal theta is angle between
axis which lets say chord axis with theta with horizontal so that is theta and alpha is angle between
velocity vector and axis ok. So this is the definition and you know from here theta equal to gamma
plus alpha.
𝜽 = 𝜸+𝜶
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When it is actually free flight whenever there is a control input which changes theta it also changes
alpha as well as gamma in general right. Because if the theta change alpha change. Alpha change
moment will come the force will come through CL so that will also change the motion of the CG
of the airplane along z axis so gamma will change so all these things are representation of a actual
fight but what happens in a tunnel, if doing wind tunnel, you see this is the velocity vector.
So velocity vector never changes direction never changes right, the relative air velocity it does not
change. So gamma is zero for pure pitch. Pure pitch gamma is zero implies theta is equal to alpha
or theta dot roughly equal to q and equal to alpha dot. And you know in a tunnel theta dot is
definitely q. Because there are no psi (𝜓) or any such motions are there, there are no bank angle
nothing this there so I can strictly say in a tunnel theta dot is truly q and q is truly alpha dot right.
Ok.
𝛾 = 0 ∶ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝛼
𝜃̇ = 𝑞 = 𝛼̇
So, what is the motion we are trying to study is if I disturb a model an aircraft model in a tunnel if
I give it elevator deflection and try to see how this theta or alpha is going to vary.
737
And from that response we’ll like to find out what is the natural frequency of this motion as well
as what is the damping the aircraft is having right. So what we trying to find out is what is omega
n and what zeta and you are very aware of omega n and zeta. Omega n is natural frequency and
zeta is the damping ratio we have all discussed in previous lectures. So we are trying to simplify.
And try to see that can you get some feel so that. We need not always work with a big big equation
as a designer.
As designer it’s important that we have smaller expressions, handy expressions so that we can get
initial estimate ok.
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Now think of a situation if this is the tunnel and this is the model this is the elevator. Elevator
down is delta e this is the CG and there is the wing and vertical tail here, rudder here correct. If I
give an elevator deflection and this is being exposed to constant velocity ‘V’or lets say ‘U’
simplify, then how to write the equation of motion? We are talking about the angular motion. So
angular motion so it is the moment that will decide. What is this moment? This is the pitching
moment and this pitching moment is about what axis?
This is about the y axis. So this is x this is y and this is z we are talking about pitching motion
about y axis we are also putting a condition that we are talking about small disturbance. Why
smaller disturbance if I give larger disturbance then it will be very difficult to expand CL as linear
combination of all this.
Because that time, the flow and the aerodynamics become nonlinear. So one condition also we are
putting we are giving small disturbance and that was the basis of small disturbance theory whatever
we have developed earlier which we are not violating from that also we now assuming that wing
is symmetric and for simplicity we take Cm0 is equal to zero. It is just for algebraic simplicity.
So now see that we are talking about moment and pitching moment you know this moment is
equal to Iyy into q dot because we all are talking about this motion there are no other thing coming
from yaw rate or roll rate right. Its only pure pitch so I can write m is equal to Iyy into q dot and
what is m I know Iyy q dot equal to moment is half rho v square S c bar into Cm alpha into alpha
739
plus Cm alpha dot into alpha dot c by 2 u plus Cm q into q c by 2 u plus Cm delta e into delta e
correct note that here Cm0. I have put zero only for algebraic simplicity.
𝑀 = 𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝑞̇
1 𝛼̇ 𝑐 𝑞𝑐
𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝑞̇ = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝑐̅ {𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝛼 + 𝐶𝑚𝛼̇ + 𝐶𝑚𝑞 + 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 }
2 2𝑉 2𝑉
You can put Cm0 and go on doing your analysis. So let me erase this part.
So using this equation I can write q dot equal to half rho v square S c bar by Iyy into Cm alpha
into alpha plus Cm alpha dot into alpha dot c by 2 u plus Cm q into q c by 2 u plus Cm delta e into
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delta e right. So I can further write, simplified, I can write q dot equal to M alpha into alpha M
alpha dot into alpha dot plus Mq into q plus M delta e into delta e.
1 2
𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑐̅ 𝛼̇ 𝑐 𝑞𝑐
𝑞̇ = 2 {𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝛼 + 𝐶𝑚𝛼̇ + 𝐶𝑚𝑞 + 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 }
𝐼𝑦𝑦 2𝑉 2𝑉
𝑞̇ = 𝑀𝛼 𝛼 + 𝑀𝛼̇ 𝛼̇ + 𝑀𝑞 𝑞 + 𝑀𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
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What I have done I have clubbed this half rho v square S c bar Iyy into Cm alpha as M alpha so
what I have done M alpha is equal to half rho v square S c bar by Iyy, Cm alpha so what is M alpha
dot, M alpha dot is nothing but again half rho v square S c bar by Iyy into c by 2 V or 2 U into Cm
alpha dot correct. Half rho v square S c by Iyy c by 2 u Cm alpha dot that because my M alpha
dot. So what is Mq then? Mq is from here again it is half rho v square S c bar by Iyy into c by 2 u
into Cmq. correct.
1 2 1 2
𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑐̅ 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑐̅ 𝑐̅
𝑀𝛼 = 2 𝐶𝑚𝛼 ; 𝑀𝛼̇ = 2 𝐶
𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝐼𝑦𝑦 2𝑉 𝑚𝛼̇
1 2
𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑐̅ 𝑐̅
𝑀𝑞 = 2 𝐶
𝐼𝑦𝑦 2𝑉 𝑚𝑞
You can simplify this by doing some sort of algebraic operation the V square and V is there so it
becomes one V that I leave it to you. so that it is very easy now for you to know what is M delta
e. M delta e is nothing but half rho v square S c by Iyy into Cm delta e right. So you allow me to
write this q dot as this where this M alpha, M alpha dot, M q and M delta e there refers to as
dimensional derivatives.
1 2
𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑐̅
𝑀𝛿𝑒 =2 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
𝐼𝑦𝑦
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So, M alpha, Mq extra are known as dimensional derivatives in contract if I write Cm alpha and
Cm q they are non-dimensional derivatives. It is obvious that if you see the dimension of M alpha
we will find yes indeed it is it has the dimension ok, we can check yourself by putting all this
dimension. So, we are writing pure pitch equation in longitudinal motion so pure pitch means we
taking about longitudinal motion restricted only theta degree of freedom so no plunging motion is
allowed and also we are implicitly assuming it is at constant speed right or velocity because we
are stimulating a case of pure pitch which is easily be simulated in a tunnel.
But pure pitch easily cannot be simulated in a open atmosphere because moment you give some
deflection there will be plunging motion as well right. But there is a definite meaning for while we
are looking for pure pitch. You see that if the plunging motion is not really much then lot of
information. I get from this equation simple equation in terms of natural frequency of that mode
as well as the damping ratio that is why we are doing this.
So now I take the Laplace transform with the initial condition zero and we know all this thing very
well because we are talking about the linear system, and it does not depend upon the initial
condition so I put initial condition is zero it doesn’t change anything we have discussed this last
few lecture so I write this Sq(s) equal to M alpha into alpha(s) plus M alpha dot into S alpha(s)
plus Mq into q(s) plus M delta e into delta e (s).
𝑆𝑞(𝑠) = 𝑀𝛼 𝛼(𝑠) + 𝑀𝛼̇ 𝑆𝛼 (𝑠) + 𝑀𝑞 𝑞(𝑠) + 𝑀𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 (𝑠)
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And you know very well that alpha s is the Laplace transform of alpha which is in time domain
right. You know that we have taken the Laplace transform here, this equation was in time domain
we are converting into frequency domain using the Laplace transform and you could easily see
that this was differential equation and this will become algebraic equation there is a ease of no
other operation.
Now here we will do a little trick what we will do we know q is equal to theta dot for a pure pitch
and theta is equal to alpha for a pure pitch because if it is only motion like this, then whatever theta
is there that is only alpha isn’t it, because this is alpha zero theta zero. where Theta like this theta
is the angle between the axis and the horizontal becomes theta but similarly the angle between the
velocity vectors in the axis become alpha so it is theta equal to alpha.
So again you can check it if this is the tunnel if I have moved the model like this then this is my
axis chord line and velocity vector remains like this so this is alpha angle between velocity vector
chord line ok and also you know theta is the angle between the axis and the horizontal and
incidentally velocity vector horizontal are same they’re parallel so this becomes theta also for a
wind tunnel simulated case.
Which indirectly means if gamma is zero? Theta is equal to gamma plus alpha, so it says if gamma
is zero that implies theta equal to alpha and if gamma dot is zero this implies theta dot equal to
alpha dot. What is the physical meaning is if the disturbance is so small that it doesn’t really create
large plunging motion then this approximation will work very well to get some relevant
understanding about natural frequency and damping ratio which is our target so you are not very
far off from here.
𝜃 =𝛾+𝛼
𝜃 = 𝛼 ∶ 𝑖𝑓 𝛾 = 0
𝜃̇ = 𝛼̇ ∶ 𝑖𝑓 𝛾̇ = 0
We are talking about small perturbation and that is where this simple equation has got so much of
meaning right for a designer ok. So, you come here so now from this relationship I can write q is
equal to alpha dot and q dot equal to alpha double dot right I repeat here. Since theta is equal to
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alpha and q is theta dot, q is equal to alpha dot and q dot is equal to alpha double dot. Why you do
want q dot because you could see here q dot was here.
If I take substitute, it alpha double dot (𝛼̈ ) we would have got s square alpha s right. Anyways
there are many ways of doing but you should be clear about this understanding nowhere I will
write the hole equation into alpha s so this will be S for q(s) I can write from here I can write q(s)
equal to s theta (s) that is equal to theta (s) is alpha (s). I can write s alpha of s it is clear. q equal
to theta dot so q (s) is equal to S theta (s) and theta I am writing as alpha so, S alpha (s).
𝑞 = 𝜃̇ , 𝜃 = 𝛼 ⇒ 𝑞(𝑠) = 𝑆𝜃 (𝑠) = 𝑆𝛼 (𝑠)
So what happens here for q(s) I write S alpha (s) so it become S square alpha (s) equal to M alpha
into alpha (s) plus M alpha dot already ‘s’ is there. So, this is alpha (s) for Mq I write plus Mq for
q (s) I can write S alpha (s) plus M delta e into delta e (s) that’s all ok. Let me write it again so you
can understand because I could see so many terms going here and there.
𝑆 2 𝛼 (𝑠) = 𝑀𝛼 𝛼 (𝑠) + 𝑀𝛼̇ 𝑆𝛼 (𝑠) + 𝑀𝑞 𝑆𝛼 (𝑠) + 𝑀𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 (𝑠)
Let us write it again let me write like this S alpha (s) is equal to M alpha into alpha (s) no problem
plus M alpha dot into S alpha (s) no problem here plus Mq into q (s) then M delta e into delta e (s)
right. But we know that q (s) already we have seen q (s) is equal to S alpha (s), generally it is
customary to use ‘s’ in a small cap but clarity I am writing like this.
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So, what you get. We get, this is not alpha s please understand this will be q (s) ok. S q (s) come
back here S q (s) is equal to M alpha into alpha (s), M alpha dot into S alpha (s) plus M q into q
(s) plus M delta into delta (s). but what you know q (s) is equal to S alpha (s) right. Simply I’ll put
there. So what will happen?
This will become S square alpha (s) because q (s) is S alpha (s). So, S into S becomes S square
alpha (s) this is sitting pretty with M alpha, alpha (s) and this is M alpha dot S alpha (s) and then
for Mq I will write Mq and what is q (s). q (s) is S alpha (s) so again I write here S alpha (s) plus
M delta e into delta e (s) that is the expansion.
𝑆𝑞 (𝑠) = 𝑀𝛼 𝛼 (𝑠) + 𝑀𝛼̇ 𝑆𝛼 (𝑠) + 𝑀𝑞 𝑆𝛼 (𝑠) + 𝑀𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 (𝑠)
𝑆 2 𝛼 (𝑠) = 𝑀𝛼 𝛼 (𝑠) + 𝑀𝛼̇ 𝑆𝛼 (𝑠) + 𝑀𝑞 𝑆𝛼 (𝑠) + 𝑀𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 (𝑠)
If I now do one trick I take this term left hand side then what I get I get S square minus M alpha
dot S minus Mq S. S square minus M alpha dot S this is S square so M alpha dot S alpha (s). So I
try to take alpha (s) common ok, so for this S square for M alpha dot I bring it here so this will be
S M alpha dot, Mq I am taking here so it will be Mq S ok. Now M alpha I take it here, so minus
M alpha this equal to M delta e into delta e (s) right.
𝛼 (𝑠){𝑆 2 − 𝑀𝛼̇ 𝑆 − 𝑀𝑞 𝑆 − 𝑀𝛼 } = 𝑀𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 (𝑠)
Let me write it little differently now so I write it as S square minus Mq plus M alpha dot s minus
M alpha this equal to M delta e into delta e (s). Let us not forget it again, what are this M alpha dot
Mq, M alpha, M delta e they are basically dimensional derivative when I think of M delta e
immediately I know the non-dimensional derivative is Cm delta e that is what is the increase the
Cm because of elevator deflection where sign is negative.
𝛼 (𝑠){𝑆 2 − (𝑀𝛼̇ + 𝑀𝑞 )𝑆 − 𝑀𝛼 } = 𝑀𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 (𝑠)
And that is this is the dimensional, but Cm delta e is non-dimensional right, so you know these
expressions. So now I can write this as here alpha (s) has to come ok. So, I can write as alpha (s)
by delta e (s) is equal to M delta e by S square minus Mq plus M alpha dot S minus M alpha ok.
We have seen almost similar looking term in a complex manner in our 6-DOF equation. This is
the special case of 6-DOF equation for motion. what we will do in the 6-DOF stability matrix we
will put those simplification so that it results in the similar expression for pure pitch.
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So, before we go to those exercises, we trying to understand what is a pure pitch and how does it
help us. Now what is this alpha (s) by delta e (s) this is conventionally known as transfer function
ok. Now if you want to find out natural frequency and damping ratio for pure pitch longitudinal
motion it is very very straight forward you know that.
𝛼 (𝑠 ) 𝑀𝛿𝑒
= 2
𝛿𝑒 (𝑠) 𝑆 − ((𝑀𝛼̇ + 𝑀𝑞 )𝑆 − 𝑀𝛼
The characteristic equation is S square minus Mq plus M alpha dot, S minus M alpha equal to zero
right. This is the characteristic equation S square minus Mq plus M alpha dot S minus M alpha
equal to zero and I compare it to it second order system S square plus 2 zeta omega n s plus omega
n square equal to zero if I compare, then I get omega n square equal minus M alpha and 2 zeta
omega n (2𝜁𝜔𝑛 ) equal to minus Mq plus M alpha dot because this is 2 zeta omega s ok.
𝑆 2 − ((𝑀𝛼̇ + 𝑀𝑞 )𝑆 − 𝑀𝛼 = 0
𝑆 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑆 + 𝜔𝑛2 = 0
𝜔𝑛 = √−𝑀𝛼 ; 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 = −(𝑀𝑞 + 𝑀𝛼̇ )
So, what is the natural frequency, natural frequency is under root of minus M alpha and you could
always see zeta will be minus Mq plus M alpha dot right divided by 2 into omega n which is
nothing but minus M alpha what a neat expression right. You may wonder this omega will become
complex is it true. No why because if you see M alpha. what is the expression of M alpha nothing
but half rho V square S c bar Cm alpha by Iyy.
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(𝑀𝑞 + 𝑀𝛼̇ )
𝜔𝑛 = √−𝑀𝛼 ; 𝜁 = −
2√−𝑀𝛼
1 2
𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑐̅𝐶𝑚𝛼
𝑀𝛼 = 2
𝐼𝑦𝑦
That is M alpha now for statically stable airplane Cm alpha is negative sign So, M alpha sign is
negative so this negative when you put negative, negative will be positive so omega n will get a
positive number so no confusion or no conflict ok. This is a very simple way of getting handling
a pure pitch motion through modeling and we check when you will be solving 6-DOF equation
motion and we will be getting solution for a some motion closure to pure pitch how much they
come close and that we can take a decision and especially at the design stage you don’t want to
solve those big big equation.
Because you don’t have complete information so this sort of understanding makes you very very
comfortable because you know that zeta I want may be 0.6 or 0.5 immediately you can see what
is the Mq required. what is the M alpha required if I want natural frequency of 13 hertz or 10 hertz
2 hertz.
I know what sort of configuration required for me and quickly I can find out those derivatives, but
understand this whole is for motion longitudinal motion angular motion right. In aircraft we find
damping and natural frequency of different modes will be required ok it only address this which
you will see is fairly close to the short period excitation.
Today we have just made an attempt to understand pure pitch motion and how to compute natural
frequency and damping ratio and you will see that how handy is this when you will be getting
some information relating natural frequency and damping ratio using our 6-DOF equation of
motion in frequency domain. And you will also appreciate how wonderful these approximations
are for a designer and designer life becomes very comfortable otherwise he has to handle with big
matrix he doesn’t like that.
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To start with when I try to configure an airplane. I want simple things I should be able to have a
feel I should be able to smell the number not that I have to wait for the computer to give me some
numbers in decimals. No that’s not a designer look for. Designers look for pure understanding
good approximations relevant approximations and get a concrete number ok. So, with this I am
just ending we will come back to this again right you see how beautifully this can be used for
designing a stability argumentation system which is life line for all control systems. Thank you
very much.
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Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Lecture – 54
Stability Augmentation System
Good morning, friends.

