Chapter 8

Mechanical Properties of
Materials

Chapter 3 - 222
 Necessity for the Topic at Hand

• Many materials are exposed to service

“forces / loads”
– Aircraft wing aluminum alloys
– Automobile steel axle
• For optimal/safe performance, we need
to:
– Know material characteristics
– Design members/parts that would minimize
excessive deformation and avoid eventual
fracture* Chapter 3 - 223
 Mechanical Behavior

• Such a behavior reflects the material’s

RESPONSE (DEFORMATION) as a
result of an applied load (force)
• Key mechanical design properties are:
– Stiffness
– Strength
– Hardness
– Ductility
– Toughness
Chapter 3 - 224
 To Ascertain Material Properties..

We perform:
• Carefully designed laboratory
experiments
• Such experiments, need to
replicate/mimic (as near as possible)
actual service conditions.

Chapter 3 - 225
 For the latter to be achieved:
Factors to be considered are chiefly:
• Load Applied
– Nature
• tensile, compressive or shear
• Static (const. with time) or dynamic (Cyclic:
fluctuating periodically)
– Duration (dwelling)
• Only a fraction of a second
• Extending over a period of many years
• Environmental Conditions* (corrosion/wear)
– Temperature
– Pressure
– Aggressive media concentration
Chapter 3 - 226
 Who’s Concerned

Several parties include:

• Producers of materials
• Consumers of materials
• Research organizations
• Government agencies
Of course, with varying interests…

Chapter 3 - 227
 Given the importance of such
properties….

Consistency needs to be maintained in:

• The manner in which TESTS are
CONDUCTED (testing procedure
standardization)+
• The interpretation of TEST RESULTS
(unified/standardized inference)*

Chapter 3 - 228
 Solution would be:

Professional Societies that would:

– Establish
– Publish
Standard Testing Techniques
Most Renowned is ASTM
“American Society for Testing and
Materials”

Chapter 3 - 229
 Different Perspective in Tackling
Material Mechanics
• Structural Engineers
Determine stresses and their distribution
within materials/structural members
subjected to well-defined loads*
This is accomplished through:
– Experimental testing techniques
And/or
– Theoretical/mathematical stress analysis

Chapter 3 - 230
 Different Perspective in Tackling
Material Mechanics
• Materials and Metallurgical Engineers
They Acknowledge the stress analyses
performed by Structural Engineers and tailor
make/fabricate materials that would exhibit
satisfactory performance in such service
conditions*
This requires realizing cause/effect relationships
between:
– Microstructure
– Materials Properties Chapter 3 - 231
What make a material attractive as a
potential structural material?
From a mechanical perspective, it is the
collective mechanical attributes of a
material ➔ hence, materials selection
goes through a process of making ➔
trade-offs* or optimization
In this course we will be addressing ➔
Mechanical behavior of “Metals” ➔ as
neither “Ceramic” nor “Polymers” are
satisfyingly mechanical equivalent
Chapter 3 - 232
Concepts of Stress and Strain
If a load is static or changes
relatively slowly with time &
applied uniformly over a cross-
section or surface of a member
➔ then Mechanical Behavior
might be ascertained through
SIMPLE (σ-ε testing)*
Chapter 3 - 233
 Again, there are 3 principle ways in
which a load may be applied:

• Tension
• Compression
• Shear
• HOWEVER, in engineering practice
many loads are “Torsional” rather than
PURE “Shear”

Chapter 3 - 234
 -ve linear
strain
+ve linear
strain

Shear (τ)
induced Torque (T)
shear strain induced
by (γ = tan θ) torsion by
(φ)

Chapter 3 - 235
 Tensile Testing
• Most common type of (σ-ε testing)
• Used to ascertain key mechanical
properties
• Deformation to severe plastic deformation
or eventual fracture (i.e. destructive
technique+)
• Gradually increasing tensile load is applied
• Load is applied uniaxially (along the long
axis of the specimen)
• Standard tensile specimens are “dogbone”*
configured Chapter 3 - 236
 Tensile Test Specimens
• Normally, cross-sections are “Circular”
• But, rectangular cross-sections are also used+
• The “dogbone” geometry was chosen in
particular such that:
– Deformation (during testing, that is) would be
confined to the central reduced/narrow cross-
sectional* region (e.g. aids in % elongation ductility
comparisons)
– Reduce likelihood of fracture at “shoulders” (e.g.
aid in focusing concern to a restricted region to
facilitate corrosion testing and subsequent forensic
investigation).
Chapter 3 - 237
 Dimensions
• Shoulder should be designed with larger
diameter (to avoid preferential
deformation/failure locally) and
appreciable length (to allow for gripping)
relative to region of interest.
• Standard Diameter of region of interest
is (~ 12.8 mm)
• The “Reduced Cross-section Length” (≥
4 times Diam. [commonly 60 mm])
• Gauge length* ~ 50 mm (used for
ductility comparisons).
Chapter 3 - 238
Chapter 3 - 239
 Testing
• Specimen mounted by its ends into holding
grips of tensile testing rig.
• Commonly, tensile testing machines are
designed elongate the specimen at a
constant rate whilst continuously &
simultaneously measuring the:
– Instantaneous applied load (load cell)
– Resulting elongation (extensometer)
• Typically spans across several minutes
• Is “Destructive” (i.e. specimen is permanently
deformed & usually fractured) Chapter 3 - 240
Chapter 3 - 241
 Testing Output
• Communicated though a data acquisition
system through to a recoding computer
interface
• Raw data are recorded as (Load vs.
Elongation)
• Inconveniently, the L vs. E characteristics are
intimately reliant on size/geometry
(e.g. it requires twice the load to produce the
same elongation if the cross-sectional area of
the specimen is doubled)
Chapter 3 - 242
 Solution

• To minimize the influence of such

(geometrical) factors
• Load and elongation are “Normalized”
to their respective parameters
“Engineering Stress and Strain”.

