TENSILE TESTING OF METALLIC MATERIALS

1. AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT

Tensile testing is carried out in order to evaluate several mechanical properties of both
metallic and non-metallic materials under the conditions of static load. The evaluated
mechanical properties are yield strength, tensile strength, elastic modulus, percent elongation
and reduction in area. Toughness, resilience, Poisson’s ratio can also be found by the use of
this testing technique.

2. THEORETICAL INFORMATION

During tensile testing, an uniaxial force which increases with constant speed is applied to a
test specimen which has been prepared according to the related standards. The load-
elongation diagram which can be seen at Figure 2.1. schematically is obtained by the tension
machine by the way of constant record of the applied axial force and the elongation that
occurs on the specimen.

The load-elongation diagram is the first line that is presented by tension machines and it
shows the load which is applied to the specimen and the elongation which occurs on the
specimen because of this load. However, on the evaluation of mechanical properties related
to the tensile testing, the values that are read on this graphic, are used not directly, but after
transformation to new values by the aid of applying certain formulas. These new values are
“Stress” and “Avarage linear strain”. Stress is presented by the symbol σ, it stands for the
load per unit area and it is obtained by dividing any certain load value that lies on the line of
load-elongation to the original area (the one before the test) of the cross-section of the
specimen:

Here; σ: Stress

Pi: Load value that is appiled to the specimen at any moment

A0: Original cross-section area of the specimen

Avarage linear strain is presented by “e”, it stands for the ratio of elongation that occurs to
the specimen during the test to the original length of the specimen and it is obtained by
dividing any elongation value that is observed on the graph of load-elongation to the original
length of the specimen. Since value of Avarage linear strain is generally presented as per cent
while being reported, the following equation is used for the calculations:

% = 

. ∆

. (Eq. 2)

Here; % e: Avarage per cent linear strain

 li : Length of specimen at any time

l0 : Original length of specimen

∆l: Elongation value( ∆ =  −  ) on specimen

As can be understood, among the results of the tension test, load and elongation values which
are the first values given by the tension machine for calculating mechanical properties, are
not directly used; they have been transformed into the values of Stress and Avarage linear
strain. The calculated stress values are related to the load-bearing capacity, or in other words,
strength of the material. Avarage linear strain values are related to the ductility, or in order
words, forming ability of the material. Therefore, these transformations cause the true and
trusted comparison of the strength and the ductility of materials having different cross-
sectional areas and lengths and thus presenting different load and elongation values by using
the same units. If any calculation according to the results of the tension test is the case, Stress
and Avarage linear strain values have to be calculated.

By applying Equation 1 and Equation 2 to several load values and the corresponding
elongation values according to the line of Load-Elongation, related Stress (σ) and Avarage
per cent linear strain (%e) values are calculated. The graphic “Stress (σ)-Avarage linear strain
(%e)” which can be seen in Fig. 2.2. is obtained by the combination of these values. Since the
original cross-sectional area and the original length of the specimen are applied to the
formulas of Stress and Avarage linear strain which are used to obtain this line, the line is also
called the graph “Engineering Stress-Engineering Avarage Linear Strain” and it has a wide
use in the consideration of mechanical properties of the materials and design.

The shape of the graph “Engineering Stress-Engineering Avarage Linear Strain” is the same
as that of the graph “Load-Elongation” since the transformation is carried out by using
constant values, which are the original cross-sectional area and the original length of the
specimen, but the axis have been transformed into the values of Stress and Avarage per cent
linear strain. When the graph “Stress-Avarage per cent linear strain” is the case, the graph
“Engineering stress-Engineering avarage per cent linear strain” must be understood.
Additionally, drawing the graph “Stress-Avarage per cent linear strain” is not always
necessary. When the strength values that belong to several important points on the graph of
“Stress-Avarage per cent linear strain” are needed to be calculated, the load values of the
related points are read on the graph “Load-Elongation” and the required stress values are
calculated by the aid of transformation formulas.

The graph “Stress-Avarage linear strain” which is shown in Fig. 2.2. is seperated in two
regions named “Elastic deformatin region” and “Plastic deformatin region”. In the beginning
of the test the length of the specimen continuosly increases, while the cross-sectional area
continuosly decreases. In the region between the beginning of the line and the point A, there
is a linear correlation between the stress that acts on the specimen and the avarage linear
strain that occurs because of this stress. If the test is stopped before arriving at the point A
and the load is removed, the specimen returns to the length it has before the test. For this
reason the region between the points O and A is called “Elastic deformation region”. After
passing the point A even once, although the length of the specimen continues to increase
under the effect of the applied load, if the applied load is removed, the specimen does not
return to the length it has before test and the elongation that has occured becomes permanent.
The region between the points A and C is called “Plastic deformation region” because of this
permanent deformation. Plastic deformatin region is divided into two parts. The part between
the points A and B is called “Homogeneous plastic deformation region”, while the part
between the points B and C is called “Heterogeneous plastic deformation region”. The
specimen extends permanently in both of the plastic deformation regions. However, in the
“Homogeneous plastic deformation region”, the elongation of the specimen is homogeneous
and every point on the specimen becomes subject to plastic deformation in the same content.
On the other hand, in the “Heterogeneous plastic deformation region” that has been entered
just after reaching the value of “Maximum tensile stress” (point B), a local decrease is
observed in the cross-sectional area of the specimen and deformation continues only in this
thin region. This local thinning which occurs just after reaching the maximum stress value is
called “Local necking strain” and it points out the beginning of the Heterogeneous plastic
deformation (Fig. 2.3.). Local plastic deformation that takes place in the Heterogeneous
plastic deformation region continues until the specimen breaks at the point C. Necking
generally begins at maximum load during the tensile deformation of a ductile metal. An ideal
plastic material in which no strain hardening occurs would become unstable in tension and
begin to neck just as soon as Yielding took place. However, a real metal undergoes Strain
hardening, which tends to increase the load-carrying capacity of the specimen as deformation
increases. This effect is opposed by the gradual decrease in the cross-sectional area of the
specimen as it elongates. “Necking” or “Localized formation” begins at maximum load,
where the increase in Stress due to decrease in the cross-sectional area of the specimen
becomes greater than the increase in load-carrying ability of the metal due to Strain hardening
[1].