We will be revisiting phugoid mode little bit for enhancing of our understanding if you recall for
a longitudinal case we got equation characteristic equation in the form A S4 plus B S3 plus C S2
plus D S plus E equal to zero (𝐴𝑆 4 + 𝐵𝑆 3 + 𝐶𝑆 2 + 𝐷𝑆 + 𝐸 = 0) right and this coefficients of A,
B, C, D, E can be expressed in terms of aerodynamic derivatives inertial property etc and what we
found from an example numerical example.
Once we find this root we get two complex conjugate pair value and one we attributed towards
short period mode that is when this disturbance comes back to equilibrium in very short time and
during that time it’s fair enough to assume the ‘u’ perturbation is zero or speed remaining constant.
Second root problem that we solve was having very less or lesser real negative value means it’s a
long period mode unlike short period mode where the real root was large negative around minus
one for this sample case.
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The second case which is a long period mode, we realized this is phugoid mode that is after
disturbance the airplane get excited like this ok and what is the assumption here that if you see
this, the airplane.
So, alpha the angle of attack alpha almost remain constant which is a fairly good approximation, I
will not say a good, it’s not a very good approximation but ok approximation. So, we assume that
the alpha equation is superfluous that is you need not consider that alpha equation at all right. We
are not considering any moment equation like this also about each one axis. If you do that then we
get we can do the trick let me write S minus Xu, minus X alpha, g, minus Zu, S into U1 minus Z
alpha dot minus Z alpha minus Zq plus U1 into S minus Mu, minus M alpha dot S plus M alpha
and S square minus Mq S.
𝑆 − 𝑋𝑢 −𝑋𝛼 𝑔 𝑈(𝑠)
[ −𝑍𝑢 𝑆(𝑈1 − 𝑍𝛼̇ ) − 𝑍𝛼 −(𝑍𝑞 + 𝑈1 )𝑆] [ 𝛼(𝑠) ]
−𝑀𝑢 −(𝑀𝛼̇ 𝑆 + 𝑀𝛼 ) 𝑆 2 − 𝑀𝑞 𝑆 𝜃 (𝑠)
This is the equation characteristic equation and you know we are trying to approximate to get a
characteristic equation for phugoid mode and what we will check the alpha to be superfluous that
you do not consider alpha at all. And then if you see here, we have u, alpha and theta so what we
do. You drop this and drop this, that’s takes care of this approximation we will be assuming that
alpha remaining constant and that is how we get the determinant. S minus Xu, then g and then here
minus Zu and this is minus U1S right, this equal to zero ok.
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𝑆 − 𝑋𝑢 𝑔
| |=0
−𝑍𝑢 −𝑈1 𝑆
This is equal to zero so then you get the characteristic equation S square minus Xu S minus Zu by
U1 into g equal to zero. So, what I wanted to stress is please understand that from this equation
when we did the approximation, we assume that alpha is superfluous so we have dropped this and
this and since there is no pitching moment being considered about y axis because it is going like
this. So, it’s a rough approximation ok right so.
𝑍𝑢
𝑆 2 − 𝑋𝑢 𝑆 − 𝑔=0
𝑈1
Then come to the results last term we have obtained now the point, I am going to tell you is as per.
Let us see what we have done we have done the short period phugoid mode of approximation.
Short period then phugoid and we have also done pure pitch ok. What was pure pitch, pure pitch
was as simple as that I am going like this the airplane is at equilibrium and we gave a disturbance
only this motion is happening pitch but you can understand for an airplane in free space if this sort
of thing is happening so naturally angle of attack will change.
So, it will have this sort of motion also right. But in pure pitch we are neglecting that. That is
essentially what we are telling that pure pitch is similar to model being mounted here and
oscillation is like this and the velocity vector ‘U’ is constant here. So there is no question of any
vertical motion going, vertical motion of the airplane. So, only this theta dot we have got which is
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equal to ‘q’ right (𝜃̇ = 𝑞). Unlike an airplane where you get theta and there will be alpha, there
will be force in this direction there will be motion in this direction also right. And total motion will
be combined motion.
So, that was pure pitch and there we found omega n natural frequency was root minus M alpha.
For a short period, what we got omega n is let me write under root minus, Z alpha Mq by U1 minus
M alpha. So, do you see this, thus the short period approximation and if I compare with pure pitch
here root over minus M alpha this term is there, additional this term comes which has Z alpha that
you understand the Z alpha will come because there is no restriction on the airplane to go up and
down ok.
𝜔𝑛 = √−𝑀𝛼 ∶ 𝑝ℎ𝑢𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑑
𝑍𝛼 𝑀𝑞
𝜔𝑛 = √ − 𝑀𝛼 ∶ 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝑈1
As a designer, when I design an aircraft I start with this, because I don’t require so many numbers.
I know what is the M alpha means what. M alpha is related to Cm alpha right. So, I design an
airplane assuming what is the stability margin? Static stability margin that is we know that Cm
alpha can be related to d Cm by d CL also ok.
So I can start from considering an airplane let’s say d Cm by d CL is 10 percent and then I find the
the natural frequency and then I go for designing the airplane so this way is handy and then I go
on modifying it, and come to short period. I have my airplane we chose configuration wise and
then I come to the dynamic stability is terms of A S4 plus B S3 plus C S2 plus D S plus E equal to
zero (𝐴𝑆 4 + 𝐵𝑆 3 + 𝐶𝑆 2 + 𝐷𝑆 + 𝐸 = 0) . I solve that whole equation so this is the simpler route
go from here to here then go to that big equation ok.
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Today also I thought I will share with you something called stability augmentation system. This is
SAS what is the meaning of this SAS that how can I augment the stability of an airplane that is
suppose the airplane has some zeta, zeta let’s say is 0.2 (𝜁 = 0.2) since this is longitudinal mode.
Now we want to increase zeta to 0.5. what are the ways you know that zeta is proportional to Mq,
Mq is proportional to Cmq and Cmq means tail volume ratio or l t by c. so I can change the tail
volume ratio, I can change lt by c and change Mq and in turn zeta will change.
𝑙𝑡
𝜁~𝑀𝑞 ~𝐶𝑚𝑞 ~𝑉𝐻 𝑜𝑟
𝑐̅
But if you want this zeta to be changed without changing further the geometric because once the
airplane is configured. How online we can change zeta or how online we can change omega n
online in a sense in flight ok. So what is the mechanism that I’ll be discussing is a very introductory
discussion will be there will make us understand how to do that.
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Let’s us see one thing is Cm alpha. Let say we have a Cm alpha basic (𝐶𝑚𝛼 )and we want to
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐
increase to Cm alpha new (𝐶𝑚𝛼𝑛𝑒𝑤 ) some design value. What is the mechanism we have seen this
is the airplane I call it SAS this is the aircraft and you know this is the delta e and let say this is the
alpha, I am taping alpha. What does these diagrams tells you it is telling that in flight you tap alpha.
How can I tap alpha. Alpha can be taped using alpha can be measured or tap using angle of attack
sensor.
So I tap alpha and then I deflect this elevator delta e proportional to alpha, k alpha k is gain ok.
Now by giving delta e equal to k alpha.
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I have delta cm equal to Cm delta e into delta e that is Cm delta e into k into alpha that is delta
Cm. Now what is Cm alpha now that is delta Cm by delta alpha or alpha here. This is Cm delta e
into k. You could see that this Cm alpha is additional Cm alpha ok. So by giving a deflection
proportional to k I am feeding additional Cm alpha that is Cm delta e into k. Depending upon the
value of k. k 0.1, 0.01 and I can go on feeding alpha and deflect the elevator proportional to k alpha
and I give delta Cm alpha which is equal to Cm delta e into k.
𝛿𝑒 = 𝐾𝛼
Δ𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 = 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐾𝛼
Δ𝐶𝑚
Δ𝐶𝑚𝛼 = = 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐾
𝛼
So, Cm alpha new whatever you want will be equal to Cm alpha basic which is available plus k
into Cm delta e we have to choose the value of k so that we will get Cm alpha new whatever we
desire.
𝐶𝑚𝛼𝑁𝑒𝑤 = 𝐶𝑚𝛼 + 𝐾𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐
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This is one way we are augmenting the Cm alpha. What happens if I augment Cm alpha what it
effects? It effects primarily natural frequency which is under root of minus M alpha and which is
equal to you know under root of minus half rho V square S c bar Cm alpha by Iyy. You are
changing this Cm alpha and omega n will be changed right. So, if the problem is we need to change
the natural frequency from this value to that value. I can tune ‘K’ to get that Cm alpha value or
that omega n value right.
1 2
𝜔𝑛 = √−𝑀𝛼 = − 2
√
𝐼𝑦𝑦
Suppose if second question comes to find the change in zeta. Suppose we want to change zeta that
is the requirement there is a zeta basic in the airplane and we want zeta new. Let’s say it was 0.2
and we want 0.6 in flight. How do I do that? Again come back here.
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This is aircraft and this is again delta e and this is q this is k and what I am doing now I am giving
that additional deflection proportional to q right. I sense q through a gyro q and through a constant
I multiply and ensure that the Delta delta e (Δ𝛿𝑒 ) is proportional to Kq. Once I do that what is
happening what is the delta Cm.
𝚫𝜹𝒆 = 𝑲𝒒
Delta Cm is Cm delta e into K q is the additional delta Cm. So what I can do then find Cmq will
be delta Cm by qc by 2V or 2U. So this is Cm delta e into Kq by q c bar 2U. q & q gets canceled
which is equal to 2U Cm delta e into K by c. Now you could see that suppose zeta you want to
enhance but I know zeta is proportional to Cmq. We have already expression for zeta we have
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already done that. So now I need to increase the zeta from let’s say 0.2 to 0.6 so that will correspond
to some Cmq new, that Cmq new is required to enhance zeta from 0.2 to 0.6.
Δ𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐾𝑞
Δ𝐶𝑚 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐾𝑞 2𝑈𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐾

𝐶𝑚𝑞 = 𝑞𝑐 = 𝑞𝑐 =
𝑐
2𝑈 2𝑈
So what I will do I will write that Cmq new minus Cmq basic and that is additional Cmq required
and that will be 2U by c, Cm delta e into ‘k’. so I can go on plugging in number in the ‘k’ and try
to see that I get appropriate Cmq new at given speed for a given elevator control power. It is as
simple as that. All your guided system there will be using this mechanism in the inner loop ok. So
I thought I will also before I end this course and I will give initial brief description on the SAS
which is the stability augmentation system also make sure you.
2𝑈
𝐶𝑚𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑤 − 𝐶𝑚𝑞 = 𝐶 𝐾
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑐 𝑚𝛿𝑒
Understand that once I change Cmq or Cm alpha it will have a collateral effect on the other
derivatives, CL alpha will change CL delta will change that you have to see when plugging them
into the equations right. Thank you very much this is the end of SAS part.
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Prof. A. K .Ghosh
Lecture – 55
Lateral-Directional Motion
Good afternoon friends, we have come to the last lecture and that is a brief introduction to lateral-
Directional perturbed equation of motion for stability analysis in particular for dynamic stability
analysis you are now aware how we derive perturbed equation of motion for longitudinal case
what was done we pick up the equations of motion one ‘u’ direction ‘w’ direction and the pitching
moment equations.
Then we introduced small perturbation and then we did a simplification assuming that it’s a small
perturbation and at the steady state some conditions are true or automatically satisfied. And also
product of two perturbed quantities are negligible enough and we neglected them. And we got
equations of motion and then we have different steps like how do I model perturbed aerodynamic
force specially fx and fz for that we derived a mechanism and some steps were shown to you and
finally you got a matrix and when you took the determinant equal to zero which was like its
characteristic equation.
We found equation in form A S4 plus B S3 plus C S2 plus D S plus E equal to zero

