Faculty of Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Strength of Materials Laboratory

Tensile Testing

Student Name: Assad .K. Al-Hawamleh

Student ID: 320180106006

Experiment NO.: 2

Instructor Name: Eng. Audai Al-Akayleh

Date: 15/11/2020
Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................... 2
1.1… Tensile Test ............................................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2… Engineering Stress-Strain Diagram ........................................................................................................................... 2
1.3… Mechanical Properties (Tensile Testing) .................................................................................................................. 4
1.4… True stress-strain diagram ......................................................................................................................................... 6
1.5… Standard specimens are used for tensile test ............................................................................................................. 7
2. Objectives....................................................................................................................................................................... 8
3. Experimental Setup....................................................................................................................................................... 9
3.1 … Equipments(Fig 1.7): ............................................................................................................................................... 9
3.2… Set up ...................................................................................................................................................................... 10
4. Experimental Procedure............................................................................................................................................. 10
5. Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................................................ 10
6. Conclusions .................................................................................................................................................................. 11
7. References .................................................................................................................................................................... 12

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1. Introduction

1.1… Tensile Test

Tensile tests are used to determine how materials will behave under tension load. In a simple tensile test, a
sample is typically pulled to its breaking point to determine the ultimate tensile strength of the material. The
amount of force (F) applied to the sample and the elongation (∆L) of the sample are measured throughout the
test.

Tensile testing is performed by elongating a specimen and measuring the load carried by the specimen. This is done
using a test machine known as an Universal Materials Testing Machine. From knowledge of the specimen dimensions, the
load and deflection data can be translated into a stress–strain curve. A variety of tensile properties can be extracted from
the stress–strain curve.

Tensile testing is a destructive test process that provides information about the tensile strength, yield strength, and
ductility of the metallic material. It measures the force required to break a composite or plastic specimen and the extent to
which the specimen stretches or elongates to that breaking point.

1.2… Engineering Stress-Strain Diagram

In the engineering, conventional or nominal stress-strain diagram the specimen cross section is assumed to be constant
and doesn’t change throughout the test and the following equations are used to calculate the stress and strain (original
length is the reference point of calculation).

Engineering stress (σn) = , Engineering strain (εn) =

a b
Fig 1.1…(a)+(b) Engineering stress-strain diagrams for ductile material.( Mild steel)
As we have seen in Figure 1.1, the stress-strain curve is divided into four regions as follows:

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I. Elastic Behavior

The curve is a straight line throughout most of this region, the stress is proportional to the strain. The material in this
region is said to be linear elastic and the upper stress limit to this linear relationship is called the proportional limit (σₚₗ).
Beyond this point, the curve tends to bend and flatten out and continues until the stress reaches the elastic limit. Upon
reaching this point, if the load is removed the specimen will still return to its original shape.

II. Yielding

A slight increase in stress above the elastic limit will result in a breakdown of the material and cause it to deform
permanently, yielding. The stress that causes yielding is called the yield stress or yield point (σY), and the deformation
that occurs is called plastic deformation. Once the yield point is reached, the specimen will continue to elongate (strain)
without any increase in load. When the material is in this state, it is often referred to as being perfectly plastic.

III. Strain Hardening

When yielding has ended, an increase in load can be supported by the specimen, resulting in a curve that rises
continuously but becomes flatter until it reaches a maximum stress referred to as the ultimate stress (σu), the rise in the
curve in this manner is called strain hardening.

IV. Necking

Up to the ultimate stress, as the specimen elongates, its cross-sectional area will decrease. This decrease is
uniform mover the specimen’s entire gauge length; however, just after, at the ultimate stress, the cross-sectional
area will begin to decrease in a localized region of the specimen. As a result, a constriction or “neck” tends to
form in this region as the specimen elongates further. Here the stress–strain diagram tends to curve downward
until the specimen breaks at the fracture stress (σf).

Figure 1.2…shows these regions and Specimen deformations during each region.(for steel)

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 (a) (b)
Figure1.2: (a) Engineering and true stress-strain diagrams for ductile material. (b) Specimen deformations during the test stages.