Chapter 3 - 243
 Engineering Stress
• Is denoted by “σ”
• And is defined by the expression
𝐹
𝜎= (𝑀𝑃𝑎)
𝐴𝑜
Where,
F = the instantaneous load applied
perpendicular to specimen cross section [in
Newtons (N)]
Ao = the original cross-sectional area before
any load is applied [in square meters (m2)]
Chapter 3 - 244
 Engineering Strain
• Is denoted by “ϵ”
• Is defined according to
𝑙𝑖 − 𝑙𝑜 ∆𝑙
𝜖= = (𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∗ )
𝑙𝑜 𝑙𝑜
Where,
lo = the original length before any load is
applied
li = the instantaneous length
[li – lo] or Δl = the deformation elongation
or change in length at some instance, as
referenced to the original length. Chapter 3 - 245
 Compression Tests
• σ-ε testing of compressive nature is
RARELY resorted to unless in-service
forces were of this type
• Conducted in similar manner to
TENSILE tests, except:
– Forces are “Compressive”
– Specimen “contracts” along direction of
applied stress
• Equation to compute “Engineering
stress and strain” still apply here
Chapter 3 - 246
 Compression Tests
• By convention:
– Compressive force is (-ve) ➔ Compressive
stress is (-ve)
– Since, lo > li ➔ compressive strain is (-ve)

Chapter 3 - 247
 Tensile vs. Compression Testing
• Tensile tests are more COMMON
because:
– They are easier to perform
– For most structural materials, compressive
tests offer VERY LITTLE added
information.
• HOWEVER, “compressive tests” are
used when a material’s behavior under
large & permanent (i.e. plastic) strains+
is desired, as in manufacturing
applications, or when the materials is
“Brittle in TENSION*” Chapter 3 - 248
 Shear Stress
• Shear Stress is denoted by “𝜏”
• For tests performed using PURE shear
force, “Shear Stress” is given according
to:
𝐹
𝜏=
𝐴𝑜
Where,
– F = force/load imposed parallel to upper &
lower faces
– Ao = common area for upper and lower
faces Chapter 3 - 249
 Shear Strain

• Is denoted by “γ”
• Is computed according to:
𝛾 = tan(𝜃)
Where,
θ = the strain angle

Units for “Shear Stress & Strain” are similar

to those of their tensile counterparts.
Chapter 3 - 250
Chapter 3 - 251
 Torsion

• Is a specific variation of “PURE Shear”

• It involves the “Twisting” of a given
structural member
• Torque (torsional forces) induce a
rotational motion about the longitudinal
axis of one end of the member relative
to the other end
• e.g. machine axels, drive shafts & twist
drills
Chapter 3 - 252
 Torsion
• Torsional test are normally performed
on
– Cylindrical Solid Shafts

– Tubes

• “Shear Stress” (𝜏) is a function of the

applied “Torque” (T)

• “Shear Strain” (γ) is related to the

“Angle of Twist” (Φ) Chapter 3 - 253
Geometrical Considerations of Stress
State

• Whether,
– Tensile
– Compressive
– Shear
– Or, Torsional
Forces are used to compute stresses,
• The latter either act parallel or
perpendicular to planar faces of bodies
Chapter 3 - 254
Relative Orientations (Stress vs. Plane)
• NOTE: Stress State is a function of the
“orientations of the planes” upon
which the stresses are taken to act.
• The cross-sections of material upon
which stresses are deployed might not
necessarily be at right angles with the
latter, in a persistent manner.
• This is attributed to the orientation of the
favored slip system (direction & plane)
with respect to the overall applied stress
on the body of material. Chapter 3 - 255
 Example
• Here a cylindrical tensile
specimen is subjected to an
overall tensile stress “σ” applied
uniaxially along its longitudinal
axis
• Now, consider the plane 𝑝 − 𝑝ƴ that
is oriented at some arbitrary angle
θ relative to:
– The plane of the specimen end-face.
Also, 𝜎ƴ for which is oriented at θ to:
– The overall tensile stress along the
longitudinal axis Chapter 3 - 256
• Upon the 𝑝 − 𝑝ƴ plane, the applied stress
is NO LONGER of the PURE “tensile”
type.

• RATHER, a more “complex stress state”

is generated that is comprised of:
– A tensile (or normal) stress 𝜎ƴ that acts
normal to the 𝑝 − 𝑝ƴ plane

– A shear stress 𝜏ƴ that acts parallel to the

𝑝 − 𝑝ƴ plane Chapter 3 - 257
 Using Mechanics-of-Materials
Principles*….

It has been rendered possible to develop

equations for 𝜎ƴ & 𝜏ƴ in terms of σ & θ as
follows:
2
1 + cos 2𝜃
𝜎ƴ = 𝜎 cos 𝜃 = 𝜎
2
sin 2𝜃
𝜏ƴ = 𝜎 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = 𝜎
2

Chapter 3 - 258
 Elastic Deformation (σ-ϵ behavior)

• The extent to which a structure deforms

(strains) depends on the magnitude of
an imposed STRESS
• Under the conditions of:
– Most Metal Testing
– Tensile Testing
– Under relatively low (σ & ϵ)
Stress & Strain are LINEARLY
PROPORTIONAL to each other.
Chapter 3 - 259
Linear Proportionality of Stress & Strain
This is manifested through “Hooke’s Law”,

𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖
where,
E = The constant of proportionality,
AKA the “Modulus of Elasticity”,
“Young’s Modulus” or simply
“Stiffness”, in units of GPa.