(𝐴𝑆 4 + 𝐵𝑆 3 + 𝐶𝑆 2 + 𝐷𝑆 + 𝐸 = 0) and then we found out the roots and from there we try to
interpret the short period mode and the phugoid mode and try to find out their natural frequencies
and damping ratios. We will be doing similar thing for lateral-directional case but with a difference
please understand one thing. By the way first of all please understand that when I say lateral motion
means.
Motion about x axis and right wing going down is the positive bank ok and the direction is right
wing going back this way ok so laterally right wing going down and this right wing is going like
this. When flying in this direction so these are the two modes are generally coupled for simple
reason you understand if I have given roll disturbance like this like this then you could see that the
lift here will be more compared to this.
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That is because this is taking a bank and as soon as the lift here is more the drag here will be more
it will not only try to bank like this. Try to yaw like this. So, similar thing is true for the opposite
case so we say lateral and directional case are coupled. And that is why we have taken this
equation; this is the motion along the y direction.
What was ‘y’, if I recall if I recall the y direction was. this is ‘x’ this is y and this is z. So, this is
motion along y direction. This is the Ixx P dot.
𝑚(𝑉̇ + 𝑈𝑅 − 𝑊𝑃) = 𝑚𝑔si n Φco s Θ + 𝐹𝐴𝑦 + 𝐹𝑇𝑦
𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝑃̇ − 𝐼𝑥𝑧 𝑅̇ − 𝐼𝑥𝑧 𝑃𝑄 + (𝐼𝑧𝑧 − 𝐼𝑦𝑦 )𝑅𝑄 = 𝐿𝐴 + 𝐿 𝑇
𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝑅̇ − 𝐼𝑥𝑧 𝑃̇ + (𝐼𝑦𝑦 − 𝐼𝑥𝑥 )𝑃𝑄 + 𝐼𝑥𝑧 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑁𝐴 + 𝑁𝑇
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This is rolling moment about the x axis. And this is about the z axis ok these are three equations
we’ll be picking up and try to introduce perturbation and as we did last time for longitudinal case
it is very simple V is will be written as V1 at steady state plus v. ‘U’ will be written as U1 plus
small u and here we will assume that there may not be much change in the ‘U’ ok.
But it doesn’t matter even if you put this ‘U’. You’ll find that all will be taken care in terms of
small perturbation and ‘W’ equal to W1 plus small w like this. We’ll be substituting here and then
by doing this substitution and exactly following whatever we have followed for longitudinal case
you will get perturbed equation of motion.
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As m (v dot plus u1 r) equal to mg phi zero not phi cos theta plus fy similarly I will get Ixx p dot
minus Ixz r dot is equal to q1SbCl and the Izz r dot minus Ix Z dot p dot equal to q S b into Cn.
Please come back here if you see in the right-hand side when I write FAy. it is the aerodynamic
force along the y direction and FTy is the propulsive force which for our case we have neglected
this.
𝑚(𝑣̇ + 𝑢1 𝑟) = 𝑚𝑔𝜙 cos 𝜃1 + 𝑓𝑦
𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝑝̇ − 𝐼𝑥𝑧 𝑟̇ = 𝑞𝑠𝑏𝐶𝑙
𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝑟̇ − 𝐼𝑥𝑧 𝑝̇ = 𝑞𝑠𝑏𝐶𝑛
Because we understand if I could do this with only FAy , LA and NA. I can extend this by adding
additional term. So, we have taken this to be zero are not considered second thing in this perturbed
equation of motion this is perturbed equation of motion lateral-directional case. In this what is ‘v’,
v is the perturbed velocity along the y direction. What is ‘r’ it is the yaw rate about z direction
perturbed quantity. So, p is also perturbed. All these are perturbed quantity. And what is fy here,
fy will be simply qS into Cy right ok.
half rho V square S into Cy is the force coefficient. Similarly, here it is rolling moment, perturbed
rolling moment qSb into Cl. It perturbed yawing moment is qSb into Cn. You know by now that
Cl means rolling moment coefficient. It is defined as rolling moment divided by half rho V square
S into b. Please note that for directional and lateral case the non-dimensional length conventionally
used as a span and not the chord we use in longitudinal case.
𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐶𝑙 =
1 2
2 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝑏
So, this is the perturbed equation of motion, so before I go detail into please understand this is just
to give you a glance of it ok. We’ll need to have a separate 10 hours course on dynamic stability,
it’s an exhaustive course. So I thought I will complete this in a nutshell so that you get some
interest and you find that the treatment is nowhere different than the longitudinal case ok. Now
here if you see fy, where I have for fy, I have Cy and similarly here there is a Cl. I write it Cl, I
write it Cn let me erase this fy.
If I write it here, If I now no more write fy, for your understanding qS Cy as long as you understand
these are perturbed force and perturbed rolling moment and yawing moment I have no problem.
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The Cy will be function of see beta let me write this p and r delta a (𝛿𝑎 ), delta r (𝛿𝑟 ) minimum.
There are other functions derivative will be there for a complicated airplane. But for a normal
airplane I can write it like this and I’ll explain you how this assumption is ok. Let us take this
airplane ok and you know this is the ‘X’ direction, this is the ‘Y’ direction ok. I am writing Cy the
side force coefficient function of beta which is obvious the airplane is flying like this. If wind is
coming in this direction so there is a positive beta, there is a vertical tail that will give a force in
this direction.
𝐶𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝛽, 𝑝, 𝑟, 𝛿𝑎 , 𝛿𝑟 )
𝐶𝑙 = 𝑓(𝛽, 𝑝, 𝑟, 𝛿𝑎 , 𝛿𝑟 )
𝐶𝑛 = 𝑓 (𝛽, 𝑝, 𝑟, 𝛿𝑎 , 𝛿𝑟 )
So, you have CY because of beta it is clear or not. Let’s say this is the beta, the vertical tail is there
so force will be generated alone negative ‘Y’ direction. So, Cy is function of beta now the question
is, Is Cy function of ‘p’? let us see we are trying to visualize whether Cy is function of p or not.
What is p? The p is roll rate, right wing going down like this please note down as the right wing is
going down this vertical tail is also going down ok.
So, it is pushing the air in this direction, so it will also experience force in this direction ok. The
second thing you should also understand as it is rotating, rolling with p, so there is a relative air
speed this vertical tail will see, that is that will be ‘p’ into this distance. At whatever point I am
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saying the velocity and it is moving forward so it will actually give a beta so you could see for
simple common sense that if it is rolling like this the vertical tail will be pushing the air this way
so it will also experience a force in the negative y direction. So, we agree it is function of p also
now for r, what is r.
‘r’ is the yaw rate, what is the yaw rate? it is like this that is right wing going back. Now you could
to see as it is doing like this, this vertical tail is also pushing the air in this direction so it will
experience a force in this direction. So again because yaw rate, there will be a force experienced
by the airplane is the y direction, So Cy indeed will be function of ‘r’ and for delta r (𝛿𝑟 ). it is
obvious if I deflect the rudder like this there will be a force in the ‘y’ direction so Cy will be
function of delta r.
As far as delta a (𝛿𝑎 ) is concerned you can neglect as far as Cy is concerned. This is very small
and primarily will be beta, p, r and delta r and as you understand if there is a Cy there is rolling
moment and yawing moment as well because after primary contributor to Cy is the vertical tail.
Say for example if I want to investigate whether there will be a rolling moment because of beta or
not see if there is a beta. This is vertical tail so the force will act in this direction and force into
distance of offset from the center line will give a rolling moment right so there will be.
The rolling moment because of beta and also you know that if there is a high wing there will be a
Cl beta (𝐶𝑙𝛽 ) negative. If there is a sweep there will Cl beta (𝐶𝑙𝛽 ) negative all those things we
have understood. what about the ‘p’ if you see if I roll the airplane like this. So this wing will
seeing additional angle of attack here, so there will be force in this direction and that will give
rolling moment in opposite direction. It’s of damping nature so Cl also will be function of ‘p’.
Cl also will be function of ‘r’. You could see that if I put the airplane to a yaw rate like this, this
vertical tail will be pushing air in this direction so it will experience a force in this direction and
this force into this distance will give a rolling moment. So, Cl is also function of ‘r’, you know see
anywhere delta a (𝛿𝑎 ) is the aileron naturally. Rolling moment will be function of aileron. And the
rolling moment is function of delta r (𝛿𝑟 ) that also you understand.
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Similarly you can extend that understand for Cn in a similar direction. So as long as you understand
that Cy, Cl and Cn with function of all these motion variable and control variables for me the life
is simpler. I can write the right hand side let take one example.
I write m (v dot plus u1 r) is the perturbed equations of motion equal to mg phi cos theta one plus
q S into Cy. So for q S into Cy. I write q s into Cy beta into beta because I know. Cy is function
of beta, p, r, delta r ok. so I write Cy beta into beta plus Cyp int p b by 2u1 that you understand
now why pb by 2u1 because if I write Cyp into p, p is dimensional so I have to make it non-
dimensional same thing we did for a longitudinal case also for q1 alpha dot.
𝑝𝑏 𝑟𝑏
𝑚 (𝑣̇ + 𝑢1 𝑟) = 𝑚𝑔𝜙 cos 𝜃1 + 𝑞𝑠 {𝐶𝑦𝛽 𝛽 + 𝐶𝑦𝑝 + 𝐶𝑦𝑟 + 𝐶𝑦𝛿𝑎 𝛿𝑎 + 𝐶𝑦𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑟 }
2𝑈1 2𝑈1
So I write like this for every rate I write like this Cyr into r b by 2u1 plus Cy delta a into delta a
plus Cy delta r into delta r although we neglect this many times. But for completion let me write
delta a (𝛿𝑎 ) also. So, this what? This is basically I am to write it here for this so now if I divide
every side by m and I can get a neat equation of the form which you will like.
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Let me write that neat equation m (v dot plus u1 r) equal to g phi cos theta one plus Y beta (𝑌𝛽 )
into beta plus Yp (𝑌𝑝 ) into p plus Yr (𝑌𝑟 ) into r plus Y delta a (𝑌𝛿𝑎 ) into delta a plus Y delta r
(𝑌𝛿𝑟 ) into delta r. So it goes without saying. what is this Y beta? Y beta will be q s Cy beta divide
by ‘m’ that’s all, which you have done similar thing for longitudinal case also similarly I will get
equation.
(𝑣̇ + 𝑢1 𝑟) = 𝑔𝜙 cos 𝜃1 + 𝑌𝛽 𝛽 + 𝑌𝑝 𝑝 + 𝑌𝑟 𝑟 + 𝑌𝛿𝑎 𝛿𝑎 + 𝑌𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑟
P dot minus A1 r dot is equal to L beta into beta or let me write neater form.
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The first equation is v dot plus u1 r is equal to g phi cos theta one plus Y beta into beta plus Y p
into p plus Y r into r plus Y delta a into delta a plus Y delta r into delta r. Similarly, I can write p
dot minus A1 r dot is equal to L beta into beta plus Lp into p plus Lr into r plus L delta a into delta
a plus L delta r into delta r. similarly r dot minus B1 into p dot is equal to N beta into beta plus Np
into p plus Nr into r plus N delta a into delta a plus N delta r into delta r.
(𝑣̇ + 𝑢1 𝑟) = 𝑔𝜙 cos 𝜃1 + 𝑌𝛽 𝛽 + 𝑌𝑝 𝑝 + 𝑌𝑟 𝑟 + 𝑌𝛿𝑎 𝛿𝑎 + 𝑌𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑟
𝑝̇ − 𝐴1 𝑟̇ = 𝐿𝛽 𝛽 + 𝐿𝑝 𝑝 + 𝐿𝑟 𝑟 + 𝐿𝛿𝑎 𝛿𝑎 + 𝐿𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑟
𝑟̇ − 𝐵1 𝑝̇ = 𝑁𝛽 𝛽 + 𝑁𝑝 𝑝 + 𝑁𝑟 𝑟 + 𝑁𝛿𝑎 𝛿𝑎 + 𝑁𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑟
Where you could see from the understanding and if you derive the expression, you’ll find that, A1
is nothing but just for simplification it is Ixz by Ixx, and B1 is Ixz divided by Izz. These are matter
of doing it in a piece of paper but as I told you this is my last lecture and I just want to give you
glimpse of lateral directional approach. So, you could see that it is similar thing as we did for the
longitudinal case. So, what was the next step. Next step we take Laplace transform everywhere all
the three equations, and also remember that beta is v by u1 that also remember; r is equal to
psi dot.
𝐼𝑥𝑧 𝐼𝑥𝑧
𝐴1 = ; 𝐵1 =
𝐼𝑥𝑥 𝐼𝑧𝑧
𝑣
𝛽= ; 𝑟 = 𝜓̇
𝑈1
See if we take Laplace transform here, so for v dot what will be the Laplace transform for v dot
what I’ll do. First, I’ll write v dot equal to u1 beta dot by using this expression right. Now I take
Laplace transform, so if I take Laplace transform of v dot which is equal to Laplace transform of
u1 beta dot which is equal to u1 S beta (s) as simple as that similarly if I take Laplace transform
of r it will be nothing but s psi (s).
𝑣̇ → 𝑢1 𝛽
ℒ(𝑣̇ ) ≡ ℒ(𝑢1 𝛽̇ ) = 𝑢1 𝑆𝛽 (𝑠)
ℒ(𝑟) ≡ 𝑆𝜓(𝑠)
This thing we have to do here and finally when you take the Laplace transform and write in the
matrix form and try to see what is the characteristic equations then you get the matrix. I will write
it for you just for completion.
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Su1 minus Y beta, don’t get upset seeing so many expressions you need to derive it once but the
purpose of this last lecture is to give an idea. Make sure this is nothing very difficult. You have to
only follow the procedure and mechanically it will happen. So, it will be minus L beta, S square
minus Lp S and here it is minus S square A1 plus S Lr.
And then we have minus N beta minus S square B1 plus NpS, then S square minus S Nr. So, this
determinant is equal to zero will be the characteristic equation and here it should note that we have
already use the fact that Laplace transform of ‘r’ is S psi(s) {𝑆𝜓 (𝑠)}. If I now take the determinant
equal to zero and I will get equation of the form.
(𝑆𝑈1 − 𝑌𝛽 ) −(𝑆𝑌𝑝 + 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 ) 𝑆 (𝑈1 − 𝑌𝑟 )
2
| −𝐿𝑝 𝑆 − 𝐿𝑝 𝑆 −(𝑆 2 𝐴1 + 𝑆𝐿𝑟 )| = 0
−𝑁𝛽 −(𝑆 2 𝐵1 + 𝑁𝑝 𝑆) 𝑆 2 − 𝑆𝑁𝑟
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One will be S equal to 0, another will be A S4 plus B S3 plus C S2 plus D S plus E equal to zero
(𝐴𝑆 4 + 𝐵𝑆 3 + 𝐶𝑆 2 + 𝐷𝑆 + 𝐸 = 0). We’ll get this, S equal to zero is a neutral stability type. You
can understand airplane, whether it is going like this, going like this; is going like this; as far as
psi is concerned. It is not sensitive right for it. It’s all same thing whether I am going like this; or
going like this because it depends upon the relative speed ok.
So that’s why this is taken out but this is the characteristic equation and again here as we did for
longitudinal case, we’ll have a condition first condition will be A, B, C, D, E all should be greater
than zero. And there is a second condition and this condition to be satisfied as we have done for
longitudinal case to ensure that, that the no root is in the right-hand side of the imaginary and the
real plane. Then it will become unstable so here also interesting you will see if I see the expression
of E, which I have not derived here.
But you can do yourself and nothing great if you take determinant here. You’ll find E is something
like this g cos theta 1 into Lp Nr minus N beta Lr. So condition of E greater than zero is this right.
This is the expression of E you’ll get, if I expand this determinant and write it in this form. This is
extremely important. Let’s say theta 1 is a zero, so anyway this is a positive number. The condition
is LpNr minus N beta Lr greater than zero (𝐿𝑝 𝑁𝑟 − 𝑁𝛽 𝐿𝑟 > 0). As we have seen for longitudinal
case that E greater than zero had a special meaning. In this case also E greater than zero has special
meaning.
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𝐸 = 𝑔 cos 𝜃1 (𝐿𝑝 𝑁𝑟 − 𝑁𝛽 𝐿𝑟 ) > 0
You’ll see that if E is not greater than zero, that is if this condition is not satisfied then the airplane
is likely to go into spiral divergence. What is a spiral diverse, see suppose the airplane is like this
and because there is some disturbance of bank. As it banks it starts side slipping, as it side slips it
turns like this. As it turns like this the velocity of the left wing increases, again it banks so it goes
like this. Unless an until this condition is satisfied ok. This is very important to avoid spiral
divergence ok.
Now if we try to solve this equation in a lateral directional mode. You will find typically for most
of the airplane you’ll find there are three types of distinct roots.
One is slowly convergent, what we call the spiral mode, which I explained you. number two you’ll
find very fast or highly convergent first order which is called the roll mode. And the third one it is
slowly damped oscillatory mode just I’ll explain you in a very simplistic manner. spiral mode we
have understood. the highly convergent that you understand because it a huge wing right. If there
is a disturbance in the bank so this wing will give lot of damping. It will try to comeback right ok
lot of damping comes from the wing and that is why it is highly convergent, right damping is very
high.
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With the presence of the wing and that is the roll mode. And third one is slowly damped oscillatory
mode it is typically we call Dutch roll mode or Dutch roll oscillation. it is typically you know it
does like this. It will be doing like this and moving like this as well as doing like this. one motion
is like this another is doing, the combination of these two motions is the Dutch roll mode. The
airplane, in the lateral-directional case can get excited primarily either of this mode or combination
of this mode right.
And there is why for a designer. He needs to know what are the natural frequency. What are the
time period. Time to double, time to half. Similarly, for here how much time is takes to go from
one bank angle to another bank angle.
Then it is what is the oscillation, natural frequency of Dutch roll mode to design the handling
qualities of an airplane. I told you that I will give you a very short brief introduction for a lateral-
directional case. I am knowing very well it takes at least ten lectures to make you understand, make
all of us understand but we have decided. This dynamic stability part we’ll take a separate 10-
hours course, just to give you an idea.
And it goes without saying please get a first feel for this don’t worry too much about examination
from this part at least ok. thank you very much I have hope you have enjoyed it a lot of expressions
and all but we cannot help we have to bear with this and if you have any problem do write me a
mail. Thank you very much.
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Aircraft Stability & Control
Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Dept. of Aerospace Engineering
Lecture -56
Tutorial - 1
Good morning friends. what we have decided by reviewing all the forum questions, that potions
that we need to have one or two such sessions where I can revisit whatever we have discussed in
this course and try to touch the salient points this you can treat as tutorial you can treat as a mann
ki baat but this week completely. I try to revisit whatever we have discussed and underline the
salient point. if you see we started with let me give a name for this revision-1.
If you see that, when we started this course, we use one term called Static stability. we use term
like equilibrium also we use specific term trim, and then we also talked about neutral point. We
also talked about Elevator required for trim then as we progressed. we glance through lateral
directional case and then finally came down to dynamic stability ok. So let us first start with Static
stability. What was our understanding?
Or What is our understanding as for as static stability is concerned. it said if a body in equilibrium
is disturbed and if you observe that it has initial tendency to come back to equilibrium. We said
this body is having static stability ok.
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And we try to explain through this sort of a diagram where this is the equilibrium, and by
equilibrium we all understand that at this condition net force and net moment is zero ok. And how
we explain we said if it is disturbed from the equilibrium and once the disturbance is withdrawn if
it has initial tendency to come back to this equilibrium. We say it is statically stable and you could
see that for such a diagram. There is force here component of gravity and this ball will roll here
like this but when we talk about static stability it was the initial tendency that’s more important.
We are not talking about the dyna mics at all, we are not talking about the transient at all only the
initial tendency. If it is having an initial tendency, we said it is static stability so what was the
keyword for static stability it is the initial tendency to come back to the equilibrium ok. We tried
to explain this through mass spring system. this is spring this is mass and you know if I stretch it
somewhere here and release it.
It also has initial tendency to come back to this equilibrium it may oscillate, that is not the point
of concern as far as static stability is concerned. it is only the initial tendency that matters ok. Now
from these two examples or these two illustrations when we are talking in terms of aircraft. What
we said let’s see this is aircraft let’s say it’s a only wing aircraft or flying wing type concept and
we said let’s say this is the center of gravity and we define a term called a.c which is the
aerodynamic center.
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What was aerodynamic center? Aerodynamic center is that fictitious point about which the
pitching moment is independent of angle of attack. What is the pitching moment pitching moment
you know it is a moment about aircraft y axis. What is aircraft y axis. We have been following this
convention if this is x this is y and this z the right hand system. So, what is pitching moment?
Pitching moment is about y axis ok. So, what is the aerodynamic center it is that fictitious point
about which this pitching moment is independent of angle of attack and what is angle of attack?
we also understand. If this is the airplane this a wing and let’s say this is the chord line and if this
is the velocity vector the angle between this reference line and the velocity vector in the vertical
plane is defined as angle of attack ok. So we know understood or reconfirmed our understanding
that aerodynamic center is that fictitious point about the pitching moment is independent of angle
of the attack, pitching moment is independent of angle of attack.
Now we also understand that if this is the body for any angle of attack there will be pressure
distribution and net force we can be represent at the center of pressure. And you know what is the
center of pressure the center pressure is that point, resultant of these forces whatever acting here
and there in fact there will be pressure distribution over top and bottom surface.
And once we integrate this pressure over area top and bottom we get resultant force and depending
on the pressure distribution depending upon the geometry. We can define, find out the center of
pressure like you have center of gravity ok. but what we will be doing here, we’ll not represent the
forces and moments acting at the center of pressure. What we will do, we’ll say forces and moment
will be represented at aerodynamic center.
So I will represent CL, CD, Cm. Instead of putting all those thing at center of pressure. We will be
transferring them and represent as if the resultant is acting at the aerodynamic center because we
have additional advantage about aerodynamic center. The pitching moment is independent of
angle of attack, that helps us and typically we also know for a low subsonic wing.
(Refer Slide time: 08:33)
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This aerodynamic center location is if I measure from here if I write it Xac. The, the Xac is
typically c by 4, low subsonic speed for a conventional airfoil ok. But as I increase the speed as it
goes to higher, higher speed. That is from in-compressible to subsonic, subsonic to high subsonic,
to supersonic, this aerodynamic center shifts backward as Mach number increases. This is the
understanding of the aerodynamic center ok. Once we understand this aerodynamic center now we
will try to see for an aircraft. What is our understanding about static stability?
I will draw in here lets say it is a flying wing configuration and if this is the center of gravity of