The mechanical properties evaluated by the tension test can be classified as “Related to the
strength”, “Related to the ductility” and “Related to both the strength and the ductility”, as
can be seen in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1. Mechanical properties calculated by the tension test.

Related to strength Yield strength (σy), ultimate tensile strength (σu)

Related to ductility Avarage linear strain (e), Local necking strain (r)
Related to both strength and Resilience (UR), Toughness (UT)
ductility

2.1.Ultimate Tensile Strength

Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is also known as “Maximum tensile stress”. It is calculated
by dividing the maximum load value on the line “Load-Elongation” by the original cross-
sectional area of the specimen:
 Eq. 3

UTS is one of the most used tension test results. It is used to investigate whether a material
has been produced officially and it is an important parameter in quality-control. UTS is a
convenient design criteria for brittle materials. Also, experimental formulas that comprise the
value of UTS have been generated in order to predict several other mechanical properties of a
certain material, such as Fatigue strength and Hardness. Some examples are given below:

Fatigue strength=0.5xσu

σu=0.35xHB

σu=3.5xHRC

2.2.Yielding Strength

Yielding is the ending of Elastic deformation and the beginning of Plastic deformation during
deformation. Yielding strength defines the stress value on which Plastic deformation begins.
Yielding region can be easily seen on the graph “Stress-Avarage linear strain” since it is a
transformation region between linear (elastic) and non-linear (plastic) regions. However,
since yielding region is observed as different lines in different Stress-Avarage linear strain
graphs, yielding strength of different materials must be calculated differently.

Yielding region of some materials such as low-carbon steel is sharp and easily visible.
Yielding phenomenon like this is defined as “Discontinuous yielding” (Fig. 2.6.a and Fig.
2.6.b). When materials that present Discontinuous yielding is the case, when Yielding point is
reached, the Stress remains constant although Avarage linear strain continues to increase and
thus, the line “Stress-Avarage linear strain” is drawn horizontal for some time. This
horizontal part of Yielding region is called “Yielding extention region” (Figure 2.6.a).
Homogeneous plastic deformation region begins after Yielding extention region ends.
Yielding strength, σy, is determined by the lowest stress value in Yielding extension region
when Discontinuous yielding is the case. Another case which can be observed related to
Discontinuous yielding phenomenon is shown in Fig. 2.6.b:

In this type of Yielding phenomenon, there are two different Stress values in Yielding region,
which are called “Upper yielding point” and “Lower yielding point”. In this case “Upper
yielding stress” and “Lower yielding stress” are given seperately as Yielding strength.

Yielding phenomenon which is known as “Continuous yielding” is observed in the graphs

“Stress-Avarage linear strain” of many non-ferrous metals and alloys, such as copper,
aluminium and brass. In this case, the point at which plastic deformation begins is hard to
evaluate precisely since there is no sharp turn, unlike in Discontinuous yielding. For this
reason, various criteria and definitions have been improved besides Yielding strength, in
order to calculate the numerical value of the transformation region. In most of these criteria, a
line which is started at a certain deformation value is drawn parallel to the elastic region of
the graph “Stress-Avarage linear strain”, as can be seen in Fig. 2.7.b. The Stress value which
corresponds the point on which this line is in conjunction with the graph “Stress-Avarage
linear strain” on the vertical axis is supposed to be the Stress value that starts Yielding
phenomenon. This determined Stress value may have various names depending on the chosen
criteria. The mentioned criteria have been summerized below:

2.2.1. True Elastic Limit based on microstrain measurements at straints on order of

2x10-6 in/in. This elastic limit is a very low value and is related to the motion of a
few hundred dislocations.
2.2.2. Proportional Limit is the highest stress at which stress is directly proportional to
strain. It is obtained by observing the deviation from the straight-line portion of
the stress-strain curve.
2.2.3. Elastic Limit is the greatest stress the material can withstand without any
measurable permanent strain remaining on the complete release of load. With
increasing sensitivity of strain measurement, the value of the elastic limit is
decreased until at the limit it equals true elastic limit determined from microstrain
measurements. With the sensitivity of strain usually employed in engineering
studies (10-4in/in), the elastic limit is greater than the proportional limit.
Determination of the elastic limit requires a tedious incremental loading-
unloading test procedure.
2.2.4. The Yield Strengh is the stress required to produce a small specified amount of
plastic deformation. The usual definition of this property is the “Offset yield
strength” determined by the stress corresponding to the intersection of the Stress-
Strain curve and a line parallel to the elastic part of the curve ofset by a specified
strain. The ofset is usually specified as a strain of 0.2 or 0.1 percent (e=0.002 or
0.001). Due to the practical difficulties in the measurement of Elastic Limit or
Proportional Limit, the Yield Strength value is used widely in design and
classification. It is symbolized as σ0.1 or σ0.2 according to the application.
2.3.Measurement of Ductility

Ductility is a quantity about the ability of a metal to have plastic deformation. “Ductile
materials” are alloys which present high Avarage linear strain values after tension test.
However, at our present degree of understanding, ductility is a qualitative, subjective
property of a material. In general, measurements of ductility are of interest in three ways:

i. To indicate the extent to which a metal can be deformed without fracture in

metalworking operations such as rolling and extrusion.
ii. To indicate to the designer, in a general way, the ability of the metal to flow
plastically before fracture.A high ductility indicates that the material is “forgiving”
and likely to deform locally without fracture. The designer keeps it in mind for the
stress calculation or the prediction of severe loads.
iii. To serve as an indicator of changes in impurity level or processing conditions.
Ductility measurements may be specified to assess material “quality” even though no
 direct relationship exits between the ductility measurement and performance in
service.