This ranges between EMg (45 GPa) and

EW (407 GPa)* Chapter 3 - 260
 Stiffness
• This term might be thought of an
indication to the material’s resistance to
elastic deformation
• Hence, the greater the modulus ➔ the
stiffer the material ➔ or, the smaller the
elastic strain that results from an
otherwise appreciable stress that
happens to be applied*
• Hence, “E” is an important design
parameter as far as “Elastic Deflection
Computations” are concerned Chapter 3 - 261
 Elastic Deformation

• Is a type of deformation in which stress

and strain are proportional (give a linear
relationship).
• The slope of the linear segment
corresponds to the “Modulus of
Elasticity”

Chapter 3 - 262
 Sustainability of Elastic Effect

• Elastic Deformation is Non-Permanent

• i.e. as the applied loading subsides ➔
the material regains its original
shape/dimensions
• On the (σ-ϵ plot), this is manifested in
moving from the origin up and along the
straight line as the load is applied
➔Upon release of the load the line is
transveresed in the opposite direction
(back to the origin)
Chapter 3 - 263
Chapter 3 - 264
 Special Elastic Representations
• There exists some materials, e.g.
– Gray cast iron
– Concrete
– Many polymers
– Etc.
For which the characteristic “elastic
portion” of the stress-strain curve is NON-
LINEAR
• Hence, it NOT be possible to determine
a “Modulus of Elasticity” as described
earlier. Chapter 3 - 265
For the Non-Linear Elastic Behavior we
resort to either one of the following
approaches:
• Tangent Modulus: Taken as the slope of
a tangent to the (σ-ϵ curve) at some
specified level of stress

• Secant Modulus: Taken as the slope of

a secant drawn from the origin to some
given stress point on the (σ-ϵ curve).
Chapter 3 - 266
Chapter 3 - 267
 Mechanistic Understanding

What is happening on a
microscopic scale that underpins
“Elasticity”

Chapter 3 - 268
The “Elastic Behavior” described is on a
Macroscopic scale

• What is occurring on an atomic scale is:

– Finite/small changes in interatomic spacing
– Stretching of interatomic bonds
• As such, the magnitude of “Modulus of
Elasticity” is a merely a measure of
resistance to separation exhibited by
adjacent atoms, AKA “Interatomic
Bonding Forces”
Chapter 3 - 269
With the previous being established…

The modulus of elasticity is proportional to

the slope of (Interatomic Force [F] vs.
Separation [r]) curve at the equilibrium
spacing [ro]:
𝑑𝐹
𝐸∝
𝑑𝑟 𝑟
𝑜

Chapter 3 - 270
 Spring-like Interatomic Forces
Principles of atomic bonding are best
illustrated by considering how 2 isolated
atoms interact as they are brought closer
together from an infinite separation.
• At very small interatomic spacing (r)
repulsive forces (due to electron clouds
of adjacent atoms repelling each other
as they are in close vicinity and often
overlapping* in addition due to the
screening effect of equally positively
charged nuclei) dominate which reflects
on the “Net Interatomic Force”. Chapter 3 - 271
• As atoms are gradually moved apart the
screening effect analogously diminishes and
is balanced by attractive forces (the origin of
which depends on the particular type of
bonding between the two atoms*) until
repulsive/attractive force are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction where
the equilibrium spacing [ro] is achieved.
• As interatomic spacing grows, attractive
forces begin to overcome their repulsive
counterparts and a net force favoring
attraction builds up approaching a peak value
at a particular threshold value for [r].
Chapter 3 - 272
• As larger distances (beyond the
threshold [r]) are realized, interatomic
interactions* become negligible as the
atoms are just too far apart to have an
influence on each other ➔ hence, the
“Net Force” between atoms
asymptotically approaches ZERO again.

Chapter 3 - 273
Spring-like Forces

Chapter 3 - 274
 Establishing the Analogy
• Now, Analogous to σ & ε governing the
“Elastic Modulus”, stronger interatomic
forces/bonds [F] only allow for small
increments of change in interatomic
spacing [r]. This is manifested in the
contrast in degree of slopping at [ro]
between strong and weak interatomic
bonding.
• Also, notice the peak in interatomic
forces achieved at relatively larger
values and lower spacing for stronger
bonds. Chapter 3 - 275
Chapter 3 - 276
 “E” Contrast for Different Materials

• Metals and Ceramic exhibit “Moduli of

Elasticity” in close proximity from each
other
• Polymers are significantly less stiff
(which is attributed to larger interatomic
[r] and lower [F])
• Ultimately, this contrast is direct
consequence of the different types of
atomic bonding correspondingly favored
by each material type. Chapter 3 - 277
 Effect of Temperature
𝜎
• As temperature Increases ➔ “𝐸 = ∝
𝜖
𝑑𝐹
” decreases
𝑑𝑟 𝑟𝑜

• This might be attributed to”

– Microscopically: the increase in interatomic
spacing [r] as a response to small
increments of change in [F]
– Macroscopically: the increase in elongation
or strain [ϵ] as a response to small
changes in load or stress [σ].
Chapter 3 - 278
Chapter 3 - 279
 Shedding Light on Compression &
Shear
• Imposition of each of the above also
evokes “Elastic Behavior”.
• At low stress levels, [σ vs ϵ]
characteristics are virtually the SAME
for both “Tensile & Compressive”
situations
• As such, “E” values for either stress
type are similar in such low stress level
regions
Chapter 3 - 280
 Shedding Light on Compression &
Shear
• “Shear Stress & Stain” on the other
hand, are analogously proportional to
each other through,
𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾
Where,
G = the “Shear Modulus”, that is, the
slope of the linear elastic region of the
shear [𝜏 vs 𝛾] curve.

Chapter 3 - 281
 Anelasticity
• In most engineering materials, there
exists a time-dependent elastic “Strain”
component.
• That is, elastic deformation would not
revert to ZERO, but instead would
continue after the stress application,
and upon load release, as some finite
time would be required for complete
recovery
• This time-dependent elastic behavior is
known as “Anelasticity” Chapter 3 - 282
 Anelasticity

The phenomenon at hand is due to a

time-dependent microscopic & atomistic
processes that are attendant to the
deformation (Read p. 217) .
– For metals ➔ anelastic component is
normally SMALL ➔ often neglected
– For some polymeric materials ➔ its
magnitude is significant ➔ termed
“Viscoelastic behavior”

Chapter 3 - 283
Multifaceted Elastic Properties of Materials

• When a “Tensile Stress” is imposed on a

metallic specimen ➔ “Elastic Elongation”
results ➔ translated into “Strain (ϵz)” in
direction of applied stress [arbitrarily taken to
be “z-direction”]
• However, this is also accompanied by
“constrictions in the lateral (x- & y-directions)”
perpendicular to the applied stress.
• From these contractions, “Compressive
[often –ve] Strains (ϵx & ϵy)” may be
determined. Chapter 3 - 284
 Now, ϵx = ϵy only given the following
conditions are satisfied:
• Stress is uniaxially (e.g. ONLY in z-direction)
exerted
• The materials is “Isotropic”
The latter of the two conditions put forward needs
to specifically hold; as if an “Anisotropic” material
was being dealt with ➔ the elastic response by
the material along either the x- or y-direction
would be different and subject to whether or not
the dominant orientation would favor deformation
in a particular direction as oppose to another.
Chapter 3 - 285
i.e. by emphasizing an “Isotropic” material
we are ruling out the possibility of
orientation influencing deformation whilst
simultaneously isolating the mere
geometric proportionality response under
a uniaxially applied load.