this flying wing. So this is flying wing and let’s say the aerodynamic center is ahead of center of
gravity ok. One combination is possible now see. We going to see ask a question.
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Whether this is statically stable are not? How do I do that I introduce a disturbance in terms of
angle of attack. The moment I do this I know by now there will be CL there will be CD. So, now
this force is the ahead of CG and for small angle I can make it much simpler. I can write this is ac
and this is CG for small angle let’s say this is CL then what will happen. As I have introduced
angle of attack because the CL will be there because of this angle of attack and this will give a
moment about the CG, nose up.
If you see that force is here, so this will give a nose up moment. So now you could see it doesn’t
have any restoring tendency or it doesn’t have any initiate tendency to make alpha zero. Because
this is alpha, actually if it is statically stable it should do like, so that net alpha becomes zero or net
alpha becomes whatever original it was right. So, if ac is the ahead of CG of the airplane or for
this case flying wing. Then we say this aircraft is statically unstable and what will also realize for
the same configurations.
If CG is here and A.C is here you could see that if there is the alpha disturbance that is. When I
say alpha disturbance means what? Suppose the airplane is cruising at alpha 2degree at because of
some upwards gust angle of attack has become 2.5 degree so this is 2.5 minus 2 degree is 0.5
degree is the disturbance. So, now if that disturbance is there since AC is behind CG. And I can
draw this CL and this will give a nose down moment nose down pitching moment.
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So, it will try to do come back to that, whatever original alpha was there. It will discourage any
increasing in angle of attack or It will have initial tendency to come back to the equilibrium. So
this configuration. Where AC is behind CG, we say the aircraft is statically stable. This is fine for
the flying wing but when talk about aircraft what happens? When it is an aircraft, if I draw an
aircraft.
Suppose this is an aircraft where it has a wing. Now let’s say the AC of the wing is ahead of CG
of the aircraft if this is combination. Then if I you ask a question as far as wing is concerned will
it give static stability to the airplane? The answer is obvious since AC of the wing is ahead of CG
of the aircraft this will give unstable contribution towards static stability right you can understand
very well. If there is a alpha disturbance there will be a CL here. This CL will give nose moment
up moment. It will further increase the angle of attack.
So, wing will provide unstable contribution as far as static stability is concerned. But now if you
want to make it statically stable. What can I do? The question is this and that is where the concept
comes. We put horizontal tail. Now what is happening actually you see if there is alpha
contribution or disturbance, we say delta alpha (Δ𝛼 ) acting on the wing and let’s assume that same
delta alpha or say delta alpha 2 (Δ𝛼2 ) and I call it delta alpha1(Δ𝛼1 ) only I am being a little bit of
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cautious that I know that angle of attack at tail and wings will be different which you know because
downwash buying that please understand.
If there is a disturbance of delta alpha at the wing it will give a nose up moment so it has tendency
to increase angle of attack but what is happening at the tail the tail aerodynamic center of tail which
is behind center of the gravity of the aircraft. So it will give stabilizing contribution. Physically
what will happen because of this there will be a CL tail (𝐶𝐿𝑡 ) and this moment arm is large enough
that will give a nose down moment.
It will try to decrease or try to come back to the original angle of attack. So, depending upon which
contribution is more this destabilizing contribution because of wing and stabilizing contribution
because of the tail, and if stabilizing contribution of tail is more than destabilizing contribution
because of wing. Then the airplane will provide static stability, correct. That is the basic
understanding ok. Now from here we started talking in terms of CM vs CL graph remember Cm
the pitching moment coefficient.
We defined as pitching moment divided by half rho V square S cbar and c bar was mean
aerodynamic chord. What we have noticed for static ability even for flying wing that if this is the
aerodynamic center. If this is the center of gravity. So if there is a disturbance in terms of angle of
attack this combination will give a nose down moment. So pitching moment will be nose down.
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Nose down is as per our convention it is negative. So what we realize was the static ability if there
is a positive angle then the pitching moment coefficient Cm should be negative right for negative
alpha it should be positive.
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐶𝑚 =
1 2
So, with this understanding we developed Cm versus alpha graph and we said these are the
possibilities if you see between 1 and 2, first we identify what are the equilibrium points say
equilibrium points are point where Cm is zero so ‘a’ and ‘b’ are equilibrium points. And we know
that if we want to ensure that it is statically stable then this d Cm by d alpha should be less than
zero (𝜕𝐶𝑚 ⁄𝜕𝛼 < 0) because for positive alpha Cm should be negative. For a negative alpha Cm
should be positive. With this understanding, we translated this understanding in mathematical
form. We said the slope at equilibrium should be negative.
And we identify the equilibrium points are ‘a’ and ‘b’ and you could see the slope at ‘a’ and the
slope at ‘b’ are negative. So, both are statically stable case. but what was the difference. We found
out said after all at the trim, at trim or equilibrium I want positive alpha so that the lift is positive
after all lift equal to weight is one of our equilibrium point. Of course, we also debated if it is a
cambered airfoil wing then you can have lift, positive lift even at negative angle of attack.
But we are not considering that ok. so, these are the trim points we realize and we said the slope
about this trim point should be negative now between these two variations 1 and 2. we realize that
this corresponds to alpha equal to 0 and this corresponds to alpha positive. And our requirement is
I want to design an aircraft whose Cm vs alpha should be closer typically it should be like this not
this. Because when it is following the trend of the figure 2, then you can generate positive alpha.
And I need positive alpha for generating lift, positive lift and that is how we now further put
another condition that for static stability it is fine d Cm by d alpha less than zero. But for trim at
positive angle of attack we said Cm at alpha equal to zero or which is denoted by Cm0 should be
greater than zero. So, this is the condition we put mathematically through our understanding of
aircraft in terms of static stability and trim right. What is the nut shell of our understanding as far
as designer is concerned that we need to
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ensure that d Cm by d alpha less than zero, and we know this is equivalent to saying d Cm by d
CL is less than zero. Because CL is CL0 plus CL alpha into alpha second thing for trim we want
to ensure that Cm0 is greater than zero, so finally we are focused to a variation of Cm versus alpha
like this. Where this is Cm0 and this is Cm alpha. The catch point is Cm alpha that is the slope of
this line at trim, i.e. at this point that is important this is our trim point right clear .
We are talking about Cm0 greater than zero and we also realize Cm0 will be because of Cm0 wing
plus Cm0 tail plus Cm0 fuselage. I will just try to revise Cm0 wing understand that if you are using
a cambered aerofoil wing then suppose this is the CG and let say this is the AC of the wing and
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let’s say this is Xac and this is Xcg. I put the bar. You know what is bar, is the non- dimensionalised
by mean aerodynamic chord. as in the aero dynamic chord. Since this is a cambered airfoil we
know that when I represent at AC for a cambered airfoil CL, this is CD and there will be Cmac
wing, right this you know this.
So if there is a Cmac wing and of course CL and CD then you know that if I want to Cm0 that will
be of the wing, that will be Cmac wing then plus CL0 into Xcg bar minus Xac wing bar. Please
understand here that Cmac wing for a cambered airfoil is less than zero. But our aim is to ensure
that the Cm0 wing should be positive or less negative because finally we want Cm0 of the whole
airplane to be positive. This is negative so I should try to nullify or marginalize this value through
this expression and that is possible only when the Xac, aerodynamic center and if the center of
gravity of the airplane, s this is Xac of the wing and this is Xcg of the aircraft.
𝐶𝑚0 > 0
𝐶𝑚0 = 𝐶𝑚0𝑤 + 𝐶𝑚0𝑡 + 𝐶𝑚0
𝑓𝑠
𝐶𝑚0,𝑤 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐,𝑤 + 𝐶𝐿0 (𝑋̅𝑐𝑔 − 𝑋̅𝑎𝑐,𝑤 )
Now you could see that If AC is ahead of CG, it is giving statically unstable contribution, doesn’t
matter as for Cm0 of the wing is concerned. If we put AC ahead of CG then only this term becomes
positive. We are not much bothered about which contribution towards static instability because
we have a tail. We’ll adjust stability through the tail, so this is very very important you should not
forget this relationship.
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Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Lecture-57
Tutorial-2
Good morning let us do one problem let us solve one problem I say tutorial -2 and we like to see
whatever we understood can you apply this for solving simple, simple problems or not ok. What
we have understood, we have understood one thing d Cm by d alpha which is static stability
parameter and another is Cm0. So let me create a problem. This is Cm and let’s say this is CL and
let us frame a problem that we want to fly an airplane such that.
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The lift coefficient or CL equal to 0.6 where from we get this CL 0.6. After all what is this point,
this point is cruise that is our equilibrium. So lift equal to weight, so I know half rho V square S
CL equal to weight, or CL equal to 2w by S by rho V square. Suppose I am designing an air plane
whose wing loading we have decided, we have decided what is the cruise speed and we have
decided what is that altitude at which I will be cruising. So, if I put those numbers here, I will get
a value CL and that value CL let’s say all those geometric parameters that value is 0.6 corect.
So, if I try to visualize that means at this point. Lift and weight are equal and of course it’s the
cruise, thrust and drag are also equal ok. And it goes without saying Cm is also zero. Now the
question is what should be the value of Cm0 if stability margin or static stability margin is ten
percent (10%) this is the question what is the question what should be the value of Cm0 if stability
margin is ten percent (10%). And I am going fly at CL equal to 0.6. The moment I mention stability
margin it should come to your mind that.
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dCm by dCL is nothing but minus static margin. we have developed this relationship with some
approximation but we will carry on with this. So, what is the dCm by dCL, so dCm by dCL is
minus 0.1 because ten percent (10%). ten percent (10%) means what? it actually tells you what is
the meaning of the ten percent (10%) that means if this is the neutral point and if this is the CG
location then this distance is ten percent (10%) of mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) ok. So, I know
dCm by dCL is minus 0.1
= −𝑆𝑀; = −0.1
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝜕𝐶𝐿
So, I know the slope which is here which is linear, is same here and there is minus 0.1. So what is
the Cm0 then? Cm0 you could see easily it is 0.1 into 0.6, that is 0.06. So, I need Cm0 equal to
0.06. So, when I am designing an airplane. I should ensure that Cm0 of aircraft is equal to Cm0
wing plus Cm0 fuselage plus Cm0 tail. What you understand? Cm0, 0.06 means the contribution
from wing, contribution from fuselage, contribution from tail when they add up, they should add
up to 0.06.
𝐶𝑚0,𝑎𝑐 = 𝐶𝑚0,𝑤 + 𝐶𝑚0,𝑓𝑠 + 𝐶𝑚0,𝑡
Suppose these two contributions is not giving me 0.06 if it gives 0.06 fine plus 0.06 which is very
difficult you understand mostly you use cambered airfoil and this Cm0 fuselage is mostly negative
although small. So, what is the option? Suppose let us say this total is giving us 0.01, let us say
this. Then remaining point 0.05 has to come from tail and how do you get that Cm0 from tail. You
know for that we give tail setting angle.
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You can use those formula and find out what is the tail setting angle required for making this whole
Cm0 to be 0.06. the catch point is here, right now let us further look into this problem.
let’s say this is point 0.6, this is 0.06 and let’s say this is for Xcg equal to 0.3. Xcg bar means Xcg
location non-dimensionalized with mean aerodynamic chord. Now if I move this CG backwards
if I move this CG backwards, let’s say CG is here 0.3. Now I am moving the CG backwards what
will happen as I move the CG backwards then the slope will go on reducing and a time will come
when the slope will parallel to the x axis and that CG location you all know is called neutral point.
So, what is the definition of neutral point is that CG location at which is dCm by dCL is zero right
Or the aircraft is neutrally stable in static sense. Now if I am given this plot Xcg as well as the CL
̅0 ). I can easily find out you could see that
and Cm0. If I try to find out what is the value of N0 (𝑁
for.
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let’s say this combination this is given what you know, you know dCm by dCL is minus 0.1 and
also you know dCm by dCL is minus static margin which is minus of (N0 minus Xcg bar) and you
know dCm by dCL is how much, dCm by dCL is static margin is ten percent (10%) we have
mentioned here. So, dCm by dCL is minus 0.1. So what I can write, I can simply write minus 0.1
is equal to minus (N0 minus Xcg bar). And so N0 will be, N0 bar will be equal to 0.1 plus Xcg,
Xcg is given 0.3 so your N0 bar or neutral point is 0.4 so simple. If a variation is given like this
Cm versus CL, Xcg is given.
̅0 − 𝑋̅ 𝑐𝑔)
−0.1 = −(𝑁
̅0 = 0.1 + 0.3 = 0.4
𝑁
Here, and these values are given here. You can easily find out what is the neutral point of the
airplane right. This is one of the simplest things which you are supposed to do in the sense that
automatically it should come to your mind when you see such variations. Now let us try to be little
more creative.
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Let say you have got N0 equal to 0.4 as given in the example but you want that your airplane
should have N0 equal to 0.5 that is what is required I am talking about design iteration right. what
is to be done again revisit this graph this is Cm versus CL this is Xcg equal to 0.3 and this is 0.6
and this is 0.06. Most of the student start thinking if I change the cg, I will change the N0, but do
you think this is correct. Answer is no because cg has nothing to do with N0. N0 is decided by
whom, the neutral point is decided by whom?.
by the tail, tail size, its aspect ratio, its location by wing its size, fuselage all the aerodynamic
properties. So, once the configuration is fixed N0 is fixed. So by changing CG you cannot change
N0. You can change the stability margin that is different issue. But our problem is we want to
change N0. So what is to be done. So the best way to do is. If this is the airplane this is tail this is
the wing, if I want to change N0 from 0.4 to 0.5 or whatever number it is.
And the best way to deal this is you change, the tail volume ratio that is you remember that is VH,
what was VH, VH was St lt by S c bar. What is happening philosophically? Please see this I want
to change N0 from 0.4 to 0.5. So, what I will do either I increase the tail size. Increasing tail size
means drag also will increase right. So, it is better you take this tail little back. If you take it further
back then the slenderness of the whole airplane or length may increase you may not like it. So,
either you increase little bit of area little bit of length or in a effect changing the VH tail volume
ratio.
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This will immediately change the N0 value. So we can find out what is the corresponding change
in the VH required to make it from 0.4 to 0.5 so best way to handle is, change the tail volume ratio
ok. That you should not forget ok. Now once this is done. Let’s also see another problem so that
we can understand all this concepts very clearly. Ok.
Let us see let this is 0.6, let this be 0.06. We are flying at this CL now there could be a requirement
that you fly at the same altitude, but at a higher CL, this CL2 let’s say this is equal to 0.8. So, what
will happen the moment you try to fly at 0.8. the aircraft will generate a negative pitching moment,
right? But you want to trim this airplane at this CL without changing the stability because all CG,
everything remains same. If you want to really do this that means this negative pitch moment has
to be nullified. So, who will nullify this?
We nullify this through by the putting the elevator up. Elevator up means it gives force like this a
moment about CG, nose up so I should be able to give that much of elevator which will neutralize
this negative pitching moment at CL2 which is equal to 0.8 and how do I do that? we all know we
use this relationship delta e equal to delta e0 (𝛿𝑒0 )plus d delta e by d CL trim into CL trim.
𝑑𝛿𝑒
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and where this is minus Cmo by Cm delta e plus (-delta Cm by delta CL) by Cm delta e.CL trim.
And you could see easily for an aircraft this Cm0 will be available Cm delta e is the elevator
control power. Control power this is also available otherwise you can also find out using its
formula Cm delta equal to minus VH eta t CL alpha tail and tau extra. Which you can check your
notes d Cm by dCL is ten percent (10%) as given here and CL trim is now it becomes 0.8.
𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝐶𝑚0 − 𝜕𝐶𝐿
𝛿𝑒 = − + 𝐶
𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
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So simple, it reminds me of another problem that we should also now discuss. Suppose an aircraft
is cruising such that Vcruise (𝑉𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 100 𝑚⁄𝑠) is 100 meter per second, rho is equal to1 kg by
m cube (𝜌 = 1 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 )that is at altitude where the density of air is 1 kg per meter cube. Let’s say
S is 20 m sq.(𝑆 = 20 𝑚2 ), W is 2000k and Cm0 is 0.06, Cm delta e (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 = −1.0) is minus 1.0,
and static margin is ten percent (10%). What is the elevator required if this question is asked? what
is the elevator required. How can I do that again I come back to that.
Relationship delta e equal to delta e0 plus d delta e by d CL trim into CL trim what is the CL trim,
CL trim will be 2 W by S by rho v square so I can always put equal to 2 into 2000, please understand
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if you put 2000, this will be wrong you have to put in newton so I have to multiply by 9.8, 2 w by
rho is 1, V square is 100 square , into S is 20. So that will give me CL trim. Delta e0 I will find
out by minus Cm0 by Cm delta e, values are given minus 0.06 by minus 1.0 then the d delta e by
dCL trim is minus delta Cm by delta CL by Cm delta e again you know this minus (0.1) divided
by minus 1.0. So, we’ll get d delta e by d CL trim. And CL trim we found from here, plugging
here and get the answer. That is as simple as that ok.
𝑑𝛿𝑒
𝟐 𝑾⁄𝑺 𝟐 × 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗. 𝟖
𝑪𝑳𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒎 = =
𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟐 × 𝟐𝟎
𝑪𝒎𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟎𝟔
𝜹𝒆𝟎 = − =
𝑪𝒎𝜹𝒆 −𝟏. 𝟎
𝝏𝑪𝒎
𝒅𝜹𝒆 𝝏𝑪𝑳 −𝟎. 𝟏
= =−
𝒅𝑪𝑳𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒎 𝑪𝒎𝜹𝒆 −𝟏. 𝟎
Let us take another problem. Suppose we conduct the wind tunnel test and observe this. In wind
tunnel test we found that Cm at delta e equal to 0 is 0.04 Cm at delta e equal to -5 degree is 0.08.
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So we are contacting a wind tunnel test here put modal this is the elevator here. One test will
content the delta is 0 measure the Cm string x balance and it is found .04 and second case we will
put the elevator let this up – 5 degree and then measure that came out to be .08.
What is the value of Cm delta e 1 so the d delta e by d delta l trim the dCL trim is nothing but
de2- delta e 1 by delta e1 by CL2-CL1 these are the trim value. This is important ok and what is
sign of d delta e by d CL trim you should know sign of d delta e by d CL trim equal to - dCm by
dCL by CL delta e and statically stabile at the this sign is negative. This sign is negative sign of
d delta e by dCm trim is also negative ok and unit wise we see that this is demarcate is in there
per degree then the d delta e by dCL trim degree per radiant d delta e by d CL trim is a radiant
generate will given when degrees ok.
How will find out but the potion what will be happen here this is one delta e one to delta e equal
to 0 degree this value 0.04 is delta e is equal to- 5 degree from the value is 0.08 ok. What is volume
of delta e. the Cm delta eequal to delta Cm by delta d e if we take this 0.04 – 0.08 by 0 – (-5) be
careful at the sign and that will be give the value -.04 by plus5 is per radian. To give this much of
value per degree not per radian because the angle is in degrees. There is should be very CLear
right.
So from tunnel test seeing this result immediately find out what is the Cm delta e. Once I know is
somebody asking Cm delta e what is the corresponding angle of tau? Remember tau is d alpha t
by d delta e. rho Cm delta e is expressed c l alpha t Neeta t into tau right. Please check the formula
so you have to only use this formula here.
If you know the tail volume ratio if you the alpha tail you can manipulate the relationship to find
out the value of tau given other change this is way you can go on calculating information based on
the other information. We do a on the relationship on the ok right.
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Another important thing we should be known typically d delta e by d CL trim what is the meaning
of the Cm vs. CL right from one CL under played at CL. This is CL 2 this is CL 1 and the delta e
1 and the delta e2 you want to fly CL2 and I need delta e2 CL is trim for flying at the CL trim 1 it
was delta e 1. So d delta e by CL is nothing but delta e 2 minus delta e 1 by CL 2 minus CL 1.
Where these are trim values this is important ok. And what is the sign of the delta e by d c l trim
also you should know the sign of d delta e by d CL trim.
You know this is nothing but minus dCm by dCL by Cm delta e. and for the statically stable
airplane this sign is negative, this sign is negative. So total sign of d delta e by d c l trim is also
negative. And unit vise you could see that it will be this is dimensional s, this is either per degree
If it is per degree then d delta e by dCm is per degree.
With this understanding I am sure you would be able to handle life problem including the exam
problem. I wish you all the best and we are also trying to see that we will give one or two lectures
on different types of aircraft, their evolution, their shapes. How the shapes are being changed, how
the weight class has changed. So that you can understand whatever we have studied here every
you studied here how they got translated into real product and today you fly so many high
performance aircraft and the understanding is so simple ok. Thank you very much.
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Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Lecture – 58
Tutorial – 3
Friends, let us come to tutorial 3.