The conventional measures of ductility that are obtained from the tension test are the
engineering strain at fracture ef (usually called the elongation) and the reduction of area at
fracture q. Both of these properties are obtained after fracture by putting the specimen back
together and taking measurements of Lf and Af. The engineering strain at fracture and the
reduction of area at fracture are calculated by using the formulas given below:

 − 
 =


 − 
=


Here, L0: original (pre-test) length of specimen

Lf: length of specimen at fracture
A0: original (pre-test) cross-sectional area of specimen
Af: cross-sectional area of specimen at fracture

Both elongation and reduction of area usually are expressed as a percentage. However, while
measuring the first length and the final length that are used for the calculation of Engineering
strain at fracture, not the overall length of the specimen, but a length value is taken as the
reference, which has previously been determined by certain equations and has been marked
on the specimen before the test. This value is called “Gage length” and is shown by the
seymbol L0. Barba Law is applied for the calculation of Gage length.

For specimens having circular cross-section,  = 5. D

For specimens having rectangular cross-section,  = 5.65 

Where D0 is the original diameter of specimen and A0 is the original cross-sectional area of
the specimen.

The Engineering strain at fracture, which is calculated by the Equation (X), is composed of
two seperate region of extension. One of this is the homogeneous extension which occurs
before necking starts and the other one is the local extension which occurs after the beginning
of necking. As can be seen shematically in Fig. 2.X, the local extension at the necking region
has more contribution to the overall elongation than the other regions of the specimen have,
furtherly, this contribution increases as the Gage length of the specimen decreases. The
smaller the Gage length the greater will be the contribution to the overall elongation from the
necked region and the higher will be the value of ef. As a result of this, when different Gage
length values are used within a specimen, different values of Engineering strain at fracture
are obtained related the same specimen. Therefore, when reporting values of Percentage
elongation, the Gage length L0 always should be given. The reduction of area does not suffer
from this difficulty. The ductility value that is calculated by the aid of reduction of cross-
sectional area sufficiently reflects the conditions of deformation and quality changes to which
the specimen is subject.

2.4.Modulus of Elasticity

The Modulus of Elasticity (E), also known as Young’s Modulus, is defined as the slope of the
initial linear position of the stress-strain curve. The modulus of elasticity is a measure of the
stiffness of the material. The greater the modulus, the smaller the elastic strain resulting from
the application of a given stress. Since the modulus of elasticity is needed for computing
deflections of beams and other members, it is an important design value. The modulus of
elasticity is calculated by the equation below:

= !

Here, E: Modulus of elasticity

σ: Any stress value inside the elastic region

e: Avarage linear strain that corresponds the related stress value

The modulus of elasticity is determined by the binding forces between atoms. Since these
forces cannot be changed without changing the basic nature of the material, it follows that the
modulus of elasticity is one of the most structure-insensitive of the mechanical properties. It
is only slightly affected by alloying additions, heat treatment or cold work. However,
increasing the temperature decreases the modulus of elasticity. The modulus is usually
measured at elevated temperatures by a dynamic method.

2.5.Resilience

The ability of a material to absorb energy when deformed elastically and to return it when
unloaded is called resilience. Resilience is also defined as the area of the elastic deformation
region in the graph “Stress-Avarage linear strain”. It is usually measured by the modulus of
resilience, which is the strain energy per unit volume required to stress the material from zero
stress to the Yield stress σ0. The modulus of resilience is presented by UR. The strain energy
per unit volume for uniaxial tension is;

" = #$% %

From the above definiton the modulus of resilience is

( ( *
"& = #'  = #' )
= #)
In this equations; s0: yield stress

eo: elastic linear strain

E: modulus of elasticity

This equation indicates that the ideal material for resisting energy loads in applications where
the material must not undergo permanent distortion, such as mechanical springs, is one
having a high Yield stress and a low modulus of elasticity.

2.6.Toughness

The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy in the plastic range. The ability to
withstand occasional stresses above the Yield stress without fracturing is particularly
desirable in parts such as freight-car couplings, ars, chains and crane hooks. Toughness is a
commonly used concept which is difficult top in down and define. One way of looking at
toughness is to consider that it is the total area under the stress-strain curve. This area is an
indication of the amount of work per unit volume which can be done on the material without
cousing it to rupture. Fig. 2.X shows the Stress-Strain curves for high- and low-toughness
materials. The high-carbon spring steel has a higher Yield strength and Tensile strength than
the medium-carbon structural steel, therefore it is a tougher material. This illustrates that
toughness is a parameter which comprises both strength and ductility. The crosshatched
regions in Fig. 2.X indicate the modulus of resilience for each steel. Because of its higher
Yield strength, the spring steel has the greatest resilience.

Several mathematical approximations for the area under the Stress-Strain curve have been
suggested. For ductile metals which have a Stress-Strain curve like that of the structural steel,
the area under the curve can be approximated by either of the following equations:

"+ ≈ '- 

. + .-
"+ ≈ 
2
In these equations; ef: Avarage linear strain at fracture

Su: maximum stress (ultimate tensile strength)

S0: yield stress (yield strength)

For brittle materials the Stress-Strain curve is sometimes assumed to be a parabola and the
area under the curve is given by
#
"+ ≈ 1(2 !3
All these relations are only approximations to the area under the Stress-Strain curves. Further,
the curves do not represent the true behaviour in the plastic range since they are all based on
the original area of the specimen.