Chapter 3 - 286
A new elastic parameter takes center
stage by virtue of importance
(Poisson’s Ratio)
• It is denoted by “ν”
• Defined as “the ratio of the lateral to the
axial strain”
𝜖𝑥 𝜖𝑦
ν=− =−
𝜖𝑧 𝜖𝑧
• For virtually all structural materials,
lateral and axial strain would possess
opposite signs*.
Chapter 3 - 287
Chapter 3 - 288
• Hence, the [-ve] sign is incorporated into the
preceding expression to ensure that “ν” is
maintained [+ve].
• Having said that, some materials (e.g.
specially prepared polymer foams) ➔ when
pulled in “Tension” actually expand in the
transverse direction.
• In such materials, both lateral strains (ϵx & ϵy)
& axial strains ϵz are [+ve].
• In this case, “Poisson’s Ratio” is rendered [-
ve].
• Such material are then know as “Auxetics”
Chapter 3 - 289
 Ranges of “ν”
• Theoritically, when the material’s
characteristic response is not
directionally-dependent (or “Isotropic”)
and a pure geometrically proportioned
response due to a uniaxially-applied
load is in effect ➔ “ν” should be 1Τ4
• However, the maximum value for “ν” (or
the value associated with which no net
volume change is incurred) is 1Τ2
• For many materials/alloys ➔ “ν” exhibits
the range (0.25 to 0.35). Chapter 3 - 290
In simplified* situations where “Isotropy”
is maintained
“Shear & Elastic Moduli” might be related
to each other & to “Poisson’s Ratio”
according to:

𝐸 = 2𝐺(1 + ν)

For most metals, G ≈ 0.4𝐸 ➔ thus if the

value of one modulus is known ➔ the
other may be approximated
Chapter 3 - 291
 Despite most engineering materials
being “Polycrystalline” ➔ with randomly
oriented grains ➔ hence, “Isotropic”…

• Dealing with materials that exhibit

“Anisotropic Elasticity” are NOT a RARE
encounter
• For such materials, the “Elastic
Behavior (or magnitude of E)” varies
with crystallographic direction

Chapter 3 - 292
The “Elastic Properties” of these materials
are NOT characterized in FULL unless all
possible “Elastic constants”
corresponding to the versatility of
dominant orientations within are defined
➔ which is ultimately reliant on the
characteristic crystal structures at hand

Chapter 3 - 293
This, however, by NO MEANS suggests
that SATISFACTORY characterization of
“Elastic Properties” for “Isotropic”
materials would be realized by defining
fewer than 2 “Elastic Constants”

Chapter 3 - 294
 Our Concern Here…

The remaining discussion of mechanical

behavior assumes’
– Polycrystalinity
– and hence, “Isotropy”
As this is the character of most
engineering materials

Chapter 3 - 295
 Plastic Deformation

Most “Metallic Materials” ONLY

endure “Elastic Deformation” up
until strains of ~ 0.005

Chapter 3 - 296
 Onset of Plasticity….

• As materials are deformed beyond

elasticity persistence threshold* ➔ [σ]
is NO LONGER “Proportional” to [ε]
• i.e. Hooke’s Law ceases to be valid..
• As such, “Permanent”, “Non-
recoverable” or
• “Plastic Deformation” is said to be in
effect.
Chapter 3 - 297
A Schematic Representation of “Tensile” [σ
vs.ϵ] Behavior into Plastic Region*

Chapter 3 - 298
 Transition

• The development of elasticity into

plasticity is a “Gradual” process for most
metals
• Some “Curvature” results at the onset of
“Plastic Deformation”
• The latter increases more rapidly with
rising stress

Chapter 3 - 299
Mechanistic Understanding

From an “Atomic” Perspective…

Chapter 3 - 300
 Plastic Deformation Signifies..
• Bond Breakage…
with “ORIGINAL” atom neighbors
• Followed by, Bond Re-Forming…
with “NEW” neighbors
This occurs as large numbers of
atoms/molecules move relative to one
another
• Upon, Stress “REMOVAL”…
Atoms/molecules DO NOT return to their
original positions Chapter 3 - 301
Examples of Plastic Deformation
Mechanisms

Depending on Type of Material

Chapter 3 - 302
Typical to (Crystalline Materials) is
Slip = Dislocation Flow

Chapter 3 - 303
Plastic Deformation in “Amorphous
Materials”* occurs through

A Viscous Flow Mechanism

(Which is beyond the scope of this
course)

Chapter 3 - 304
Tensile Properties

Chapter 3 - 305
 Yielding and Yield Strength

• The latter term in the heading is

denoted by “σy”
• Most structures are “DESIGNED” such
that materials involved would MERELY
undergo “Elastic deformation”, if at all
necessary, under SERVICE stresses
envisaged

Chapter 3 - 306
 Dire Consequences Otherwise…

• A structure or component that has…

– Plastically deformed
– Experienced a permanent change in shape
May not be able to function as intended in
DESIGN, either due to Alterations to:
– Physical properties (e.g. increase in “σy”
due to cold-working [CW])
– Simply, external design/physical
dimensions
Chapter 3 - 307
 Hence, What is Important is…

• To know the stress level at which

“Plastic Deformation” begins
• Or,
• Where the phenomenon of “yielding”
occurs.