In this tutorial as we discussed we will be revisiting the few concept, few final points. One of the
observation which I have after seeing the forum questions that is on stick fixed and stick free
stability stick free static stability. Lot of confusion is there in fact lot of confusion were there when
I was taught this concept at my B.Tech level so nothing surprising. So I will try to revisit this so
that this confusion is removed for all time ok.
Please understand one thing, we are very clear about this point that if this is Cm versus CL and I
am flying at this CL and I want to fly another CL 2 let say. Then, if want to go to this CL 2. The
airplane because it is statically stable it will generate a negative moment. Why? Because if I want
to increase the CL from here, say CL1 to CL2 that means I am keeping the speed everything same
what does it mean.
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It means have to change the angle of attack ok right. But when I try to also think this way that at
this point lift is equal to weight and at this point also I want lift equal to weight and I am not
changing the altitude that means, since lift is equal to weight and this equal to half rho v square s
CL if I am not changing the altitude that is rho remaining same.
1 2
𝐿=𝑊= 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶𝐿
2
If I have to fly at the higher CL if CL is higher that means to maintain lift equal to weight. I need
to fly at the lower speed then only it is possible right. If I am balancing lift is equal to weight at
CL 2 where CL 2 is more than CL 1 that means the velocity the speed here less than velocity here.
There is no confusion and then next question comes how do you increase CL and do you know CL
is nothing but CL0 plus CL alpha into alpha that means if you want to change CL I have to increase
angle of attack.
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝛼
The moment I try to change CL from CL 1 to CL 2 this Cm versus CL graph tells you that there
will be a negative moment implicitly generated because the aircraft is statically stable but you want
to fly at this CL so you have to deflect the elevator such that this negative moment is neutralized
right.
We that understanding we try to address a question. what is the delta e required to trim an airplane
at CL trim. What was the approach? Approach was Cm we write Cm equal to Cm0 plus Cm alpha
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into alpha plus Cm delta e into delta e and we know CL equal to CL0 plus CL alpha (𝐶𝐿𝛼 )into
alpha plus CL delta e (𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 )into delta e. In the class we have taken this value (𝐶𝐿0 ) to be is zero
which is not really zero. But for simplicity we have taken it for zero you can always add those
expressions but what you have realized.
If I want to fly at particular CL and that to be a trim point that means at that point this Cm should
be equal to zero so what we did we put Cm equal to zero and this alpha we said this is the alpha
trim and delta e is delta e required. Similarly, here alpha trim and delta e required right.
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 + 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑑
𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿0 + 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 + 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑑
Now what we did is we solved these two equations and we derived an expressions delta e equal to
delta e0 plus d delta e by d CL trim by CL trim right and you also know approximately d delta e
by d CL trim is equal to minus d Cm by d CL by Cm delta e. So with this understanding it is very
clear that if I want to fly at a particular CL if I know its stability characteristic if I know its neutral
point and CG location why I am saying that, because after all d Cm by d CL is approximately equal
to minus of neutral point minus Xcg and this neutral point we talk about is stick fixed.
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𝑑𝛿𝑒
𝜕𝐶𝑚
𝑑𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝜕𝐶𝑚
=− ; ̅0 − 𝑋̅𝑐𝑔 )
= −(𝑁
𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝜕𝐶𝐿
So what is the message, message is if we want to fly at the particular CL trim once you know this
values you know what is the delta e required and here we use the concept of stick fixed neutral
point right. Why is the stick fixed neutral point because we are assuming that although this elevator
at any angle of attack because it is hinged here it can start floating we are not allowing that. We
are saying that we will not allowing it to float so fixed.
So this tells you this expression tells you delta e required is let’s say minus 5 degree. So we said
we will take this elevator minus 5 degree which is this and that’s all. And the stick is locked the
elevator cannot move up and down and when I am talking about stick fixed this also means at
when I am starting the reference from where I am going to measure the elevator in that it is assumed
that even at this condition elevator is not allowed to float elevator is here only from here.
So what is the final message if I have to flight at particular CL trim whatever delta e required as I
said typically let’s say minus 5 degree so we have to from this reference we will push the elevator
here and lock it. So here also stick fixed in the sense, that we are not giving it permission to float.
So, whenever you are flying an aircraft. how much elevator required to trim an air craft for the
given CL is decided by this neutral point stick fixed that is no floating of the elevator allowed.
So that is the number right. But why there is need for the stick free stability. Please understand the
stick free stability we define for simple reason that we wanted to model. How much stick force
pilot will apply to get that elevator let’s say minus 5 degree for this case.
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So for stick free concept was used for one is to develop the stick force requirement to deflect it to
desired angle but how much angle that is always decided by the stick fixed case ok. How much
force is required in that analysis we will be using stick free concept this should be very clear ok.
Now let us see what happens if you recall this is the elevator and let me write elevator and you
know for a given alpha tail because there will be pressure distribution above the elevator and
mostly the center of pressure of the whole distribution over and below of the elevator will result
in the center of pressure being behind the hinge line this is the hinge line normal it is like that.
So what will happen at alpha t (𝛼𝑡 ) if you leave it free, if you leave it not fixed then this will give
the moment and by its own nature of the hinge moment characteristics it will float to an equilibrium
some angle right and that will depend upon alpha t (𝛼𝑡 ). For different alpha t, this angle will go
on changing. So, let’s say if I want to take it to minus 5 degree and let’s say by its inherit nature it
will automatically go to 3 degrees, minus 3 degrees and basically pilot has to put the effort to take
it to another 2 degrees that is suppose I require it to take it for 5 degrees (5° ) and who decided that
5 degree through stick fixed neutral point say minus 5 degrees.
Now because of floating tendency it has got upto let us say minus 3 degrees so how much effort
pilot should put, pilot should put effort to take it from here to this but then what happens the
moment it comes here again it can have a floating tendency so the pilot has to keep on holding the
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elevator in normal case right. So that is why we put trim tab extra. The point here is please
understood when we talking about stick free concept.
We are assuming that at the given alpha t the elevator has already floated like this and that why
CL alpha of the tail reduces and that why neutral point, stick free is ahead of neutral point stick
fixed because it floated up at equilibrium the CL alpha tail has reduced ok. That is why neutral
point stick free is ahead of neutral point stick fixed and this condition is taken as in first equilibrium
point from here we take to the next one.
For example let’s see suppose delta e required is minus 5 degree as given by this relationship where
N0 stick fixed is used and that is only to be used right. But you have seen suppose because of
floating and if I recall what is floating. We wrote Ch equal to Ch alpha t (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 )into alpha t plus
Ch delta e (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 )into delta e remember Ch alpha t (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 )means if there is alpha t tail there will
be nose down moment because of alpha t and same time there is restoring moment because of Ch
delta e.
So as it goes up delta e so this force comes here they will try to restore it. So, there will be a
equilibrium. At equilibrium the contribution will cancel each other so Ch will become zero. So Ch
zero so that will be Ch alpha t into alpha t plus Ch delta e into delta e or delta e float equal to minus
Ch alpha t by Ch delta e into alpha t this we know.
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𝐶ℎ = 𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 𝛼𝑡 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡
(𝛿𝑒 )𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 = − ( ) 𝛼𝑡
𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒
So when you are talking about floating tendency? Suppose you have designed Ch alpha t
(𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 )and Ch delta e (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) in such a way that because of floating this delta e float at that alpha t
also becomes minus 5 degree. I repeat this question suppose I want delta e minus 5 degree to trim
the airplane at given CL trim and we are clear that this to be evaluated by stick fixed. But, what
we found, once you allow it to float by itself it floats up to minus 5 degree.
So naturally if this happens for the particular alpha t pilot need not apply any force it will
automatically go to minus 5 degree, get trimmed at whatever CL trim is required right. So, the
understanding is how much CL trim is required is decided by stick fixed neutral point. That means
when we are analyzing neutral point we have not allowed the elevator to float so it is there fixed
right. So that CL alpha of the tail remains CL alpha tail without any deflection of elevator ok at
the tail. This distinction has to be very clear.
And also you know stick free case is valid or really realistic when we are talking about reversible
control that is if I move the elevator the stick also move, if I move the stick elevator also move.
But from modern aircraft reversibility is not there that is irreversible for that this stick free concept
looses its significance as far as finding the stick force is concerned right. So this should be very
very clear.
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So related concept to stick free is trim tab if you now realize that this is the tail, say this is the
elevator and I have put a trim tab like this. What happens suppose you do not put the trim tab here
if I want to fly at minus 5 degree (5° )elevator. Please understand take a case where the elevator
minus 5 degree is required up. So, what the pilot will do.
Pilot will try to pull the stick in a sense it will try to reduce the speed and increase the angle of
attack so that CL is more and maintain lift is equal to weight. But imagine then pilot has to keep
on holding the stick, otherwise the moment he leaves because of reversible the elevator will go
down or it may not be able to maintain this position. So, pilot will get tired and how this is
maintained at minus 5-degree major contribution is the force applied on the stick so the stick there
is the moment.
So, what is done to give relief to the pilot we put a trim tab the trim tab should deflect like this and
as we are moving like this you could see that trim tab will generate the force in this direction and
that will give the moment like this which will keep on holding the elevator at the particular desired
angle. Now once the pilot sets the trim tab the pilot can leave the stick and we say it’s a hands-off
flying. That is the beauty of trim tab.
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Mathematically what we have shown Ch is equal to Ch alpha t (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) into alpha t plus Ch delta e
(𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) into delta e plus Ch delta t (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑡 ) into delta t where this is the deflection trim tab deflection
right. So, when it’s a hands off. this is equal to zero equal to Ch alpha t (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) into alpha t plus
Ch delta e (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) into delta e plus Ch delta t (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑡 ) into delta t. So I can easily find out what is
the delta t required that will be minus Ch alpha t (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ) into alpha t plus Ch delta e (𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 ) into
delta e divided by Ch delta t.