2.7.True Stress-True Strain

The values of Stress and Average linear strain that have been mentioned up to now are the
values of Engineering Stress (σ) and Engineering AvarageLinear Strain (e). In the calculation
of these values the original cross-sectional area before the test (A0) and the Gage Length
before the test (L0) are used. However, the engineering stress-strain curve does not give a true
indication of the deformation characteristics of a metal because it is based entirely on the
original dimensions of the specimen and these dimensions change continuously during the
test. The Gage Length increases continuously while the cross-sectional area decreases
continuosly, according to the applied load. Also, ductile metal which is pulled in tension
becomes unstable and necks down during the course of the test. Because the cross-sectional
area of the specimen is desreasing rapidly at this stage of the test, the load required to
continue deformation falls off. The avarage stress based on original area likewise decreases
and this produces the fall-off in the stress-strain curve beyond the point of maximum load.
Actually, the metal continues to strain-harden all the way up to fracture, so that the stress
required to produce further deformation should also increase. If the true stress, based on the
actual cross-sectional area of the specimen, is used, it is found that the stress-strain curve
increases continuously up to fracture. If the strain measurement is also based on
instantaneous measurements, the curve which is obtained is known as a true stress-true strain
curve. This is also known as a Flow curve since it represents the basic plastic-flow
characteristics of the material. Any point on the flow curve can be considered the Yield stress
for a metal strained in tension by the amount shown on the curve. Thus, if the load is
removed at this point and then reapplied, the material will behave elastically throughout the
entire range of reloading.

At any stage of the tension test, for example the homogeneous plastic deformation region, in
order to calculate the True stress value (σt) acting on the specimen, the load acting on the
specimen (Pi) is divided by the cross-sectional area of the specimen at that moment (Ai):
5
$4 = 6


Since the measurement of the cross-sectional area of the specimen at any moment is difficult
while the tension test is being carried out, the concept “Engineering stress” has been
improved and the original cross-sectional area (A0) is applied for stress calculation, instead of
the current cross-sectional area. The value of stress which has been calculated in this way is
supposed to be the Engineering stress. Likewise, for calculation of the True strain value at
any stage of the tension test, even the elongation (∆L) must be divided by the Gage Length
current at the moment (Li), the original Gage Length (L0) is applied, because of the practical
difficulties. The ones which are paid attention at and used in studies done about all of the
quality control and standards are the Engineering stress-Engineering avarage linear strain
curve and the related values. On the other hand, the values of True stress-True avarage linear
strain are used to predict the behaviours of materials under different stress conditions and to
calculate the parameters that are to be explained below.

The values of True stress (σt) and True avarage linear strain (ε) are calculated by using the
values of Engineering stress (σe) and Engineering avarage lienar strain (e). It is supposed that
the volume of the specimen remains constant until the end of the homogeneous plastic
deformation region. In fact, small voids in the dimensions of atoms occur during the test and
this causes an increase in the volume. However, since this volume increase is in the range of
0.1%-0.01% even very high deformation rates taking place, it is supposed that the volume
remains constant during tension test. Therefore, True strain can be calculated by using the set
of equations below:

7 = 7

 .  =  . 

Here, V0: the original volume of thespecimen

Vi: the volume at any moment during the homogeneous plastic deformation

L9 
=
L 

 −  
= = −1
 

 
1+ = =
 

Since True stress is defined as the ratio of applied load (Pi) to the cross-sectional area at the
moment (Ai), such as,
5
$4 = 6


; .6
and since  = ;

5 ;
True stress (σt) can be written as $4 = 6  . ; 
 

5
Since ' = 6


;
and = 1+
;

True stress (σt) is expressed in terms of engineering stress (s) by the equation below:
 <
$4 =  + 1 = '  + 1


The derivation of Eq. 2.X. assumes both constancy of volume and a homogeneous
distribution of strain along the Gage Length of the tension specimen. Thus, Eq. 2.X. should
only be used until the onset of necking. Beyond maximum load the True stress shuld be
determined from actual measurements of load and cross-sectional area.

True strain (ε) can be calculated by supposing that the volume remains constant during the
test. The engineering or conventional strain (e) gives benefit in determination of True strain.

Since
;
? 
== > = @
 
;

;
and
;
= 1 +  , the True strain can be calculated by the
following equation:

= = ln 1 + 

The Eq. 2.X. is applicable only to the onset of necking because of the reasons discussed
above. Beyond maximum load the True strain should be based on actual area or diameter
measurements.

 CDEFG # G
= = @ = @ D # = 2@
 C E FG G

Fig. 2.X? compares the True stress-True strain curve with its corresponding Engineering
stress-Engineering strain curve. Note that because of the relatively large plastic strains, the
elastic region has been compressed into the y axis. In agreement with Eqs. 2.X? and 2.X+2?
the True stress-True strain curve is always to the left of the engineering curve until the
maximum load is reached. However, beyond maximum load the high localized strains in the
necked region that are used in Eq. 2.X+3 far exceed the Engineering strain calculated from
Eq. 2.X????. Frequently the flow is linear from maximum load to fracture, while in other
cases its slope continuously decreases up to fracture. The formation of a necked region or
mild notch introduces triaxial stresses which make it difficult to determine accurately the
longitudinal tensile stress on out to fracture.

The equations that have been mentioned above cannot be used to transform the values of
Engineering stress and Engineering avarage linear strain to the values of True stress-True
avarage linear strain since they have been evaluated by the consideration that the volume of
the specimen remains constant in the Homogeneous plastic deformetion region. On the other
hand, in the Elastic deformation region, the values of True stress-True avarage linear strain
and the values of Engineering stress-Engineering avarage linear strain are equal since elastic
elongation and reduction in the cross-sectional area in The Elastic deformation region are
negligible. Therefore, while True stress-True avarage linear strain curve is being drawn, the
values of Engineering stress-Engineering avarage linear strain are taken as reference in the
Elastic deformation region; the equations that have been mentioned above are used in the
Homogeneous plastic deformation region; but no value from the Heterogeneous plastic
deformation region can be used: only True fracture stress is calculated, marked on the curve
and connected to the remaining of the curve. True fracture stress is calculated by dividing the
Fracture load (Pf) that has been obtained from the curve Load-Elongation to the cross-
sectional area of the specimen that has been measured after the fracture (Af).

3. EQUIPMENTS AND MATERIALS

Tension testing specimens that have been prepared from different materials, universal tension
machines accompanied with hydrolic and servo-hydrolic pressure, strain-gauge and callipers
are used in order to carry out the tension test and investigate the results.