Chapter 3 - 308
 Determining the Yield Strength “σy”
• For metals that experience the
“GRADUAL” elastic-plastic transition..
• “Point of Yield” may be determined as
“The initial departure from linearity
of the σ-ϵ curve”
• Sometimes known as the
“Proportionality Limit” [as indicated
by point “P”]
• This represents the onset of plastic
deformation on a “microscopic level”*
Chapter 3 - 309
 Nonetheless, The Position of Point “P”
is “DIFFICULT” to measure precisely…

• As a consequence, “σy” might be

defined through what is
conventionally known as the “0.2%
proof stress”. The latter is determined
by:
• Constructing a straight line parallel to
the elastic portion of the σ-ϵ curve at
some specified strain offset, usually
0.002. Chapter 3 - 310
• The stress corresponding to the
intersection of this line and the σ-ϵ
curve (as it bends over in the plastic
region) is then taken as “σy”.
• NOTICE: STRENGTH is used in
conjunction with STRESS, as the former
is a PROPERTY of the metal, whereas
the latter refers to the MAGNITUDE of
the applied load.
• Either way “σy” is often given in (MPa)
Chapter 3 - 311
 What about materials exhibiting
(NON-LINEAR) elastic regions??

Would the use of the strain offset

method be valid??

Chapter 3 - 312
Chapter 3 - 313
 Usual Practice Here…

As a CONSERVATIVE measure, the yield

strength is defined as “the stress required
to produce some amount of strain (e.g. ϵ
= 0.005)”

Chapter 3 - 314
 Some Steels and an Appreciable
Number of Other Materials Exhibit…

A well defined “Elastic-Plastic”

transition

Chapter 3 - 315
Chapter 3 - 316
 The Yield Point Phenomenon
• Is associated with an ABRUPT “Elastic-
Plastic” transition
• Constituted of virtually two yield points
• At the “Upper Yield Point”, plastic
deformation is initiated with an apparent
decrease in engineering stress
• Continued deformation fluctuates about
some constant stress value, termed the
“Lower Yield Point”
• Stress subsequently rises with
increasing strain Chapter 3 - 317
For Materials that Display the “Yield Point
Phenomenon”…
The “Yield Strength” is taken as “the average
stress that is associated with the LOWER yield
point” because it is:
– Well defined/pronounced
– Relatively “Insensitive” to testing procedure
That is, for the PEAKS signifying the “Yield Point
Phenomenon” to be DETECTED (or not missed out
on or over-shadowed/-looked)
• A stiff (i.e. exhibiting insignificant ELASTIC deformation
during loading) tensile-testing APPARATUS must be
used.
• A sufficiently small sampling interval must beChapter
used 3 - 318
For Materials that Display the “Yield
Point Phenomenon”…

Needless to say, it is
UNNECESSARY to employ the
“strain offset method” for such
materials
Chapter 3 - 319
 Ranges of “σy”

• The magnitude of the yield strength for

a metal is a measure of its resistance to
“Plastic Deformation”
• “σy” may range from:
– 35 MPa (Low-strength aluminum)
– In excess of 1400 MPa (High-strength
steels)

Chapter 3 - 320
 Concept Check 8.1: Cite the primary
differences between “elastic”, “anelastic”
& “plastic” deformation behavior

• Elastic
– Time-independent
– Non-permanent
• Anelastic
– Time-dependent
– Non-permanent
• Plastic
Permanent
Chapter 3 - 321
 Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)*

• What happens beyond yielding?

• The stress necessary to continue plastic
deformation in metals increases to a
“MAXIMUM”, point “M”
• Does the sample remain intact
regardless??
• The stress then decreases to the
eventual fracture, point “F”
Chapter 3 - 322
Chapter 3 - 323
 Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)

• UTS (MPa) is the stress at the

maximum on the engineering [σ-ϵ]
curve.
• This corresponds to maximum stress
that can be sustained by a structure in
tension
• If this stress is applied and maintained
➔ fracture will result
Chapter 3 - 324
 Sustainability of Sample Geometry
• All deformation to this point is
“UNIFORM” throughout the “NARROW
region” of the tensile specimen
• By what term is this region formally
known?
“Gauge Length”
• However, at “UTS” a small constriction
or “neck” begins to form at some point
• All subsequent deformation is confined
at that “neck” Chapter 3 - 325
 The phenomenon just described is
termed…

• “Necking”
• Fracture “ultimately” occurs at the
“neck”
• The “fracture strength” corresponds to
the stress at fracture

Chapter 3 - 326
 Typical Range of “UTS”

• 50 MPa ➔ [Aluminum]

• Up to 3000 ➔ [High-strength Steels]

Chapter 3 - 327
 When Designing for Material/Service
Performance Satisfaction…
• “STRENGTH” of materials is a primary
concern
• “σy” is normally primarily identified for design
purposes
• Because by the time the stress corresponds
to “UTS” the structure would have endured so
much “plastic deformation” that it is rendered
USELESS
• “σf” are not normally specified for engineering
design purposes. Chapter 3 - 328
 Ductility

• Just another IMPORTANT “Mechanical

Property”
• It is “a measure of the degree of plastic
deformation that has been sustained at
fracture”
• A metal that experiences very little or no
plastic deformation upon fracture is
termed “Brittle”
Chapter 3 - 329
Chapter 3 - 330
 Measuring Ductility

Ductility may be expressed

QUANTITATIVELY as either,

– Percent Elongation (%EL)

Or

– Percent Reduction in Area* (%RA)

Chapter 3 - 331
 Percentage Elongation

Is the percentage of plastic strain at

fracture,
𝑙𝑓 − 𝑙𝑜
%𝐸𝐿 = × 100
𝑙𝑜
Where,
lf = the fracture length
lo = the original gauge length

Chapter 3 - 332
 General Notes
• Both lf & Af are measure subsequent to
fracture and after the two broken ends have
been repositioned back together
• Inasmuch as a significant proportion of the
plastic deformation at fracture is confined to
the neck region ➔ the magnitude of %EL will
depend on specimen gauge length
• The shorter lo ➔ the greater the fraction of the
total elongation from the neck ➔
subsequently, the higher the value of %EL
• Hence, lo should be specified when %EL
values are cited (lo is commonly 50 mm)Chapter 3 - 333
 Percentage Reduction in Area

This is defined as,

𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑓
%𝑅𝐴 = × 100
𝐴𝑜
Where,
Ao = the original cross-sectional
area
Af = the cross-sectional area at the
point of fracture
Chapter 3 - 334
 General Notes