𝐶ℎ = 𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 𝛼𝑡 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡
{𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 𝛼𝑡 + 𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 }
𝛿𝑡 = −
𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑡
So if we design properly for a given alpha t given delta e which I need to keep it I can easily find
out how much trim tab deflection is required so I can easily calibrate this deflection based on this
understanding ok. Final correction will be done by the pilot through a lever. This is very important
as far as flying quality of an airplane is concerned right.
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And when we are talking about stick free neutral point. We realized that if this is the reference line
̅0 ) stick fixed then N0 bar prime (𝑁
I am measuring from here if this is N0 bar (𝑁 ̅0′ ) stick free will
be ahead of stick fixed neutral point right. And if you also recall that when we are talking about
how to estimate neutral point stick fixed and neutral point stick free in that postulation or problem
formulation.
What we said for N0 it is that CG location for which effectively d delta e by d CL trim
(𝑑𝛿𝑒 ⁄𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 = 0) equal to zero with little bit approximation although you know neutral point
stick fixed is that CG location exact definition is it is that CG location at which d Cm by d CL or
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d Cm by d alpha is equal to zero. It’s neutral stability but when you define a stick free neutral point
what did we say through the formulation.
𝑑𝛿𝑒
̅0 ∶ 𝐶𝐺 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ
𝑁 ≈0
𝑑𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚
̅0 : 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝐺 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ
𝑁 𝑜𝑟 =0
𝜕𝐶𝐿 𝜕𝛼
We said that N0 prime is that CG location at which d Fs stick force by dynamic pressure by d CL
is equal to zero so this distinction should be there in your mind.
𝜕𝐹𝑠 ⁄𝑞̅
̅0′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝐺 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ ∶
𝑁 =0
𝜕𝐶𝐿
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Similar concept is used when we talk about maneuvering point. How did you find maneuvering
point for stick fixed? We said It is that CG location at which d delta e by d n is equal to zero and
for a stick free we define maneuvering point stick free is that CG location at which d Fs by d n
equal to zero, where F is the stick force ‘n’ is the load factor ok. What is ‘n’, ‘n’ is the load factor.
𝑑𝛿𝑒
𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 ∶ =0
𝑑𝑛
𝑑𝐹𝑠
𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 ∶ =0
𝑑𝑛
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And we have also seen that if this is your N0 stick fixed and this is N0 prime stick free then Nm
̅𝑚 ) stick fixed maneuvering point will be if I am measuring from here it will be somewhere here
(𝑁
̅𝑚 ) stick fixed maneuvering point why? because we have seen as the airplane goes for the
Nm (𝑁
maneuver there is a ‘q’ then there is a q into lt by v this much of angle of attack roughly gets
induced and that gives a force here and that gives a nose down moment which tries to restore or
stabilizing in tendency strictly it’s damping in nature.
So in our sense we say this aircraft tends to have more stability during maneuver and that is why
Nm stick fixed maneuvering point is behind stick fixed neutral point ok. Then there was question
that if.
N0 stick fixed whether I should take power on , I should take power off or propeller wind milling.
these questions were there right. Let us physically understand you know if this is the airplane
suppose you estimate neutral point stick fixed and let say that point is somewhere here this is N0
bar. when you compute N0 bar let us say that we have not taken the contribution of engine ok
right. That is this and we will say this is power off typically glider without an engine.
Now suppose the engine is kept somewhere here nose mounted let’s say IC engine piston driven
engine propeller is here. The moment this propeller is here ahead of CG we know that this at an
angle of attack alpha will generate a normal force here as a function of alpha and that will make
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this aircraft less stable because de-stabilizing in nature so N0 power ON will lie ahead of N0 power
OFF clear that is if it is N0 bar power OFF then N0 bar power ON will be ahead of N0 power OFF
because this is more stable case for a nose mounted engine.
Now let us see suppose you are cruising. Let’s say you are cruising, when you are cruising that
means you have a thrust this is drag, there is a lift, there is a weight and lets assume it’s a nose
mounted engine configuration. now if I want to calculate delta e, d delta e by d CL is minus static
margin by Cm delta e which is minus N0 bar minus Xcg bar by Cm delta e.
𝑑𝛿𝑒 𝑑𝛿𝑒 𝑆𝑀 ̅0 − 𝑋̅𝑐𝑔 )
(𝑁
𝛿𝑒 = 𝛿𝑒0 + 𝐶𝐿 ; =− =−
𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝑑𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒
So if it is cruising that time since thrust is ON I should you power ON, N0 right. But if it is coming
for a landing approaching for landing generally what happens during landing theoretically this
engine should be shut or they are clutched. So that although the engine is ON the propeller is not
rotating however you will see that when it comes down there because of wind mill effect propeller
will rotating and generate little bit of thrust although you will find it is recommended you give 20
percent thrust but when you say wind milling theoretically speaking because of the wind the
propeller is rotating and generating some marginal thrust.
So naturally this case I should use how much delta e is required for landing and all I must use N0
corresponding to wind milling I should not use N0 corresponding to power ON isn’t it and if the
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engine is off if wind milling is not there then I have to use N0 power OFF for calculation of delta
e required so that distinction should be there in your mind ok. Thank you.
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Prof. A.K. Ghosh
Lecture – 59
Tutorial – 4
Dear friends let me discuss few concepts from dynamic stability in tutorial 4. What was the
dynamic stability?
For static stability we realized that it is only the initial tendency that matters. If it has a initial
tendency to come back to equilibrium we say statically stable but for dynamic stability not only
initial condition but in a finite time it should come back to equilibrium right. So that is it if try to
see like this suppose I have disturbed a system and it tries to come back to the equilibrium and
this. So, we are now talking about dynamic stability we are now introducing the concept of
transient how it response.
Is it coming back to the equilibrium or it is diverging it is possible? It has initial tendency to come
back but every time this is further going up and up like this. So you could see it has always it has
got initial tendency as soon as it crosses the equilibrium say for sake it is equilibrium it goes again
it tries to come back to equilibrium again overshoots and the amplitude goes on increasing. So this
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is a typical case of dynamic instability and typically you know this phenomena is close to the
resonance right okay.
Now for aircraft how we postulated mathematical model to study dynamic stability. We said first
we’ll develop equation of motion so we started with equations of motions and the moment we talk
about the equations of motion we realize that we have to fix axis system and we said okay. This is
the X this is the Y and this is the Z which the body of axis system that means as the body rotates
or moves axis also moves along with the body.
We wanted to develop equations of motion and you know that to develop equations of motions we
need to use newton’s laws of motion. Where F is equal to m a. force is the cause and the effect is
acceleration and this acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass property or inertia for a
given force which you all know. But what is the condition, condition is this relationship is valid in
inertial frame. But see we have chosen axis in the body fixed norms that is the axis is fixed the
body, so as the body rotates the axis rotates. So definitely this axis is not inertial frame.
𝐹̅
𝐹̅ = 𝑚𝑎̅ ; 𝑎̅ =
𝑚
So how to apply F is equal to m a. so we said okay. We will use Earth fixed axis system for our
dynamic stability analysis as a inertial frame what the logic behind it was. Although you know the
earth is rotating it’s a non-inertial frame however for dynamic stability analysis the duration is so
short, may be few seconds and you can assume during that time the acceleration or rotation of the
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earth is negligible and all approximation we can assume this to be inertial frame for our purpose
of dynamic stability analysis.
Another question was if I am trying to write the equations of motion in inertial frame that means
what will happen. So, we know that F is d by d t rate of change of momentum. And you know this
is nothing but m dV by dt plus v d m by d t so another approximation we made. We said we will
neglect this second term and as if we assume that d m by d t is zero but you know the aircraft has
fuel and there is huge fuel consumption.
𝑑 𝑑𝑉̅ 𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝑚
𝐹̅ = (𝑚𝑉̅ ) = 𝑚 + 𝑉̅ ∶ =0
And what is the logic again is given here it says since we are doing dynamic stability analysis it is
for few seconds of response will be utilize for analyzing the dynamic stability of airplane, so for
the small second, we’ll assume that the fuel has not changed or the mass of the whole airplane has
not changed.
So, we said F equal to m dV by dt but you know this has to be in inertial frame okay. But we are
working in the fixed frame body fixed frame. Suppose we are working in the inertial frame one of
the issues will be when I talk about the rotation. See if I use the moment equation the moment will
be rate of change of angular momentum and this angular momentum vector will have moment of
inertia as inertial properties.
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So what will happen if I work in inertial frame as the body rotates so the moment of inertia about
the inertial frame will go on changing so that will complicate our analysis right. Second thing you
realize that the aerodynamic forces they depend upon the relative air speed. So, from that angle
body fixed frame is very very important so speed of aircraft with respect the atmosphere.
Relative to wind, relative to atmosphere will be very useful because after aerodynamic forces
depend upon relative air velocity.
So, you had a motivation for work in body frame these two reasons and how to do that? We need
to work in inertial frame but we have motivation to work in body fixed frame so what is the trick
we said after all dV by dt is the vector differentiation so we use this relationship dA by dt in inertial
frame is equal to dA by dt in body frame plus omega cross A right.
𝑑𝐴̅ 𝜕𝐴̅
| = ̅ × 𝐴̅
| +𝜔
𝑑𝑡 𝐼𝐹 𝜕𝑡 𝐵𝐹
This relationship helps us to work in body frame. what is the message that either you work in
inertial frame or if you want to work in body frame which is our motivation you can work provided
you give this correction omega cross A (𝜔 × 𝐴)right? And that is how the equation of motion
were developed. This is a subtle understanding you must have okay.
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Now whenever we apply this, we found equations of motion, u dot, v dot, w dot, p dot, q dot, r dot
extra right [𝑈̇ , 𝑉̇ , 𝑊̇ , 𝑃̇, 𝑄̇ , 𝑅̇ ]. What we did we used small perturbation theory and what was the
understanding of small perturbation theory. That the perturbations are small so that we can write
total U is U1 at steady state plus perturbed velocity ‘u’. If we are assuming that the changes are
such that linearity is maintained. similarly, we write V equal to V1 plus ‘v’, W equal to W1 plus
‘w’, P equal to P1 plus small p like this.
𝑈 = 𝑈1 + 𝑢; 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑣; 𝑊 = 𝑊1 + 𝑤; 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑝; 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑞; 𝑅 = 𝑅1 + 𝑟
Then you use this in the equation and after modifying with the assumption that product of two
perturbed quantities are almost zero they can be neglected. Then we found out equations of motion
which we refer to as longitudinal perturbed equations of motion okay. So, in that if you
remembered when we developed longitudinal perturbed equations of motion. What was
longitudinal, longitudinal means the motion is either this U or along Z, W and the pitching motion
this three only.
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And we assume that this is the result of small perturbation so this is not going to influence lateral
motion or directional motion in that if you check your notes. We have some term called fx and
what was fx? fx was termed as perturbed aerodynamic force right and when is a perturbed dynamic
force we need to estimate this perturbed aerodynamic force and we wrote fx is equal to FAx (𝐹𝐴𝑥 )
is the function of we wrote u by U1, alpha, q, delta e extra for fx we said ‘q’ effect is negligible.
𝑢
𝑓𝑥 = 𝐹𝐴𝑥 { , 𝛼, 𝑞, 𝛿𝑒 … }
𝑈1
And we wrote this fx as d FAx by d u by U1 into u by U1 plus d FAx by d alpha into alpha plus d
FAx by d delta e into delta e like this. What was the understanding of d FAx by d u by U1 all these
derivatives? We said this to be evaluated at steady state that is important okay and we derived
some expression for those you could see that and this d FAx by d u by U1 these are termed as
stability derivatives but these are dimensional that’s the catch point, dimensional stability
derivatives, they have dimensions okay.
𝜕𝐹𝐴𝑥 𝑢 𝜕𝐹𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐹𝐴𝑥
𝑓𝑥 = | + | 𝛼+ | 𝛿 +⋯
𝜕𝑢⁄𝑈1 𝑆𝑆 𝑈1 𝜕𝛼 𝑆𝑆 𝜕𝛿𝑒 𝑆𝑆 𝑒
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This one we did then what we realized once we develop the equations of motion which are called
longitudinal perturbed equations of motion. We took Laplace transform right. And through
Laplace transform we developed the equation of the form AS four plus BS cube plus CS square
plus DS plus E is equal to zero (𝐴𝑆 4 + 𝐵𝑆 3 + 𝐶𝑆 2 + 𝐷𝑆 + 𝐸 = 0) right. And numerically you
can find the solution for this equation and you realize that most of the airplane.
When I solve this equation for longitudinal perturbed equations of motion. We get roots, this is
lambda 1, lambda 2 (𝜆1,2 ) as typically let’s say I give number 1.0 plus 2.5 j. lambda 3,4 (𝜆3,4 )
let’s say minus 0.08 plus minus 0.5 j. The important thing is to understand you get two pairs of
complex conjugates that mean this roots tells you that the response.
𝜆1,2 = −1.0 ± 2.5𝑗 ; 𝜆3,4 = −0.08 ± 0.5𝑗
Which I will use to characterize its transient. You’ll find they are oscillatory in nature ok, one thing
they are oscillatory in nature. Also, we realize one thing that if I closely see this root the real part
of one complex conjugate pair is large negative as compared to other pair. You could see from
here so immediately I know although both are oscillatory this will decay faster than this okay.
Because the real part decides the decay. ‘e’ to the power zeta omega ‘t’ (𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 )type you know.
If that is true then if I try to understand and gives physics to the actual airplane. We have seen that
typically airplane when they are disturbed longitudinally then two distinct types of modes are
generated one is called short period mode another is called phugoid mode okay.
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What is the short period mode, short period mode will correspond to this because it’s real term is
large negative and typically if you see the airplane is moving like it’s a cruise. if I give a short
elevator input one mode will be like this. It will immediately come back to the equilibrium this is
transient so that is the short period mode. Phugoid mode is, if I have to excite this phugoid mode
may be I hold the elevator for long you’ll find the airplane will come back to equilibrium.
But it will go on doing like this, then it will come so long period mode so that is the phugoid mode.
And we have some approximation to find out their natural frequencies and their damping ratios
right. And we have indeed seen the damping ratio or zeta for short period is large compared to zeta
for phugoid mode because Phugoid mode is weakly damped mode. And this should be very, very
clear and you should also know if I have to find out.
The omega n for any complex pair and the best way to do it is. You write the equation of motion
is S square minus sum of the roots into S plus product of the roots equal to zero. You can use those
roots and from there you get an equation in terms S square plus let’s say AS plus B equal to zero
and then compare this with S square plus 2 zeta omega n S plus omega n square is zero, typically
second order system and you can find out through comparison. What is the value of omega n and
value of zeta.
𝑆 2 − (𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠)𝑆 + 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 0
817
𝑆 2 + 𝐴𝑆 + 𝐵 = 0 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑆 2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑆 + 𝜔𝑛2 = 0
What is the understanding that the overall longitudinal dynamics for most of the airplane can be
dissolved into 2 second order systems one is a short period, one is phugoid and once you know
this I can easily find out what are the natural frequencies and what are the damping ratio.
We also use this understanding and try to approximate the matrix and got expression for short
period and phugoid mode okay. We also talked about SAS that is stability argumentation system
what was that the understanding is this. Suppose, airplane is having a zeta equal 0.2 but you want
zeta to be 0.6. One way to change zeta (𝜁 = 0.2 → 0.6)change the volume ratio because this zeta
largely depend upon Cmq and you know Cmq has VH tail volume ratio as one of the parameter,
variables.
So, If I have to increase zeta, I have to increase tail volume ratio but suppose you don’t have that
option to increase the tail volume ratio you want to change zeta online. So, what was the concept
the concept was SAS and the understanding is like this. This is the aircraft and let’s say here I
write ‘q’. I tap ‘q’ this is k what I do I deflect elevator proportional to this ‘q’ then what will happen
as I deflect elevator so what is delta Cm (Δ𝐶𝑚 )?
I am getting because of elevator deflection that is Cm delta e (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 )into delta e (𝛿𝑒 )which will
be equal to Cm delta e into k q right and Cmq is defined as delta Cm by q c bar by 2 V so I write
818
this as Cm delta e into delta e which is nothing but kq, divide q c bar by 2 V so q, q get canceled
so this become 2 v by c bar into Cm delta e into k.
Δ𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒 ≡ 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐾𝑞
Δ𝐶𝑚 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐾𝑞 2𝑉
𝐶𝑚𝑞 = 𝑞𝑐̅ = 𝑞𝑐̅ = 𝐶 𝐾
𝑐̅ 𝑚𝛿𝑒
2𝑉 2𝑉
Now you could see that let’s see for zeta equal to 0.2. Cmq I can calculate it was let’s say minus
10.0. let’s say some number, to make get 0.6, Cmq be required is minus 20.0 let us say. so, what
is the procedure? The procedure is that this is typically delta Cmq, so Cmq is minus 20 so Cm q
new minus Cm q old this is nothing but minus 20 minus of (minus 10) this should be equal to 2V
by c into Cm delta e into k. Cm delta e is fixed, velocity is fixed, c is fixed.
𝛿𝑒 = 𝐾𝑞
2𝑉
𝐶𝑚𝑞,𝑁𝐸𝑊 − 𝐶𝑚𝑞,𝑂𝐿𝐷 = −20 − (−10) = 𝐶 𝐾
𝑐̅ 𝑚𝛿𝑒
So, you have to alter the value of k, so you could go on changing the value of k and get the desired
online value of Cmq (𝐶𝑚𝑞 ) required to ensure zeta is 0.6 right. So, you could see how beautifully
you can use SAS to change the damping ratio.