4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Four different applications are carried out relating the tension test of metallic materials.

4.1.Evaluation of the Mechanical Properties of Different Materials

In this test, specimens that have been prepared from different materials in equal shapes and
dimensions according to the related standards are used. The calculated Gage Length are
marked on the surface of the specimen after the calculation of the diameter and/or the cross-
sectional area. A strain-gauge is placed on the surface of the specimen in order to measure the
Avarage linear strain value within the Elastic deformation region precisely. The specimen is
twisted between the jaws of the machine and the test is started by the application of a tension
force which is increased at a constant speed. The load values and the corresponding
elongation values are recorded by the machine during the propogation of the test. After
passing by the Yielding region the test is stopped for a very short period and the strain gauge
is taken out. After that, the test is continued until the failure of the specimen. After the
failure, the required mechanical properties are calculated by the use of the curve “Load-
elongation”.

4.2.Evaluation of the Effect of the Gage Length to the Elongation at Fracture

In this test, a tension testing specimen having a Gage length of 200 mm is prepared and it is
marked by dividing it to 25-mm-long (smaller) Gage lengths. The test is started after twisting
the specimen between the jaws. The test is stopped for a short period when the elongation in
the specimen reaches 5 % of the 200-mm-long Gage length and the elongation of the Gage
length divisions each of which has a length of 25 mm is measured. The test is started again, is
stopped, is started and stopped several times periodically in convenient times until the
specimen breaks and in each step the lengths of the 25-mm-long Gage length divisions are
measured to calculate the elongation. The measurement is also repeated after the failure.
After the test, Avarage linear strain is calculated by using the elongation values obtained
from each 25-mm-long Gage lengths. A graphic is drawn on which the positions of the 25-
mm-long Gage lengths in the specimen are related to the corresponding Avarage per cent
linear strain, for each load value. Additionally, values of “Elongation at fracture” are
visualised corresponding the Gage lengths of 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175 and 200 mm in a
second graphic.

4.3.Effect of Cold Deformation to the Tension Properties

Two tension test specimens which are made of low-carbon steel from the same standard are
prepared. Tension test is applied to one of the specimens after marking the Gage length(s) on
it. On the other hand, after marking the Gage length(s), a load is applied to the other
specimen which has a Yield point over this load. When this load value is reached the tension
machine is stopped, the applied load is removed and the Gage length is measured. After that,
a load that has a value within the homogeneous deformation region is applied to the
specimen. The test is stopped after reaching this load value and, after removing the load,
theGage length is measured. After that, tension testing is applied to the same specimen and
the change in the Yielding region is observed.

4.4.Effect of the Test Temperature to the Mechanical Properties

Three tension testing specimens are prepared from the same low-carbon steel material.
Convenient Gage length measurements are marked on the surfaces of the specimens. One of
the specimens becomes subject to the tension testing at room temperature, while the other
two specimens are tested at different temperatures. The calculated mechanical properties are
compared related to the test temperature.

QUESTIONS

1.) By using the results of Tension Testing that has been carried out in Application 1;

a.) Draw the curve “Load-elongation”.

b.) Draw the curve “Engineering stress-Engineering avarage linear strain”.

c.) Draw the curve “True stress-True avarage linear strain”.

d.) Calculate the values of Yield strength, Tensile strength, Modulus of elasticity, Per cent
elongation at fracture, Per cent reduction at fracture, Resilience and Toughness, including the
values of Engineering and True stress at fracture.

e.) Calculate the superscript of Deformation hardening and the Constant of Strength.

f.) Draw the breaking surfaces schematically and comment about the failure type.

2.) A tension testing specimen that has been prepared of a metallic material is broken at the
maximum load during the tension test. The measured values about the specimen are as
follows:

A0: 150 mm2

L0: 40 mm

Af: 100 mm2

Lf: 60 mm

Calculate the True avarage linear strain at the moment of failure by the help of calculation of
both length and cross-sectional area. Comment about the result.

3.) A metal which is more ductile than the one in Question 2 has been broken during the
tension test after necking. The original Gage length of the specimen is 40 mm and its original
diameter is 12.8 mm. After the failure, the final diameter is measured as 8 mm and the Gage
length is measured as 83 mm. Calculate the requirements mentioned in Question 2 and
compare them with the results that have been found in Question 2. Comment about them.

4.) The graphic that shows the correlation of True stress and True avarage linear strain about
a material is defined as the equation σt=1400 ε0.33. The stress value is presented with MPa.
What is the Tensile strength of this material?

REFERENCES

1. Dieter, G. E., “Mechanical Metallurgy SI Metric Editions”, McGraw-Hill Book

Company, Singapur, 1988.

2. Kayalı, E. S., Ensari, C., Dikeç, F., “Metalik Malzemelerin Mekanik Deneyleri”, ĐTÜ
Kimya Metalurji Fakültesi Ofset Atölyesi, Đstanbul, 1996.

3. Kayalı, E. S., Çimenoğlu, H., “Malzemelerin Yapısı ve Mekanik Davranışları”, ĐTÜ

Kimya-Metalurji Fakültesi Ofset Atölyesi, Đstanbul, 1986.

4. ASM Handbook, “Mechanical Testing” Tenth Ed., ASM, Ohio, 1998.

5. Jastrzebski, Z. D., “The Nature and Properties of Engineering Materials”, John Wiley &
Sons, Singapur, 1987.

6. Bernstein, M. L., Zaimovski, V. A., “Mechanical Properties of Metals”, MIR

Publishers, Moskova, 1983.

7. ASTM E 8M-98 “Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials [Metric]”,
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 03.01, ASTM, 1998.

8. TSE 138, “Metalik Malzemeler–Çekme Deneyi-Ortam Sıcaklığında Deney Metodu”,

Türk Standardları Enstitüsü, Ankara, 1996.