1.3… Mechanical Properties (Tensile Testing)

The stress–strain curve is the most reliable and complete source for the evaluation of mechanical properties of
any material. The stress–strain curve is produced by plotting the applied stress on the material axis and the
elongation produced due it. The stress–strain curve of a model material is shown in Fig. 1.2. Different types of
material produce different stress–strain curves. The nature of each curve is profoundly influenced by the
structure of the material.

Different mechanical properties can be determined from the normal stress-strain diagram such as:

I. Yield Strength

A material's "yield strength" is defined as the stress applied to the material at which plastic deformation starts to occur.
Some metals such as steel, brass, molybdenum, and zinc have a clearly defined yield point. Other metals such as
aluminum and aluminum alloys do not have a well-defined yield point. An equivalent of yield stress is used to define the
yield point of materials that have no clearly defined yield point, and it is known as proof stress. Proof stress is a term used
to describe the stress that is required to produce some specified small amount of plastic deformation.

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For materials that do not have a clear end to the initial linear region, the offset method is used to approximate yield. The
offset method uses the stress-strain curve of the material and overlays a line with a slope equal to the initial slope of the
stress-strain curve. The line is offset along the strain axis, usually by 0.2% (the line crosses the strain axis at ε = 0.002).
The offset yield point is determined as the point of intersection between this line and the stress-strain curve(Fig 1.3)

Fig 1.3… Offset method

II. Modulus of Elasticity (Young’s Modulus)

Hooke's Law: For most materials, the initial portion of the test will exhibit a linear relationship between the applied force
or load and the elongation exhibited by the specimen. In this linear region, the line obeys the relationship defined as
"Hooke's Law" where the ratio of stress to strain is a constant, or =E. E is the slope of the line in this region where
stress (σ) is proportional to strain (ε) and is called the "Modulus of Elasticity" or "Young's Modulus."

III. Ultimate tensile strength (UTS)

UTS can be defined as the maximum tensile stress that a material can withstand before breaking and it is the

highest point on the stress-strain diagram. UTS =

IV. Ductility

Ductility relates to the elongation of a tensile test. The percentage of elongation is calculated by the maximum gage length
divided by the original gage length. It is commonly described.

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 1.4… True stress-strain diagram
In the Engineering stress-strain diagram, the curve declination beyond the UTS point seems to indicate that the

metal becomes weaker; but it is increasing its strength. Beyond the yield point, the specimen cross section

decreases and becomes more rapid within the necking region. The engineering stress is computed based on the

original cross-sectional area before any deformation and does not consider this reduction in area. Sometimes it is more
meaningful to use the true values of stress and strain. True stress is defined as the load divided by the

instantaneous cross-sectional area, and true strain is based on the instantaneous change in length divided by the

original length of the specimen.

True Stress (σt) = , True Strain (εt) = = ln

During plastic deformation, the specimen volume is constant, and the initial volume is equal to the final volume
(AₒLₒ = AfLf). As well, the initial volume is equal to the instantaneous volume (AₒLₒ = AiLi). Hence, Ai = AₒLₒ/Li. True
stress and strain can be also computed by the following relations:

σt = σn (1 + εn) , εt = ln (1 + εn)

The true stress continues to rise past the UTS point to sustain the increased strain. Beyond this point, the formation of the
neck introduces a complex stress state within the neck region, and other stress components in addition to the axial stress
will be existed. True stress and strain should be computed from actual load, cross-sectional area, and gauge length
measurements (the equations are valid only to the onset of necking). Therefore, the correct stress (axial) within the neck is
slightly lower than the stress computed from the applied load and neck cross sectional area, and a corrected curve will be
formed (Fig. 1.4).