Similar thing if you want to do for natural frequency. You want to change natural frequency what
you have to do? This is the aircraft this is alpha, you tap alpha, this is k and this is again delta e
819
here used is k alpha (𝐾𝛼 ) that goes to the plant. So, what happens I write delta Cm equal to Cm
delta e into k alpha because it is nothing but Cm delta e into delta e and delta e is k alpha.
Δ𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐾𝛼 = 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒
So Cm alpha which is nothing but delta Cm alpha will be Cm delta e into k and you know if, you
want to change naturally frequency omega n (𝜔𝑛 ), omega n goes with minus M alpha and M alpha
is nothing but half rho V square S c bar Cm alpha by I yy. So if you want to change omega n, one
way is to change Cm alpha, and to change Cm alpha you know Cm delta e into K, so electronically
we change the k value and get the desired Cm alpha to get required M alpha to have desired omega
n (𝜔𝑛 ).
1 2
Δ𝐶𝑚𝛼 = 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝐾; 𝜔𝑛 ~√−𝑀𝛼 ; 𝑀𝛼 = 2
𝐼𝑦𝑦
So that is also another way of utilizing SAS for the specific purpose but all these are fine but do
not forget that the moment I am using delta e is equal to k alpha, please understand, see the CL
equation that is CL0 plus CL alpha into alpha plus CL delta e into delta e and delta e equal to k
alpha. So your CL also gets modified. Now CL becomes CL0 plus CL alpha into alpha CL delta e
into k alpha. So, your CL also get modified because of this additional term. So you have to be
careful that you have make total optimize algorithm to see that the final requirements are not
disturbed much okay.
820
So I thought I will go for a revision on this I have requested one of the friend Dr. Deepu Philip to
give you one lecture, where he will talking about different types of aircraft and you should know
that you should see, listen to that lecture and get an idea about why all this theories. what have we
achieved and if you see the evolution of the aircraft please understand these evolution was not
possible unless our basic understanding was clear okay. Thank you very much.
821
Prof. Deepu philip
Department of Industrial and Management Engineering
Lecture – 60
History of Aviation
So today we will discuss about important aircrafts from the technology and business stand point
for our course. We are trying to do it in actually the pre -world war era where we started the
aviation then we talk about the world war two era and then cold war and modern era.
This will be the mixture of both commercial, simple and as well as military aviation aircraft, and
finally we will conclude the discussions with the help of unmanned aerial vehicles.
822
So we all know that, the importance of Wright Brothers in the development of air aviation industry.
The one that you see here is the Wright flyer also known as the Flyer one or the first aircraft that
is actually took flight ok. It is happened in the North Carolina, USA in 1903, December 17 th. This
was the aircraft that was built using wood and as well as chain and sprocket drive for running the
propellers and as well as the cloth to cover the create the aerofoil you can see that, it’s actually a
bi plane.
Bi plane means you have two aero foils connected highlighted by the red color. and the propeller
is in the back and you can see here that Oliver lying down and operating the propeller. And also
see that this aircraft also has two fore planes and canards in the front which is used for controlling
the direction. There’s a interesting story in this aircraft because both the Brothers, Wright brothers
finally took a toss who will fly that.
The first time the toss was won by Oliver and he flew for 12 seconds and then he crashed but it
was very small air flight 120 feet and the airframe was damaged, they repaired it. And Since,
Oliver got the first chance and Wilbur do the second one he flew for 59 second to a distance of
852 feet and that is recorded as the first official flight of human begins.
823
So next one we will talk about another important aircraft called as Curtiss Pusher D. Lot of the
UAV’s that you see unmanned air vehicles which do not have any pilot on board, operates on
pusher configuration and this is the also from the business stand point. This is where the mass
production of the aircrafts happened, mass production means large scale production and this is also
called as a pusher because you can see that the engine is at the back.
So, I am highlighting the engine, the propeller on the engine with a red colour and its behind the
pilot seat. It is also the first aircraft to do the naval operation. Naval operation means take-off and
landing from a ship and you can see that the first landing was on USS Birmingham it is an
American aircraft carrier and after that it also took off from USS Pennsylvania. So, in a way this
is the first aircraft to do the naval operations.
But you should also be surprised to know that the concept of Tail- Hook arrangement, which means
the hook that is at the back of the aircraft that drags that connects to a landing wire, the cable for
arresting the landing. This was the first aircraft actually developed it and that the same technology
used still now for naval aircraft naval ship landing of the aircraft also this became the fore father
for the world’s first sea plane called Curtiss Triad. This aircraft the important features are there’s
a pilot plus one can travel, so one passenger can travel in this one.
824
It has wing span of 11.66 meter so it’s a pretty big aircraft. We can again see the inspiration of
Wright Brother, you can see the one aerofoil on the top and second aerofoil on the bottom
connected by the same way Wright Brothers have connected their aircraft. It has a E-4, 40 hp
engine which actually turned a propeller and it could fly at a maximum speed of 50 mph and we
see that from the 950 meters 59 seconds of flight.
You can see that this aircraft can fly upto 2.5 hours.
Now we will talk about another aircraft. This is also an important aircraft in the case of the human
being because up to this point people were making aircraft using wood and cloth. This is the
aircraft, that first converted, moved from wood and cloth to metal.
825
So, this is a Junkers aircraft as well as the engine here, instead of a pusher it is actually in the front
like a puller engine. This aircraft to a large extent I kind of put it here because it has its significance
with respect to Indian independence.
In most of the independence pictures of India you actually get to see this aircraft the Viscount. Or
the Vickers-Armstrong turboprop aircraft. This aircraft has lot of importance in the commercial
aviation field. There some important factors is, it is the first turboprop aircraft. This is the first
aircraft that is used as an airliner to transport people from one location to another.
826
It was flown in 1948, and it replaced the conventional piston engines with a turboprop engine. It
was initially design for 24 passengers later it got upgraded to 32 passengers. In Indian
independence you can actually see Lord Mountbatten getting out of this aircraft as the last viceroy
of India. So, the three major aspects that are created by this aircraft. Three, foreignness of this is
pressurized cabin. Early the cabins of the aircraft never used to be pressurized.
So, when you are flying at an altitude the pressure difference starts hurting your ears. To avoid
that the aircraft cabin started to get pressurized and that was first achieved by this aircraft also
most of the time the old aircraft you might have seen in the pictures there is no windows. This was
the aircraft that actually came with the large panoramic window which means we can actually sit
inside and see the external views which reduces the fatigue of transportation.
And so that way this aircraft to large extent paved way for being starting the aviation industry
where moving people from one location to another using an aircraft. This was a very profitable
and successful business aircraft and there were about 455 of them were built and they were heavily
used by lot of commercial airliners.
The era of commercial air transport originated with Viscount aircraft. We can see that their
different versions of this, the specs that’s given here are of the type 810 which upgraded all upto
75 passengers.75 passengers in 1948, was a big achievement for many aircraft plus 2 pilot in cabin
Crew it has the wing span of 28.56 m. You can again see it’s again the cantilever design. This is
also aircraft where Rolls –Royce entered into the business of manufacturing aircraft engines.
So these were 1990 hp engine made by Rolls- Royce and it could fly upto an altitude of 25,000
feet and that’s the reason why cabin was pressurized to make the flight of people comfortable.
827
This aircraft Schwalbe Me 262 is a important aircraft because it is also the predecessor of lot of
the fighter aircrafts in the world. This is the first operational jet powdered aircraft at this point we
were talking about piston engines then turboprops. Now here is when we are introducing the
concept of jet power aircraft. The jet engine was built by Ohain in 1936 and Germans were the
first people to realize the potential of the jet engine and this was the aircraft where jet engine were
integrated to it.
It achieved its operation status in 1944 and we can see that the nick name of this aircraft is called
Swallow because this was designed as the fighter aircraft and if this aircraft really materialized the
way it was people still say that the world war 2 result would have been something else. It was
designed as a fighter but the Hitler wanted to convert it into a bomber in that process it ended up
it took more time to do the development.
But you should understand if you look at this. This aircraft had again cantilever wings just as we
saw from the Junkers design and as well as it also had some very important characteristics. It had
the Junkers turbojets, 1980-pound feet of thrust. It could reach a speed of 550 plus mile per hour
it could reach an altitude of 37,000 feet.
It actually, or the first aircraft you can think about having a thrust to weight ratio because of the
jet engine because the first aircraft to have a jet engine. The German air force ended up using this
828
but by the time this aircraft was ready.Tthe result of the world war-2 something else. So, there’s
lot of discussions happening on this aircraft by the way whatever is available were taken by the
United states and to the large extent lot of the modern fighter, fighter jet aircrafts are still inspired
by the design of this particular aircraft.
When we talk about all type of airframes we cannot really ignore, the aircraft company Learjet and
its products. The concept of business travel originated from Learjet this was the entrepreneur
person who actually had William Powell Lear who understood the concept of large business
corporations having executives business executives.
Who want to travel for one location to another quickly and without getting tired and so what he
ended up doing was. He took abandoned Swiss fighter program FFA P – 16 and what he did is he
took that design and then he built this business jet. Remember this was in 1962 which is the same
place where it’s still getting built. You can see that it can carry two pilots, six passengers same
again designed as cantilever wings which most of the airframe still follow.
This has the engine actually built onto the body so the engine on the body allows you to, the
engines are actually shielded by the wing in this regard. 10 meters 10 plus meter wing span and
General Electric started providing the engine for this stuff this aircraft. And it started flying at an
829
altitude of 45,000 feet. It also had a range of 1,830 miles and had a maximum speed of 560 mile
per hour.
This created the world the particular business category called corporate travel using business jets.
So Learjet 23 is the important aircraft in its life in the history of aviation.
We cannot really call this as an aircraft considering the fact that it does not really take off from
the ground. This aircraft actually is the first one to fly faster than the speed of sound Bell X1. It is
experimental aircraft. So, this aircraft used to be carried by the another aircraft to the sky and then
dropped from the altitude and then it used to fly.
So what it is, it’s a rocket engine I can see that the engine itself is the rocket that’s at the bottom
and when it reaches at some point of time. you let the aircraft go and the pilot ignites the rocket
and then you fly. The aim was to break the speed of sound so this is the first aircraft to fly faster
than sound to obtain controlled level flight.
Remember this was built in 1945 it was able to do this break the speed of sound in 1948 it was
done by Bell aircraft company and to a large extent the data obtained by this flight by the United
States air force was one of the reasons why still United States hold the advantage in super -sonic
830
aircraft. Lot of data was available. Again you can see , it’s a cantilever design and it is not a turbo
jet, it’s actually a rocket engine.
You can see that the reaction motor XLR liquid fuel rockets were used as the engine and you can
see the speed is up to 957 miles per hour more than the speed of sound and it could fly at an altitude
of 71,000 feet and the range it was in the minutes 5 minutes so once the rocket is burned off then
you come land and recover the aircraft that was the idea.
So if anybody understands the concept of reaching the speed, breaking the speed of sound it was
initially achieved using rocket engine later we developed the concept of after burning turbo jets
and that’s how we are able to break the speed of sound.
This aircraft, it’s kind of a tricky aircraft. It is not really a commercial aircraft neither it is a
passenger or anything like that but it is actually a aircraft that created the new world of observing
from the altitude called surveillance. The field of surveillance and reconnaissance actually came
with two aircraft SR 71. This is still fastest manned airbreathing aircraft in the world. It can fly
three times the speed of sound mach 3 plus ok.
It is typically used for reconnaissance missions. Reconnaissance mission means a human being
flies the aircraft over a place and then you look for information that is pertaining to security like
831
enemy force movement and everything and from there you decide how do we combat that. It was
also the first aircraft was to be built, upto this point we were talking about electric steel. first, we
started with wood and cloth, then we moved to electric steel from electric steel we actually moved
to duralumin.
From duralumin we move to titanium and stainless steel because the speed it was going, it was
hard to actually many of the leading edge of the aircraft has to be filled with built using titanium
and stainless steel. This aircraft has to fly very high and fast. it had no defense it has to out-run
any missile that was available at that time. Remember this is actually built in 1950’s so it’s an old
aircraft. (Refer Slide Time:15:53)
But still you know significant aircraft 32 aircraft were built and 12 lost none of them were lost to
the missiles. They were all lost during landing and take off. You can see that the particular shape
of the aircraft makes it one of the most cumbersome aircraft to fly. It’s kind of a delta shaped
aircraft. It had a one pilot and one RSO. RSO is the person who actually do the surveillance
operations handle the radar and all those kind of things.
It had a 17 meter wing span approximately and this aircraft was the first aircraft were Pratt Whitney
as a company who started developing high performance engine. To achieve very high speed flight.
It could fly 3.3 times the speed of sound 2,200 mile per hour. It had an operating ceiling of 85,000
feet from which is very very high and it has the range of 3000 nautical miles.
832
SR 71 aircraft though used for military purpose it was one of the very well-guarded secrets of
United Air force for some time. But it was the first aircraft to do the job of surveillance and
reconnaissance operations where using an the aircraft to observe on enemy countries.
Another aircraft similarly what we want to call is U2 Dragon Lady. It is the single engine; the
distinction of this aircraft is the highest-flying single engine reconnaissance aircraft ever built. The
previous one S R 71 had a turbo jet engine in that. But this is the single engine aircraft it could fly
above 70,000 feet. It was built by Lockheed corporation actually now it’s called as Lockheed
Martin.
It is built in 1950 during the cold war time and UASF and CIA were using it to observe Russia,
Russian nuclear missiles specifically. There was one aircraft that was shot down by Russians using
the surface to air missile. You read that time history you can see that this almost created another
world war because United States demand the aircraft parts to be returned and Russians denied that
whole thing.
Any way if you look at this is, this is operated by one pilot and you can see that 31.4 meter wing
span this is pretty big wings long wings and General Electric provided a turbo fan one single engine
turbo fan with this aircraft and as well as it had a range of about 6,500 miles 70,000 and it can fly
833
up to endurance of 12 hours. So this was an aircraft that assure the world the concept of long term
long duration surveillance. The S R 71 could fly for few hours where this could actually.
Do half a day missions so long duration surveillance was introduced by U 2 Dragon Lady.
Similarly, another aircraft this picture. Itself is many of us know about this aircraft form the
Vietnam War. It got this dubious distinction of one of the largest bombers ever built but also its
one of the largest aircraft longest operational aircraft in the world as well. So, it’s a very good
design very well thought through design as a largest bomber aircraft ever built. It is also, has
longest operation history still operating more than 50 years old.
This aircraft had 5 people to operate it one pilot, copilot, a radar officer and a electronic warfare
officer and as well as a navigator. You can see that this aircraft can carry a huge amount of payload.
The empty weight of aircraft is 185,000 pounds and the fully loaded is 488,000 pounds which is
approximately three times the weight and this is also the only aircraft to actually carry eight engines
in it. So each one of this set is two engines.
834
This is 2 plus 2 this is 2 engines this 2 engines 2 plus 2 , 4 engines in one side. Similarly this 2 this
is 2 plus 2 then 4 engines in this side altogether 8 engines.is actually available with this aircraft. It
has a ceiling of 50,000 feet and it has a range of 10,000 miles. You can see that it has the bomb
payload of 70,000 Ibs, that’s huge amount of bombs you can see how much it can actually carry
the payload it can carry.
So it also came up with few more other things it was also the aircrafts which is actually came with
the targeting system for dropping bombs now many people use that for laser to designate the target
but this was the first aircraft to introduce this concept into the world of warfare but other than its
significance as a airforce based bomber this aircraft also is one of the oldest longest operational
history 50 years more than that.
That in itself shows the beauty of the design and how well-built and thought through this aircraft
was. We also now get into this, since we are in the large size aircraft lets also talk about C 17
Globemaster which is also a military aircraft, but it’s also the largest transport aircraft, one of the
largest aircraft. It is a strategic operation aircraft which means actually it’s not tactical, it’s a long
range aircraft.
It is built by McDonnell Douglas at some point of time and now its Boeing is doing that, I think
Boeing bought McDonnell Douglas. It’s called C – 17 Globemaster if you look at it, it’s actually
835
a big aircraft 51.75 m wing span, again cantilever wings two engines these are turbo fans and two
cantilever wings you can see that high T tail available with this aircraft it has 4 Pratt & Whitney
turbo fans at 44,000 pounds feet of Thrust each.
It can fly 0.74 times the speed of sound, thats 515 mile per hour it has the operation ceiling of
45,000 feet range up to 6000 miles and maximum wing loading 150 pounds per square feet. This
aircraft also has one unique feature because its built in for military conditions when you go land
in enemies scenario you might not have any apparatus to push you back. So, this aircraft should
be capable of going backwards on its own power, So this is the first aircraft that can reverse by
itself.
It does not require a special equipment, airport equipment to move it from one place to another or
back it up. So, this allows it to reverse by itself by its own engine power it also can take off from
the short runway STOL (Short Take-off and Landing) 3500 feet very very short operation for the
size and also this is you can see that this is used for move troops and cargo. So, it is called as
strategic air-lifter so moving large amount of cargo and everything from one location to another.
C – 17 Globemaster played an important role in the Desert Storm operation where the troops were
moved from United States all the way to Iraq during the first Gulf war. So that’s when the
importance of this large-scale strategic airlift was emphasized.
836
We also talk about another one which India recently acquired from United States. This is also one
very important aircraft Lockheed Martin C – 130 Hercules. It’s not a turbo jet is a turbo prop you
can see that, this is using propellers it also has 4 engine aircraft but turbo prop. It’s again is a pretty
big aircraft 40.4 meter wing span not as big as the C -17 but it’s big enough.
This is actually designed as, it’s a tactical air lifter the other C 17 is the strategic air lifter. Tactical
is short duration operation is not meant for long duration operation. It is used in the typically
transport, search and rescue. when the Nepal earthquake happened lot of the supplies from India
to Nepal were taken from this aircraft. It is also used for airborne assault, using it as a aerial
gunship. It is also used for refueling other aircraft on the flight.
And it’s also used in fighting forest fires big time in US and Canada and many other countries also
used that. It can take off from un-repaired. You don’t even require a concrete or paved runway to
do this and recent services with different forces including India across the world. There is this
large number 2300 of them across different parts of the world itself says the versatility of this
aircraft.
This aircraft also was the first one to come up with the concept of changing the blade pitch angle
in transport aircraft to assist landing and takeoff. So, by allowing this it actually can reverse. it can
837
also work as a thrust reverser by itself so it can back off by its own power also you can see that it
has 4 engines 4 allison, T56-A-15, turboprops, 4600 hp each. It does not fly that height but about
33,000 feet altitude and as well as it is capable flying about 2,360 miles in range which why it is
also called as a tactical air lifter
And one more so we will be wondering what do the Russians were doing at the same time. This is
another aircraft which is actually the heaviest and the largest airplane in the world. There’s only
one that is available now. Two were being built but only one is in operation.
The tail UR 82060 aircraft that the tail number. You can see that it has 6 engines literally, but all
these are actually turbofans. The wing span 88.4 meters is the largest in its kind. It is also the
heaviest one because you can see that the takeoff weight is 640,000 pounds when fully loaded and
each aircraft engine provide 51,000 pound feet of thrust and it can fly 0.74 times speed of sound
or 528 mile per hour.
It has a range of about 10,000 miles (9500 miles) fly at an altitude of 3600 feet and as well as the
wing loading is 135.8 pounds per square feet which very similar to what the C 17 Globemaster is.
It is also another strategic airlifter but the trick with this aircraft is, there’s only one that is available
in the world, not the multiple units of this was never built. This all aircraft also has this very unique
838
design of under carriage you can also see that how the under carriage also looks like a wheel of a
train.
It was originally designed to transport the space shuttle of USSR, the Buran shuttle which is
actually on the top of this aircraft. But never really realized now there is only one that is used, 640
tones capability being flown. I think out of Ukraine the An-225 Mriya is that aircraft.
We will stop here. Thank you.
839