9. Davis, H. E., Troxell, G. E., Wiskocil, C. T., “The Testing and Inspection of
Engineering Materials”, Third Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Tokyo, 1964.

10. Liddicoat, R. T., Potts, P. O., “Laboratory Manual of Materials Testing”, The
Macmillan Company, New York, 1958
 COMPRESSION TESTING OF METALLIC MATERIALS

1. AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT

The compression test is carried out under the conditions of static loading in order to evaluate
the mechanical properties of metallic and non-metallic materials, such as Compressive yield
strength, Compressive strength, Compressive modulus of elasticity, Avarage strain, Increase
in the cross-sectional area.

2. THEORETICAL INFORMATION

The compression test is the opposite of the tension test, in consideration of the application of
the load and its effects on the specimen. The compression test is carried out in universal
devices as well. A compressive load that is increased at a constant speed is applied to the
specimen, which has been placed between the two compression surfaces. While the length of
the specimen continuously decreases its cross-sectional area continuosly increases because of
this load.

Materials that are used where compressive forces are applied are generally brittle materials.
Since compressive strength of metallic materials such as gray cast iron and bearing materials
and non-metallic materials such as brick and concrete is much higher than their tensile
strength (UTS), especially these kinds of materials are used in designs where compressive
forces are applied and they are investigated by the compression test.

The curve Compressive load-Contraction is drawn by the device during the compression test.
This curve is absolutely the same as the curve Load-Elongation which is obtained during the
tension test, while the axis give the Compressive load and the Contraction content which is
caused by this load. The curve Compressive load-Contraction is not used directly in
engineering calculations; the values are transformed to the values of Engineering
compressive strength (σ) and Engineering avarage linear strain (e), just like in tension test.

Compressive strength (σ) is calculated by using the following Equation:

<
$=


Avarage linear compression strain (e) is calculated by using the following Equation:

ℎ − ℎ ∆ℎ
% = . 100 = . 100
ℎ ℎ

Here; σ:Compressive strength

Pi: Compressive load
A0: The original cross-sectional area of the specimen
% e: Avarage per cent linear strain
h0: The original length of the specimen
 hi: The length of the specimen under the effect of Pi load
∆h: The contraction content in the length of the specimen under the effect of Pi load
The original cross-sectional area and the length of the specimen are used for calculating the
values of Stress and Avarage linear strain. The values of Stress and Avarage linear strain
which have been calculated by this way are defined as the values of Engineering stress and
Engineering avarage linear strain. Since the length of the specimen is continuously decreased
while the cross-sectional area of the specimen is continously increased during the
compression test, like in the tension test, the values of True Stress and True Avarage linear
strain are also calculated. Since True stress values are calculated by the way of dividing the
Load by the cross-sectional area of the specimen current at the moment, the curve True
compression strength-True avarage linear strain gives lower values than the curve
Engineering compressive strength-Engineering avarage linear strain, unlike the situation in
the tension test. The values of True stress in the tension test and that in the compression test
are equal, as can be seen in Fig. 2.X. However, about almost all types of materials, the values
of Engineering compressive stress are higher than that of Engineering tensile stress in the
Plastic deformation region.

The True stress in the compression test is calculated by the way of dividing the value of the
Load at any moment by the value of the cross-sectional area in the related moment:

<
$4 =


Here; σt: True compressive stress

Pi: Compressive load at any moment

Ai: Cross-sectional area of the specimen at the moment when Pi load is applied

The relationship between True stress and Engineering stress-Engineering avarage linear strain
can be written down by using the following equation:

$4 = $! 1 + 

Here; σt: True compressive stress

σe: Engineering compressive stress

e: Engineering avarage compression linear strain

Nevertheless, it must be noted that the value of Engineering avarage compression linear strain
is negative.

The relationship between True avarage linear strain and Engineering avarage linear strain,
like in the tension test, can be written down by using the following equation:

= = ln1 + 
Again, it must be noted that the value of Engineering avarage compression linear strain is
negative.

Here; ε: True avarage compression linear strain

e: Engineering avarage compression linear strain

2.1.Mechanical Properties Evaluated by the Compression Test

Compressive Yield Strength:

It is calculated by dividing the Load of Compressive Yield by the original cross-sectional

area of the specimen:

<JK
$JK =


Here; σcy: Compressive yield strength

Pcy: Load of compressive yield

A0: Original cross-sectional area of specimen

The compressive yield strength of the materials which do not present continuous yielding is
calculated as it is done about the tension test. According to this, the Compressive yield
strength is supposed to be the stress value which corresponds the point where a line drawn
parallel to the curve “Elastic stress-strain” starting at the 0.2 % Avarage linear strain value
intersects the curve “Compressive stress-Avarage linear strain”.

The Yield strength of a metal evaluated as a result of the tension test and the Yield strength of
the same metal evaluated as a result of the compression test must be equal.

Compressive Strength:

It is calculated by dividing the Maximum load by the original cross-sectional area of the
specimen:

<LM%
$J =


Here; σc: Compressive strength

Pmax: Maximum load obtained during compression test

A0: Original cross-sectional area of specimen

Modulus of Elasticity:

Modulus of elasticity (E), like in the tension test, is defined as the incline of the elastic
deformation region, which is the first region in the curve “Stress-Avarage linear strain”.
Therefore, the Modulus of elasticity in compression can be calculated by using the equation
below:
$
=

Here; E: Modulus of elasticity in compression
σ: Any stress value in elastic deformation region
e: Value of avarage linear strain corresponding the related stress value

The modulus of elasticity of a metal in tension and compression must be equal since the
values of stress-strain are equal within the elastic deformation regions of the tension and the
compression tests, relating a certain metal.