• For a given material, the magnitudes of

%EL and %RA will, in general, be
different*.
• Most metals possess at least a
moderate degree of ductility at room
temperature
• However, some metals become brittle
as the temperature is lowered.
Chapter 3 - 335
 Significance in Design

• Knowledge of ductility of a given

structural material is important for at
least two reasons:
– Alarms the designed as to what extent the
material would be capable of deforming
“plastically” before fracture
– Specifies the degree of allowable
deformation during fabrication operations*

Chapter 3 - 336
 General Notes
• We sometimes refer to relatively “Ductile”
materials as being “Forgiving”
• This is in the sense that such materials
may experience local deformation without
fracture, should their be an error in the
magnitude of the design stress calculation
• Brittle materials are approximately
considered to be those having a fracture
strain (ϵf) of less that about 5%
Chapter 3 - 337
 In Summary….
• Several important mechanical properties (σy,
UTS & ductility) of metals may be determined
from tensile (σ vs ϵ) tests
• Such properties are sensitive to the following:
– Any prior deformation (e.g. unloading a material
after undergoing plastic deformation bring forth
new σy, UTS & ductility
– The presence of impurities (e.g. precipitation /
solid solution strengthening)
– And/or any heat treatments
to which the material has been subjected* Chapter 3 - 338
 General Notes

• “E” is one mechanical parameter that is

“insensitive”* to the aforementioned
treatments

• Increase in Temperature
➔Decreases [σy & UTS]

➔Increases [ductility]+
Chapter 3 - 339
Variation of σ-ϵ behavior for “Steel” with
Temperature

Chapter 3 - 340
 Resilience
• Is the capacity of the material to absorb energy*
when it is deformed “Elastically” and then, upon
“unloading”, to have this energy recovered
• i.e. it is a measure of how far a material would
allow for elastic deformation before plasticity
comes into action
• The associated property is “Modulus of
Resilience (Ur)”
• The latter is “the strain energy per unit volume
required to stress a material from an unloaded
state up to point of yielding ➔ J/m3 (or Pa)”
Chapter 3 - 341
 Deriving the Modulus of Resilience

1st: what is Strain Energy?

Ans: It is the internal work done in
deforming a given body by the action of
an externally applied force

dz

σx σx
dy
dx Chapter 3 - 342
 Deriving Modulus of Resilience

• Differential change in internal “Strain

energy” might be denoted by “du”
• Hence, internal strain energy/work
required to cause “elastic deformation”

𝑑𝑢 = 𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (∆𝑥)

Chapter 3 - 343
 Breaking the terms down
Since we’re
working within the
elastic region: Max Force
before “Yield”
• Taking Avg.
Force (0 ➔ Max)
1
𝜎𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑦 ∗ 𝑑𝑧
2
• Displacement in ZERO Force
x-direction is
Elastic Region
𝜖𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑥
Chapter 3 - 344
Going Back to the Definition of “Strain
Energy [du]”

𝑑𝑢 = 𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∆𝑥

would now become

1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝜎𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑦 ∗ 𝑑𝑧 𝜖𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑥
2
Rearranging,
1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝜎𝑥 𝜖𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑦 ∗ 𝑑𝑧
2
Chapter 3 - 345
Hence,
1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝜎𝑥 𝜖𝑥 ∗ 𝒅𝒗
2
Now, if we were to go back to the definition
of “Modulus of Resilience” as “the strain
energy per units volume required to stress a
material from an unloaded state up to point of
yielding”
Rearranging the above expression results in:

𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑢 1

𝑈𝑟 = = = 𝜎𝑥 𝜖𝑥
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑣 2
Chapter 3 - 346
If you were to examine the last expressions..

• You would conclude that “Modulus

Resilience” is simply the AREA of the
region under the “Elastic linear portion
of the (σ vs ϵ) curve” [Under uniaxially
applied tensile stress up to yield]
• This is as it reflects the AREA of a
TRIANGLAR REGION
𝟏
• That is, 𝐀 = (𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆)(𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕)
𝟐

Chapter 3 - 347
• Applying Hooke’s Law to the last expression
𝝈
(where, 𝝐 = )
𝑬
𝜎𝑦2
𝑈𝑟 = (𝑃𝑎)
2𝐸
The units specified above can either be
concluded:
• From the product for calculating area under
curve 𝜎 ∗ 𝜖 ⇒ 𝑃𝑎 ∗ 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
• Or, from the definition of “𝑈𝑟 = =
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝐽
3 ”
𝑚
Chapter 3 - 348
In summary: the AREA under the
“Linear portion of σ vs ϵ”
represents…
The energy absorption per unit
volume (in m3) of material.

Chapter 3 - 349
 Also, carefully examining the following
expression..
𝜎𝑦2
𝑈𝑟 =
2𝐸
Indicates as to what a resilient material might
represent, that is one which exhibits:
– From “Numerator”: Resistance to/delayed onset of
plastic deformation [i.e. high “σy” values are to be
realized before slip might be triggered in metals
(for example)]
– From “Denominator”: High/appreciable “elastic
strain” before “plastic deformation” kicks-in
(hence, as “ϵ” increases ➔ “E” decreases ➔ &
“Ur” eventually increases Chapter 3 - 350
Can the concept of “Resilience” be
extended to describe “Plasticity”?

Yes, it can, BUT under a different

term dubbed “Toughness”

Chapter 3 - 351
 What is “Toughness”?
• It is the ability of a material to absorb energy
and “PLASTICALLY” deform before
“FRACTURING”.
• Now to draw the analogy: “The area under
the σ-ϵ curve up to point of fracture is to
[Toughness] what the area under the
“elastic region” is to [Resilience]”
• Naturally, the units adopted here are
identical to those used to describe resilience
(i.e. energy per unit volume of material).
Chapter 3 - 352
 Characteristics of a “Tough” Material
• For a material to be dubbed “Tough” it should
exhibit relatively large “Ductility” whilst still
maintaining appreciable “Strength”
• i.e. the σ-ϵ curve should SPAN to some extent
along the x-axis (or strain) whilst maintaining
appreciable height (i.e. up the y-axis or stress)+
• In other words, during design/material selection
stage, if a “Tough” material is being sought ➔
engineers would compromise strength for
ductility* Chapter 3 - 353
Chapter 3 - 354
 Examining the Previous Plot..