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AIRCRAFT STABILITY

S.No Topics Page No.

12 CL_trim Vs 𝛿e_trim 167

(Refer Slide Time: 00:01)

Because of wing so this is M from M how do I come to CM see, CM is pitching movement

(Refer Slide Time 32:25)

(Refer Slide Time 10:29)

𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝑋𝐶𝐺 𝑋𝑎𝑐,𝑤 𝐶𝑚𝛼𝑓 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝜕𝜖

W-fs (𝐶𝑚𝑊−𝑓𝑠 ) means wing fuselage is -0.05-0.0035 Alpha.

𝐶𝑚𝑊−𝑓𝑠 = −0.05 − 0.0035𝛼

𝐶𝑚𝑊−𝑓𝑠,𝑡 = 0.15 − 0.025𝛼 (𝑛𝑒𝑤)

(Δ𝐶𝑚𝛼 ) = −0.025 − (−0.0035) = −0.0215 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑔

Problems – Stability Tail Contribution Completed

𝐶𝑚𝑤,𝑓 = 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝛼

𝐶𝑚𝛼 < 0 𝑠𝑜 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

So the contribution of wing towards stability or towards CM Alpha will be stabilizing or

(Refer Slide Time: 18:54)

Similarly CL Delta E is DCL by D Alpha, I am sorry, similarly CL Delta E, CL Delta E (𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 ) is

That is at Alpha = 0 lift is 0 the moment, I deflect it by Delta E I am actually introducing a

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To revise before I start what we are telling.

𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝛼 + 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒

0 = 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝑚𝛼 𝛼𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 + 𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 (𝛿𝑒 )𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚

[𝐶𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 − 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 𝛿𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 ]

(Refer Slide Time: 10:45)

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𝐶𝑚0 = 0.3 × 0.6 = 0.18

Then CM at CL equal to 0 is let me correct slope of CM versus CL is – 0.15, because

(Refer Slide Time: 04:02)

Because it is also cruise although it is in a thrust required minimum configuration or CL by CD,

1 2𝑊⁄𝑆 1.1𝑔𝑙𝑡 𝜌𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 1.1𝑔𝑙𝑡 𝜌𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒

This is the CG location at which D Delta E by DN equal to 0 so this becomes my experiment to

what is the speed and we are telling what is the CL cruise.

(𝐶𝑛𝛽 ) ⇒ 𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑝 → 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦

(Refer Slide Time: 00:14)

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why it is called vertical stabilizer.

negative value of CL BETA, if we see in a conventional design.

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𝐶𝑛𝛽 > 0; 𝐶𝑛𝛿𝑟 < 0

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typically we are using that advantage of assumption that it is linear, okay?

(𝐶ℎ𝛿𝑒 )as per their signs.

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𝐶𝐿𝑡 = 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝛼𝑡 + 𝐶𝐿𝛿𝑒 (𝛿𝑒 )𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑡 ∶ 𝐻𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑓

𝐶𝐿𝑡 = 𝐶𝐿′𝛼 𝛼𝑡 ∶ 𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 > 𝐶𝐿′ 𝛼

𝐶𝑚0 = 𝐶𝑚0𝑤 + 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝐿′𝛼 𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝑡 (𝑖𝑤 − 𝑖𝑡 + 𝜖0 ) ∶ 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒

𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝐶𝐿′𝛼 𝜕𝜖

(Refer Slide Time: 14:04)

CL Alpha wing VH eta T, one minus D epsilon by D Alpha is it clear?

fixed divided by CM Delta E (𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 ).

Delta float suppose I want Delta E float to be 0, what I have to do?

mentioning this thing at this point.

floating tendency, or Ch Alpha T theoretically possible to make it to 0, what is the meaning of Ch

𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝜕𝐶𝑚 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝜕𝜖 𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡

(Refer Slide Time: 00:16)

Let us come back here. So Alpha T is this.

𝐾 = −𝐺𝑆𝑒 𝐶𝑒 𝜂𝑡 ; 𝐴 = 𝐶ℎ0 + 𝐶ℎ𝛼 (𝛼0 − 𝑖𝑤 + 𝑖𝑡 ) + 𝐶ℎ𝛿 𝛿𝑒0

𝐶𝑚𝛿𝑒 = −𝑉𝐻 𝜂𝐶𝐿𝛼𝑡 𝜏

(Refer Slide Time: 09:35)

fantastic expression, what we have done? Ch Delta T(𝐶ℎ𝛿 ) into Delta T.

meaning of CH Alpha T (𝐶ℎ𝛼𝑡 ).