Average linear strain % (Conglomeration %):

It is the per cent ratio of the contraction in the length of the specimen to the original length.
Since the length of the specimen is continously decreased during the test, the value of
Avarage per cent linear strain is negative. It can also be called “Conglomeration” and can be
calculated as,

ℎ − ℎ ∆ℎ
% = . 100 = . 100
ℎ ℎ

Here; %e: Avarage per cent linear strain (conglomeration %)

h0: original length of specimen before test

hf: length of specimen after fracture

Change in the Cross-Section %:

The change in the cross-section, which is calculated as “the reduction in the cross-section” in
the tension test, is the difference between the cross-sectional area after the fracture and the
original cross-sectional area before the test, divided by the original cross-sectional area.

 − 
NℎO@P Q@ RST'' − 'RUQT@ = . 100


Here; Af: Cross-sectional area after fracture

A0: Original cross-sectional area

2.2.Specimens for the Compression Test

Specimens having a circular cross-section are prepared for the compression test in order to
obtain stress values homogeneously. However, specimens having a square or rectangular
cross-section may be used as well.
There must be a certain ratio between the diameter (d0) and the height (h0) of the specimen. If
V
the ratio is too much, the specimen can be bent or be folded, there will be a great
W
probability of non-homogeneous distribution of the stress, therefore, wrong results will be
V V
obtained. For this reason, the principle ≤ 10 is proposed. On the other hand, the ratio
W W
V V
must not be too small; the principle W ≥ 1.5 is proposed. If the ratio W is smaller than 1.5, the
 
friction that occurs between the surface of the specimen and the planes becomes so large that
V
it affects the results of the test. The principle
W
≥ 2 is the most used one for general
compression specimens. Neverthless, different ratios relating different materials are applied.
V
The ratio =2 is generally applied for metallic materials.
W

The specimen dimensions proposed for the compression test of metallic materials according
to the standard ASTM E9 are shown in Table 2.1. The short dimensions are applied to
evaluate the properties of bearings, the middle-sized dimensions are applied for all metallic
materials generally and the long dimensions are applied to evaluate the modulus of elasticity.

Table 2.1. Compression specimen dimensions which are proposed by the standard ASTM E9.

Specimen shape Diameter (d0), cm Height (h0), cm

Short 2.86 2.54
Middle-length 1.27 3.81
2.03 6.03
2.54 7.62
2.86 8.57
Long 2.03 16.19
3.17 31.72

3. EQUIPMENTS AND MATERIALS

Tensile testing specimen, universal hydraulic-pressure tensile device, calliper, lubricants such
as grease oil and graphite.

4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Compression test is applied to different metallic and non-metallic materials which are
considered brittle and ductile, at room temperature. After the tests, the following work must
be carried out:

A. Evaluation of the Compression Properties of Some Metallic Materials

a) Draw the curve “Load-Contraction”.
b) Draw the curve “Engineering stress-Engineering avarage linear strain”.
c) Draw the curve “True stress-True avarage linear strain”.
d) Calculate the values of Compression yield strength, Compression modulus of
elasticity, Avarage per cent linear strain (conglomeration %), Avarage change in the cross-
sectional area (increase %) and Resilience.
 e) Draw the surface of the breakage schematically and make comments about the type of
the breakage.
B. The Effect of Friction to the Results of the Compression Test
The tests which have been explained in Application 1 are repeated after the lubrication of the
surface of the specimen by using a convenient lubricant. The curve “Stress-Avarage linear
strain” is compared with the one which has been obtained in Application 1.
C. The Effect of Specimen Dimensions to the Results of the Compression Test
Compression test is applied to specimens which have been made of a brittle material and
which have different ratios of height/diameter, with and without lubricants. After the tests
mechanical properties such as Compression yield strength, Compression strength and Per
cent conglomeration are calculated. The change of this mechanical properties with different
ratios of height/diameter is investigated graphically.

REFERENCES

1. Kayalı, E. S., Ensari, C., Dikeç, F., “Metalik Malzemelerin Mekanik Deneyleri”, ĐTÜ
Kimya Metalurji Fakültesi Ofset Atölyesi, Đstanbul, 1996.

2. ASM Handbook, “Mechanical Testing” Tenth Ed., American Society of Metals, Ohio,
1998.

3. Kayalı, E. S., “Malzemelerin Yapısı ve Mekanik Davranışları”, ĐTÜ Kimya -

Metalurji Fakültesi Ofset Atölyesi, Đstanbul, 1986.

4. Jastrzebski, Z. D., “The Nature and Properties of Engineering Materials”, John Wiley &
Sons, Singapur, 1987.

5. Bernstein, M. L., Zaimovski, V. A., “Mechanical Properties of Metals”, MIR

Publishers, Moskova, 1983.

6. Davis, H. E., Troxell, G. E., Wiskocil, C. T., “The Testing and Inspection of
Engineering Materials”, Third Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Tokyo, 1964.

7. Liddicoat, R. T., Potts, P. O., “Laboratory Manual of Materials Testing”, The

Macmillan Company, New York, 1958.

8. ASTM E 9-89a (1995), “Test Methods for Compression Testing of Metallic Materials at
Room Temperature”, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 03.01, American Society for
Testing and Materials, 1995.
 BENDING-FOLDING TEST OF MATERIALS

1. AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT

Bending-folding tests give information about the plastic deformation ability of materials.
Folding test is carried out to obtain qualitative information relating the properties of plastic
deformation and to determine if the metallic parts which must be connected by welding have
been welded properly. Bending test gives qualitative information about deformation ability,
additionally, supplies quantitative values such as Bending strength (σb) and Modulus of
elasticity (Eb).

2. THEORETICAL INFORMATION

The bending, generally, is the process by which a straight length is transformed into a curved
length. It is a very common forming process for changing sheet and plate into channel,
drums, tanks etc. In addition, bending is part of the deformation in many other forming
operations.

The bending test, specifically, is the shaping that occurs when a flat specimen having a
circular or rectangular cross-section is placed horizontally over two supports and a bending
force is applied over the middle point of the specimen. In all of the methods with one
exception, the aim is bending the specimen in one direction until it cracks. The folding is a
special, briefly further situation of the bending where the two “wings” of the specimen
become parallel (180 ° bending). Materials having very high ductility do not present cracks
even if they are folded in 180 °. Different bending and folding equipment have been given in
Figure 2.1.

