Tension test

 Specimen can be round, flat or tubular

 ASTM specifications
 Stress-Strain Curve
Elastic region
Plastic region
Necking
 Mechanical Behavior,
Testing and Manufacturing
Properties of Materials
Strength
Hardness
Toughness
Stiffness
Strength/Density
Tension test formulas
• 
Hooke’s law
• 
FIGURE 2.1 (a) A standard tensile-test specimen before and after pulling, showing original
and final gage lengths. (b) Stages in specimen behavior in a tension test.
FIGURE 2.2 A typical stress–strain curve obtained from a tension test, showing
various features.
 Plastic deformation
 Proportional limit – the stress that the specimen undergoes nonlinear
elastic deformation
 Permanent(plastic) deformation – occurs when the yield stress of the
material is reached
 Y(yield stress) is often determined using the offset method (.2%
elongation) figure 2.2
FIGURE 2.3 Schematic illustration of the loading and the unloading of a tensile-test specimen. Note
that, during unloading, the curve follows a path parallel to the original elastic slope.
 Ultimate tensile strength
 The maximum engineering stress is called the tensile strength or
ultimate tensile strength and is the maximum stress found from the
σ-ε diagram
TABLE 2.2 Mechanical Properties of Various Materials at Room Temperature
ductility
• 
FIGURE 2.5 (a) Load–elongation curve in tension testing of a stainless steel specimen. (b) Engineering stress–
engineering strain curve, drawn from the data in Fig. 2.5a. (c) True stress–true strain curve, drawn from the data in Fig.
2.5b. Note that this curve has a positive slope, indicating that the material is becoming stronger as it is strained. (d) True
stress–true strain curve plotted on log–log paper and based on the corrected curve in Fig. 2.5c. The correction is due to the
triaxial state of stress that exists in the necked region of the specimen.
True stress & true strain
• 
TABLE 2.3 Typical Values for K and n for Metals at Room Temperature
 Strain at necking in a
tension test
 The true strain at the onset of necking is numerically equal to the
strain-hardening exponent, n, of the material. Thus, the higher the
value of n, the higher the strain that a piece of material can
experience before it begins to neck.
 Note: from table 2.3 these have high n values and can be stretched
uniformly to a greater extent than can the other metals listed.
Annealed copper
Brass
Stainless steel
FIGURE 2.6 True stress–true strain curves in tension at room temperature for various metals. The curves start at a finite level of
stress: The elastic regions have too steep a slope to be shown in this figure; thus, each curve starts at the yield stress, Y, of the
material.
Temperature effects
 Increasing the temperature…
Ductility increases
Toughness increases
Yield stress decreases
Modulus of elasticity decreases
n decreases (strain-hardening
exponent)
FIGURE 2.7 Effect of temperature on mechanical properties of a carbon steel. Most materials display similar temperature
sensitivity for elastic modulus, yield strength, ultimate strength, and ductility.
 Deformation rate
 Deformation rate is defined as the speed at which a tension test is
being carried out (ft/min, m/sec…)
 Strain rate is a function of the specimen’s length. A short specimen
elongates proportionally more during the same period than does a
long specimen.
 Superplasticity refers to the capacity of some materials to undergo
large uniform elongation prior to necking and fracture in tension
(examples: bubble gum, glass, thermoplastics at room temperature)
 Compression test
 Solid cylindrical specimen between two well lubricated flat dies
(platens)
 Because of friction between the specimen and the platens, the
specimen’s cylindrical surfaces bulge (barreling)
 Slender specimens buckle
 For ductile materials, the true stress-true strain curves coincide
 Brittle materials are generally stronger and more ductile in
compression
 Disk test is also used to test compressive stress
FIGURE 2.9 Disk test on a brittle material, showing the direction of loading and the fracture path.
torsion
• 
FIGURE 2.10 A typical torsion-test specimen; it is mounted between the two heads of a testing machine and twisted. Note the
shear deformation of an element in the reduced section of the specimen.
Bending (flexure)
• Used for brittle materials
• Three point or four point
• Rectangular cross section specimens
• Modulus of rupture is the stress at fracture
FIGURE 2.11 Two bend-test methods for brittle materials: (a) three-point bending; (b) four-point bending. The areas on the
beams represent the bending moment diagrams, described in texts on the mechanics of solids. Note the region of constant
maximum bending moment in (b); by contrast, the maximum bending moment occurs only at the center of the specimen in (a).
hardness
• Defined as the resistance to permanent indentation
• Hardness tests use different indenter materials and shapes
• Brinell
• Rockwell
• Vickers
• Knoop
FIGURE 2.12 Selected hardness testers. (a) A Micro Vickers hardness tester; (b) Rockwell hardness tester; (c) Durometer; (d)
Leeb tester. Source: (a) through (c) Courtesy of Newage Testing Instruments, Inc.; (d) Courtesy of Wilson ® Instruments.
FIGURE 2.13 General characteristics of hardness-testing methods and formulas for calculating hardness.