• Notice that, even though the “Brittle”

materials exhibits a HIGHER
– Yield Strength
– Ultimate Tensile Strength
It shows a LOWER “Strain to Fracture” and
hence, a LOWER “Toughness” relative to the
“Ductile” material.
• This might also be depicted by comparing
the AREA under each curve taken to
FRACTURE. Chapter 3 - 355
 Concept Check 8.2: Of those metals
listed below

• Which will experience the greatest percentage

reduction in area (%RA*)? Why?
– Ans: The one that exhibits the highest “Ductility:
extent of plastic deformation sustained before
fracture” ➔ that which is associated with the
largest strain to fracture (ϵf) ➔ materials Chapter
“B” 3 - 356
 Concept Check 8.2: Of those metals
listed below

• Which is the strongest? Why?

– Ans: The one that would require high stresses to
cause yielding “σy” (e.g. onset of slip in metals)
and to induce necking “UTS” ➔ material “D”

Chapter 3 - 357
 Concept Check 8.2: Of those metals
listed below

• Which is the stiffest? Why?

– Ans: The one that exhibits insignificant “Elastic
Strain” despite relatively large increments of change
in “Stress” being induced (i.e. that associated with
the largest “E”) ➔ material “E” ➔ since it doesn’t
even reach “Plasticity” as it fractures before yield.
Chapter 3 - 358
 True Stress and Strain
• Those are denoted by σT & ϵT, respectively.
• On the σ-ϵ curve, the DECLINE in the “stress”
necessary to continue deformation “PAST the
MAXIMUM point (M)” FALSELY indicates that
the metal is becoming weaker.
• This is as the convention for engineering value
assumes that “A” remains UNCHANGED at Ao
➔ Hence, the DROP in “σ” beyond “UTS”
can ONLY mean that “F” that can be
withstood has been REDUCED.
Chapter 3 - 359
Chapter 3 - 360
This is a Common Misconception…

As a matter of fact…
The remaining ligament of the
material is effectively
INCREASING in STRENGTH*
Chapter 3 - 361
 Then What Actually Happens?

• The cross-sectional area is

DECREASING rapidly within the “Neck
Region” – where deformation is
occurring –.
• This results in a reduction in the “Load-
Bearing Capacity” of the remaining
“Ligament”.

Chapter 3 - 362
 Inconveniently…
• The “Engineering Stress” is computed on the
basis of the “Original Cross-sectional Area
(Ao)”, before any deformation has been
incurred, and does NOT take into account
the aforementioned reduction in area at the
neck.
• Sometimes it is more meaningful to use a
“True Stress-True Strain Scheme”
• Now how can we formulate this?

Chapter 3 - 363
 Deriving Expressions for σT & ϵT
• Now, beyond the point where “yielding” takes
place “σy” plastic deformation is IN EFFECT
(i.e. “l” increases axially, whilst “ACS” decreases
laterally) but it occurs UNIFORMLY* over the
GAUGE LENGTH
• Hence, “VOLUME” of portion of sample being
tested (i.e. Gauge Length) is maintained
constant throughout region between “σy & UTS”
or BEFORE “NECKING”
• This implies that (𝐴𝑖 𝑙𝑖 = 𝐴𝑜 𝑙𝑜 ), where sub-notations,
– i = dimension at instantaneous state
– o = dimension at original state Chapter 3 - 364
Since reduction in Acs
starts here ➔ true
stress formula would
given relatively larger
stresses from “σy”
onwards

Beyond this point a “complex stress state” is

developed within the necking in the gauge length (i.e.
AXIAL STRESS + other stress components) ➔
hence, ISOLATED/correct/mere “AXIAL STRESS” is
𝐹
ACTUALLY LOWER than is calculated from 𝜎𝑇 = 𝐴𝐶𝑇Chapter 3 - 365
𝐴𝑖
 Hardness

Aren’t We Repeating Ourselves??

Chapter 3 - 366
 How do we define “HARDNESS”??

• In simple terms, it is “the resistance of

the material to plastic deformation”
• How is this different then from
“Strength”?
• It is from a LOCALIZED perspective

Chapter 3 - 367
 How are we going to measure it?
• By exploring how EASY it is to
“MECHANICALLY DEFORM” different
materials….
• MECHANICALLY DEFORM, e.g.
– Dent
– Scratch
– Bend
– Break
• THEN, CORRELATE the response
SOMEHOW with a “Hardness INDEXING
SCHEME” Chapter 3 - 368
EARLY attempts (QUALITATIVE)

A Fixed set of known

materials…..
No Room for testing/exploring
novel (case-by-case)
materials . . . .
PLUS ➔ it’s QUALITATIVE ➔
Which scratches the other
with no regard to the extent of
deformation
Chapter 3 - 369
 LATER attempts (QUANTITATIVE)
• Control Extent of “Plastic
Deformation”
• Manipulating Indenter
– Load (RECALL: σ=F/A)
– Geometry (RECALL: σ=F/A)
– Rate of Penetration
• Measure Impression
– Depth
– Width
• Correlate with “Hardness
Number”
Chapter 3 - 370
 Obviously . . .

• The softer the material . . .

• The,
– Wider the Impression
– Deeper the Impression
– Lower the “Hardness Number” is . . .

Chapter 3 - 371
NOW, regardless of the QUANTITATIVE
nature of the latter attempts . . .