There are different types of bending tests, such as Forwards-backwards bending test and
Four-point-support bending test. When a force is applied to a specimen during the bending
test, the specimen is in the situation of bending if one part of its cross-section is subject to the
compressive stress and the remaining of the cross-section is subject to the tension stress. As
can be seen in Fig. 2.3., compressive stresses occur in parts that are near the interior surface
while tension stresses occur in parts that are near the exterior surface, within the cross-section
of the specimen in the situation of bending.

Specimens for the bending test are prepared according to national and international standards.
Specimens are generally rods and wires which have circular or rectangular cross-sections.

Bending force (P) and Bending content must be measured precisely while the distance
between the supports must be known in order to calculate the values such as Bending
moment (Mb), Bending strength (σb) Bending content (Y) and Bending Modulus of elasticity
(Eb).

Bending modulus of elasticity (Eb) is obtained by dividing Bending strength (σb) to the
Avarage linear strain (ε) related to the Bending content (Y) about the Bending strength.
Deformation rate concerning the Bending content (Y) can be calculated by using following
formulas:
 <
YZ =
4
Here; Mb: Bending moment (N-m)
P: Applied force (N)
L: Distance between centres of supports (m)
Y\
$Z =
]

Here; σb: Bending stress

M: Bending moment

I: Moment of inertia according to notral axis of specimen

y: distance from notral axis

The maximum stress values that occur on the outermost planes of the specimen are calculated
by using the following formula:

Y. R Y Y
$Z,LM% = = _ =
] `
a

_
Here; ` : Modulus of cross-section OR Moment of strength, also symbolized as Z

I: Moment of inertia

Z: Modulus of cross-section, depends on the geometrical shape of the specimen

The Moment of inertia and the Modulus of the cross-section for specimens which have
circular cross-sections and rectangular cross-sections are calculated by using the following
equations, according to their symmetrical axis.
Db c Db e
For circular cross-section: ] = a=
dE 1#

fg e fg *
For rectangular cross-section: ] = a=
# d

The following formula can be derived if the Bending strength (or the Modulus of rupture) is
validated in the unit of the Bending force:

YZ <LM% 
$Z,LM% = =
a 4a
Here; $Z,LM% : Bending strength (or modulus of rupture), N/m2

L: Distance between centres of supports, m

Z: Modulus of cross-section, m3

Pmax: Force applied to specimen at the moment of rupture, N

 Mb: Moment of bending, N-m

Bending Modulus of Elasticity:

The equation below is obtained if the Bending modulus of elasticity is calculated by the
equation Z = ji .

4. <. 1
kTS 'lRQm@' ℎOnQ@P O RQSRoOS RST'' − 'RUQT@ Z =
3. p. q. GE
<. 1
kTS 'lRQm@' ℎOnQ@P O SRUO@PoOS RST'' − 'RUQT@ Z =
4. q. r. s 1
3. EQUIPMENTS AND MATERIALS

Universal tension machine (can be in different brands and dimensions), bending specimen,
bending-clamping mill, a calliper or micrometer.

4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

The supports are placed on a flat table in the universal tension machine, while the bending-
clamping mill, which can be considered a loading shaft, is placed in the upper part of the
machine. The diameter of the bending-clamping mill and the diameter of the supports are
important in this set up. These values are selected and measured by using callipers before the
test, for conveniency to the properties and the dimensions of the specimen and to the standard
related to this specimen. The distance between the two supports are measured as well. When
the arrangement of the set up is completed the specimen is placed on the supports and it is
starts to be bent by the help of the bending-clamping mill which applies a load on it. After
failure, the maximum load at the moment of breaking (Pmax) and the Bending content, which
is the changing content of the load-application point along the vertical direction during the
test (Y) are collected and saved by the aid of displacement and recording accessories of the
testing device. The values of Bending moment, Bending strength and Bending modulus of
elasticity are derived by using these values.

QUESTIONS

1-Calculate the Bending moment (Mb),the Bending strength (σb) and the Moment of Inertia
(I) which belong to the specimen, after the failure.

2-Draw a graphic which comprises the values of Bending load (y-axis) and the values of
Bending content (x-axis) which correspond them. Calculate the Bending modulus of elasticity
by using this graphic.
REFERENCES

1–KAYALI, E.S., ENSARĐ, C., DĐKEÇ, F., Metalik Malzemelerin Mekanik Deneyl eri,
ĐTÜ. Kimya -Metalurji Fakültesi, Ofset Atölyesi, Đstanbul, 1996

2–ÖZBEK, Tekin., Mukavemet, Birsen Yayınevi

3–ASM Metals Handbook, Vol.8, Bending Testing, Metals Handbook, Mechanical

Testing, Ninth Edition,1978

4–DIETER,G.E., Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill, Second Edition,Singapore, 1977

5–DAVIS,H.E.,TROXELL,G.E., WISKOCIL,C.T., The Testing and Inspection of

Engineering Materials, Third Edition, Mc-Graw Hill-Book Co.,1964

6–LIDDICOAT, R.T., POTTS, P.O., Laboratory Manual of Materials Testing, The

Macmillan Company ,1952

7–TS 205 / Şubat 1977 Metalik Malzemelerin Eğme ve Katlama Deneyleri, TSE

8–TS 6067 / Ekim 1988, Teknoloji Eğme Deneyi, Basınç Alın Kaynağı ile Birleştirilmiş ve
Kaynakla Kaplanmış Metalik Malzemeler Đçin, TSE

9–TS 281 / Mayıs 1989, Teknolojik Eğme Deneyi, Ergitme Kaynağı ile Kaplanmış Metalik
Malzeme Đçin, TSE

10–Bernstein, M.L., Zaimovsky, V.A., Mechanical Properties of Metals, Mir

Publishers, Moscow, 1983