(a) (b)
Fig 1.4… (a) A comparison of tensile engineering stress–strain and true stress–strain behaviors. (b) Engineering and true stress-strain diagrams

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For some metals and alloys the region of the true stress–strain curve from the onset of plastic deformation to the point at
which necking begins may be approximated by

=K

Where: K: Strength coefficient and it is measured in Pascal. And n: Strain hardening index (exponent) and it is unitless
and has a value less than unity. By taking the natural logarithm of the two sides of the equation:

ln 𝝈𝒕 = ln K + n ln 𝜺𝒕

n: is the slope of the curve and ln K is the y- intercept, (Fig. 1.5)

Fig 1.5… : ln (True Stress) – ln (True Strain) diagram.

1.5… Standard specimens are used for tensile test

Standard specimens are used for tensile test; the specimen has two shoulders and a gauge (section) in between. Generally,
there are two types, round, and flat specimens(Fig1.6).

Tensile test specimens are prepared in a variety of ways depending on the test specifications. Most specimens use either a
round or square standard cross section with two shoulders and a reduced section gauge length in between. The shoulders
allow the specimen to be gripped while the gauge length shows the deformation and failure in the elastic region as it is
stretched under load. The reduced cross section gauge length of specific dimensions assists with accurate calculation of
engineering stress via load over area calculation. Specimens are fabricated with fillets instead of sharp corners (gradual
reduction in the area) to minimize the stress concentration in this region(Fig 1.6).

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 Fig 1.6… Standard tensile test specimens (a) Round specimen. (b) Flat specimen

2. Objectives

a- understand the principle of a uniaxial tensile testing and gain their practices on operating the tensile testing
machine
b- To explain load "extension and stress" strain relationships

c- To obtain all mechanics of materials properties, that given from stress-strain diagram

d- To explain deformation and fracture characteristics of different materials

e- To understand the difference between true and engineering stress-strain diagram

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3. Experimental Setup

3.1 … Equipments(Fig 1.7):

1- Test Specimens 2- Extensometer 3- Load cells

------- For finding extension To measure Loads

a b c

4- Universal Testing Machine

High force floor model testing

systems have a test capacity range
from 100 kN to 2,000 kN. These
systems can be electromechanical
or hydraulic, and are used for
tensile, compression, and flex
testing.

d
Fig 1.7… Equipments 9
3.2… Set up
A material is gripped at both ends by an apparatus, which slowly pulls lengthwise on the piece until it fractures. The
pulling force is called a load, which is plotted against the material length change, or displacement. The load is converted
to a stress value and the displacement is converted to a strain value.

4. Experimental Procedure
a- Prepare the testing Specimen and determine its dimensions

b- Prepare the Universal Testing Machine

c- Fit the specimen on to the universal Testing Machine

d- Start the machine and write the data

e- Measure the time until the specimen fracture

f- Draw Stress-Strain Diagram

g- Calculate and find the mechanical properties of the specimen

5. Results and Discussion

Fig 1.8… True and Engineering Stress-Strain Diagram

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 Fig 1.9… : ln (True Stress) – ln (True Strain) diagram.

Table 1.1… True and Engineering Properties of specimen

Properties True Engineering

Yield point (MPa) 338 336
Modulus of Elasticity (Gpa) 70.1964 69.7595
UTS (MPa) - 367.336
n 0.0993 -
k (Mpa) 510.9 -

6. Conclusions
a- Right understanding of the behavior of ductile material under a various loads

b- Right understanding of Stress-Strain Diagram

c- Determine the Mechanical Properties of specimen

d- Right understanding of differences between True and Engineering Stress-Strain Diagram

c- Determine the True and Engineering Properties of specimen

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7. References
a- Hibbeler R, Fan S. Statics and mechanics of materials. 8th ed. Singapore: Prentice Hall; 2011.

b- Images – Google .

c- Laboratory Experiment .

d- Tension Testing / Tensile Testing. (2020). from https://www.admet.com/testing-applications/test-types/tension-

testing/

c- What is Tensile Testing?;. (2020).from https://www.instron.us/our-company/library/test-types/tensile-test

d- What is Tensile Testing?. (2020). from https://www.twi-global.com/technical-knowledge/faqs/what-is-tensile-testing

e- Tensile Testing - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (2020). from

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/tensile-testing

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