• They remain RELATIVE approaches

(NOT Absolute)
• As we are correlating
– The depth/width of the impression
with,
– That specific TOOL
• Material
• Geometry
• Load
Chapter 3 - 372
 Quantitative Tachniques

• Rockwell
• Brinell
• Knoop & Vickers

Chapter 3 - 373
ONLY for Steel

Chapter 3 - 374
Hardness Conversion Data Amongst
Different Scales

• Often determined Experimentally

• From one scaling scheme to another
• BUT within the same material type
• As different materials might repond
differently from one scale
scheme/technique to another

Chapter 3 - 375
 Variability of Material Properties

• Measured material properties are NOT

EXACT quantities
• How is that so?? Even if we insure:
– Most “precise” measuring apparatus
– Highly “controlled test procedure”
– Working with the EXACT “same material”
Scatter/Variability in DATA collected from
specimens will be inevitable (at least to
some extent)
Chapter 3 - 376
 For example ……
• Consider,
– Number of IDENTICAL tensile samples
– Prepared from a SINGLE BAR of an alloy
– Subsequently, σ-ϵ tested in the SAME
APPARATUS
Most likely, each resulting σ-ϵ plot is slightly
DIFFERENT from the others
• i.e. we would have a variation in values of:
– Modulus of elasticity
– Yield strength
– Tensile strength Chapter 3 - 377
What ultimately causes uncertainty in
measured data??
• Test Method*
• UNINTENTIONAL, variations in
specimen fabrication procedures ➔
“Thermo-mechanical” history$
• Operator bias
• Apparatus calibration
• Inhomogeneities (phase contrast) &
compositional variation within same lot
materials#
Chapter 3 - 378
How do we deal with property scatter?

• Subject variability to “Statistical”

treatment and Probability..
• e.g. INSTEAD of asking:
“What is the fracture strength of this
alloy??”
An engineer should become accustomed
to asking:
“What is the probability of failure of this
alloy under these given circumstances?”
Chapter 3 - 379
 It is often desirable to specify . . .

• A TYPICAL value for some measured

property ➔ i.e. by taking the “average”

• The DEGREE of DISPERSION/SCATTER

around the typical value ➔ i.e. by defining a

“standard deviation”
Chapter 3 - 380
 Average Value

Sum of all measured values divided by

number of measurements taken
σ𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
𝑥ҧ =
𝑛
where,
ഥ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑥
𝒙
𝒏 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝒙𝒊 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Chapter 3 - 381
 Standard Deviation

• Expressed mathematically as,

σ𝑛𝑖=1 2 1Τ2
𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥ҧ
𝑠=
𝑛−1

• A LARGE value for “s” corresponds to a

high degree of SCATTER
Chapter 3 - 382
 Design / Safety Factor

1st Issue 2nd Issue

• Relatively greater • Relatively easier task assigned
uncertainty facing to “Materials Scientists” to
“Structural Engineers” in cover scatter in measured
FULL analysis of range of mechanical properties of
stress/load components materials (e.g. σy).
on a given structural • Such scatter is partly due to:
member/material. – Incorporation of imperfection
• i.e. accounting for all during manufacture
stresses imposed on a – Sustaining damage during service
structure is ONLY Both emanating from thermo-
APPROXIMATE. mechanical processes
Chapter 3 - 383
 Design / Safety Factor

1st Issue 2nd Issue

• In light of the above, the • In light of the above, the mere
greater uncertainty in identification of scatter in (σy)
anticipating the NET MAX offers LIMITED
APPLIED STRESS ➔ PERSPECTIVE*. Hence,
rendered it SAFER although sometime adopted it is
(MORE conservative) to NOT PREFERABLE to resort to
resort to “Design Stress” “Safe or Working Stress”
approach approach
• “Design Stress” is given • “Safe or Working Stress” is
as: given by:
ሗ 𝑐
σ𝑑 = 𝑁σ σy
σw =
N Chapter 3 - 384
 Design / Safety Factor
1st Issue 2nd Issue
• You begin by getting an • You start with a material of choice
“ESTIMATE” of the (obviously with a characteristic σy
ANTICIPATED NET STRESS scatter)
APPLIED (σ𝑐 -claculated • Depending on how desperate you
stress). are to stay clear from yield during
• This is then AMPLIFIED service ➔ you decide on (N –
ሗ
through multiplying by (𝑁- factor of safety-).
design factor-). • N spans typically [1.2 – 4.0]
ሗ is typically > UNITY
• (𝑁) • “Service Stress” is designed to
• “Materials Selection” based remain < threshold (σw)*.
on ➔ σy > the over-estimated• i.e. by lowering “F” or
(σd) increasing “Acs” of component
Chapter 3 - 385
 Nonetheless . . .

Despite “Design Stress” being a SAFER

approach ➔ and as such, widely accepted
➔ The main concern in this course is with:
– Factors influencing σy
– and NOT “Stress Analysis” on structures
This is as the latter is the role of “Structural
Engineers”
➔ Hence, from now on onwards focus here
is to be given to “Safe Stress” approach.
Chapter 3 - 386
 Choice of Factor of Safety (N)
• You might say: “I’ll end up safer by adopting a larger N
value”
• The “SAFETY” part is TRUE . . .
• But, what are the implications of picking too large of an
(N) value??
• Ans: You will risk “Component Overdesign”. i.e. . .
– Exaggerated dimensions [MORE material ➔ i.e. more cost &
weight]
– An alloy having a high-than-necessary STRENGTH
Or, operation at less than feasible service conditions
(e.g. σ, T) ➔ lowered efficiency ➔ Economic burden
(w.r.t productivity) Chapter 3 - 387
 Selection of (N) depends on:
• Economics
• Previous Experience
• LIMITING the “Guess Work”; how
accurate is your determination of:
– External Mechanical Stresses
– Material Mechanical Properties
• CONSEQUENCES of failure; i.e. loss of
life and/or property damage

Chapter 3 - 388
 By virtue of LARGE (N) economic
burden . . .

The above measure is used in

conjunction with*:
– The use of tougher materials (to begin
with)
– Redundancy in structural design, both:
• Excess dimensions
• Duplicate structures for stress distribution+
– Regular and “Easy Access” Inspections

Chapter 3 - 389
 The sole reliance on (N)
manipulation might be an acceptable
measure to address:
• Less critical “Static Loading”
applications
• When, relatively “Tough”
materials are used
Chapter 3 - 390
But when performance in “Critical Applications” is
at stake . . .
• Critical Applications: often associated with
“Dynamic Loading”*
– Aircraft parts
– Bridge structural components
• The utilization of a “Factor of Safety” should
be aided by utilizing:
– A tougher material, with
– Redundant, and
– Inspectable Design
where economically feasible Chapter 3 - 391