Hardness and strength
• UTS=3.5(HB) SI units (UTS in MPa)
• UTS=500(HB) English units (UTS in psi)
• HB is Brinell hardness
• Since hardness is the resistance to permanent indentation it
can be likened to performing a compression test on a small
volume on the surface of a material
Fatigue
• Rapid fluctuating cyclic or periodic loads
• Parts fail at a stress level below that at which failure would occur
under static loading
• Failure is found to be associated with cracks that grow with every
stress cycle and propagate through the material
• FATIGUE FAILURE-responsible for the majority of failures in
mechanical components
• Rotating machine elements under constant bending stresses as with
shafts
Fatigue test
• Testing specimens under various states of stress, usually in a
combination of tension and bending
• Stress amplitudes S
• Number of cycles N
• S-N Curves
• Endurance limit (fatigue limit): the maximum stress the material can
be subjected without fatigue failure, regardless of N
FIGURE 2.16 (a) Typical S–N curves for two metals. Note that, unlike steel, aluminum does not have
an endurance limit. (b) S–N curves for common polymers.
creep
• CREEP is the permanent elongation of a component under a
static load maintained for a period of time.
• Metals, thermoplastics, rubbers
• Occurs at any temperature
• Recall: creep at elevated temperatures is attributed to grain-
boundary sliding
Creep test
• The test generally consists of subjecting a specimen to a constant
tensile load at elevated temperature and measuring the changes in
length at various time increments
• Primary stage/Secondary stage/Tertiary stage
• STRESS RELAXATION-the stresses resulting from loading of a structural
component decrease in magnitude over a period of time, even
though the dimensions of the component remain constant (example:
piano wire)
FIGURE 2.17 Ratio of endurance limit to tensile strength for various metals, as a function of tensile
strength. Because aluminum does not have an endurance limit, the correlations for aluminum are
based on a specific number of cycles, as is seen in Fig. 2.16.
FIGURE 2.18 Schematic illustration of a typical creep curve. The linear segment of the curve
(secondary) is used in designing components for a specific creep life.
impact
• A typical impact test consists of placing a notched specimen in an
impact tester and breaking the specimen with a swinging pendulum
• CHARPY
• IZOD
• Impact Toughness-the energy dissipated by breaking the specimen
• Materials with high impact resistance generally have high strength,
ductility, toughness
FIGURE 2.19 Impact test specimens. (a) Izod; (b) Charpy .
Failure and fracture
• Fracture- through either internal or external cracking
• Ductile-plastic deformation which proceeds to failure
• Brittle–little or no gross plastic deformation
• Buckling – a long slender column under compressive loads
FIGURE 2.20 Schematic illustration of types of failures in materials: (a) necking and fracture of ductile materials;
(b) buckling of ductile materials under a compressive load; (c) fracture of brittle materials in compression; (d)
cracking on the barreled surface of ductile materials in compression.
FIGURE 2.21 Schematic illustration of the types of fracture in tension: (a) brittle fracture in
polycrystalline metals; (b) shear fracture in ductile single crystals—see also Fig. 1.5a; (c)
ductile cup-and-cone fracture in polycrystalline metals; (d) complete ductile fracture in
polycrystalline metals, with 100%reduction of area.
FIGURE 2.23 Sequence of events in the necking and fracture of a tensile-test specimen: (a)
early stage of necking; (b) small voids begin to form within the necked region; (c) voids
coalesce, producing an internal crack; (d) the rest of the cross section begins to fail at the
periphery, by shearing; (e) the final fracture, known as a cup- (top fracture surface) and-
cone-(bottom surface) fracture, surfaces.
FIGURE 2.24 Schematic illustration of the deformation of soft and hard inclusions and of
their effect on void formation in plastic deformation. Note that, because they do not conform to
the overall deformation of the ductile matrix, hard inclusions can cause internal voids.
Transition temperature
• Many metals undergo a sharp change in ductility and
toughness across a narrow temperature range
• Occurs mainly in bcc and hcp metals
FIGURE 2.25 Schematic illustration of transition temperature in metals .
Brittle fracture
• Occurs with little or no gross plastic deformation
• In tension fracture takes place along the crystallographic plane
(cleavage plane) on which the normal tensile stress is a maximum
• In general low temperature & high deformation rate promote brittle
fracture
• DEFECTS explain why brittle materials are weak in tension compared
to compression
• CATASTROPHIC FAILURE-under tensile stresses cracks propagate
rapidly
FIGURE 2.26 Fracture surface of steel that has failed in a brittle manner. The fracture path is
transgranular (through the grains). Magnification: 200. Source: Courtesy of B.J. Schulze and S.L.
Meiley and Packer Engineering Associates, Inc.
FIGURE 2.27 Intergranular fracture, at two different magnifications. Grains and grain boundaries are clearly
visible in this micrograph. The fracture path is along the grain boundaries. Magnification: left, 100 ; right, 500.
Source: Courtesy of B.J. Schulze and S.L. Meiley and Packer Engineering Associates, Inc.
Residual stress
• Residual stresses are those that remain in a workpiece after it has
been plastically deformed and then has had all external forces
removed
• Eliminated by stress-relief annealing, further plastic deformation, or
relaxation over time