L3 - Failure Theories

FAILURE THEORIES
INTRODUCTION
• “Failure” is the first word in the chapter title.
Why do parts fail????

• Question has occupied scientists and
engineers for centuries
• Failure mechanism was unknown even a few
decades ago
• Measuring techniques and modern tools
INTRODUCTION
• Decisions depend on relations between

strength and static loading
• Decisions leads to
– Material and its treatment
– Fabrication and Geometry
• Satisfying the requirements of functionality, safety,
reliability, competitiveness, usability, manufacturability,
and marketability
Meaning of Failure
• Failure can mean
– A part has separated into two or more pieces
– Become permanently distorted, thus ruining its
geometry
– Its reliability downgraded
– Its function compromised
• A designer speaking of failure can mean any
or all of these possibilities.
Focus of the Failure theories
• Predictability of permanent distortion or
separation.
• In strength-sensitive situations the designer
must separate mean stress and mean
strength at the critical location sufficiently to
accomplish his or her purposes.
Types of loading
Constant loads Time-varying load

Stationary Elements Class 1 Class 2
Moving Elements Class 3 Class 4
Class-1 System
• Stationary system with constant loads
• Example: Base frame for an arbour press used in a
machine shop
Static load analysis is necessary

Class-2 System
• Stationary system with time varying loads
• Example: Bridge
Dynamic load analysis is necessary
Class-3 System
• Moving system with constant loads
• Example: Powered rotary lawn mower
• Blade experience a nearly constant external loads
from mowing the grass.
• Exception: Case of mowing the occasional rock
Class-4 System
• General case of a rapidly moving system subjected
to time varying loads.
• If the applied external loads are essentially constant
in a given case, the dynamic loads developed on the
elements from their accelerations will still vary with
time.
• Example: Most machinery, especially if powered by
a motor or engine will be this kind of loading
Dynamic load analysis is necessary
Static Load
• A static load is a stationary force or couple applied to a
member.
• Load cannot change in any manner
• To be stationary, the force or couple must be
unchanging in magnitude, point or points of
application, and direction.
• A static load can produce
Axial tension or compression
Shear load
Bending load
Torsional load
Any combination of these
Examples of failed part
Failure of a truck drive-shaft spline Direct end view

due to corrosion fatigue
Static Strength test
• Design Practice:
– Many strength tests results of the particular material are to
be considered.
• Condition of test specimens having same
– Heat treatment, surface finish, and size as the element as
used in the design
– Loading conditions as the part will experience in service.
Meaning of test
• If the part is to experience a bending load
– Tested with a bending load.
• If it is to be subjected to combined bending and torsion

– Tested under combined bending and torsion.
• If it is made of heat-treated AISI 1040 steel drawn at

500°C with a ground finish, the specimens tested should
be of the same material prepared in the same manner.
Such tests will provide very useful and precise information.

Design categories
• Elaborate testing program
– Failure of the part would endanger human life or the part is
made in extremely large quantities
• Moderate test series
– Part is made in large enough quantities that a moderate series
of tests is feasible.
• The part is made in such small quantities that testing is
not justified at all; or the design must be completed so
rapidly that there is not enough time for testing.
• The part has already been designed, manufactured, and
tested and found to be unsatisfactory. Analysis is
required to understand why the part is unsatisfactory
and what to do to improve it.
Questions in failure theories
• If the failure mechanism is simple, then
simple tests can give clues. Just what is
simple?
• The tension test is uniaxial (that’s simple)

and elongations are largest in the axial
direction, so strains can be measured and
stresses inferred up to “failure.” Just what is
important: a critical stress, a critical strain, a
critical energy?
Classification of material related to
failure theories
• Structural metal behavior is typically classified
– Ductile
– Brittle
– Special situations, a material normally considered
ductile can fail in a brittle manner
• Ductile materials are normally
– ε ≥ 0.05
– Exhibit identifiable yield strength
– Yield strength often the same in compression as in
tension(S = S = S )
Classification of material related to
failure theories
• Brittle materials
– ε < 0.05
– Do not exhibit an identifiable yield strength,
and are typically classified by ultimate tensile
and compressive strengths, S and S ,
respectively (where S is given as a positive
quantity).
Accepted failure theories
Ductile materials (yield criteria)
Maximum shear stress (MSS)

Distortion energy (DE)
Ductile Coulomb-Mohr (DCM)
Accepted failure theories
Brittle materials (fracture criteria)
Maximum normal stress (MNS)

Brittle Coulomb-Mohr (BCM)
Modified Mohr (MM)
Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory for
Ductile Materials
Statement:
The maximum-shear-stress theory predicts that yielding
begins whenever the maximum shear stress in any element
equals or exceeds the maximum shear stress in a tension test
specimen of the same material when that specimen begins
to yield.
• The MSS theory is also referred to as the

Tresca or Guest theory.
Tensile test for Ductile Materials
• Test specimen or a bar is subjected to tension
– Slip lines (called Lüder lines) form at approximately 45°
with the axis of the strip.
– Slip lines are the beginning of yield.
• When loaded to fracture
– Fracture lines at angles approximately 45° with the axis
of tension.
• Since the shear stress is maximum at 45° from the
axis of tension, it makes sense to think that this is
the mechanism of failure.
Tensile test for Ductile Materials
For simple tensile stress,
σ = P/A,
Maximum shear stress occurs on a surface 45° from
the tensile surface
=
So the maximum shear stress at yield is
=
2
Ductile Materials
• For a general state of stress, three principal stresses
can be determined and ordered such that ≥ ≥
.
• The maximum shear stress is then
−
=
2
• Thus, for a general state of stress, the maximum-
shear-stress theory predicts yielding when
= ≥
• Note that this implies that the yield strength in shear
is given by
=0.5
Ductile Materials
• For design purposes, equations can be

modified to incorporate a factor of safety n.
Thus, =
or
− =
Ductile Materials (Plane stress)
• Plane stress problems are very common
• One of the principal stresses is zero, and the
other two, and
+ 1
, = ± ( − ) +
2 4
• Assuming that ≥ , there are three cases
to consider for plane stress:
Ductile Materials (Plane stress)
• Case 1: ≥ ≥ 0. For this case, = and
= 0. Equation reduces to a yield condition of
≥
• Case 2: ≥ 0≥ . Here, = and = ,
and Equation becomes
- ≥
• Case 3: 0≥ ≥ . For this case, = 0 and =
, and Equation gives
≤−
Ductile Materials
• Three Equations are represented
in Figure by the three lines
indicated in the , plane.
• The remaining unmarked lines are

cases for ≥ , which are not
normally used.
• Convert to design equations by

substituting equality for the equal
to or greater sign and dividing
by n.
Ductile Materials
• Note that = is sufficient for design purposes provided the
designer is careful in determining .
• For plane stress, the following does not always predict .
1
, =± ( − ) +
4
• However, consider the special case when one normal stress is
zero in the plane, say and have values and = 0. It can be
easily shown that this is a Case 2 problem, and the shear stress
determined by above is .
• Shaft design problems typically fall into this category where a
normal stress exists from bending and/or axial loading, and a shear
stress arises from torsion.
Distortion-Energy Theory for Ductile
Materials
Statement:
The distortion-energy theory predicts that yielding occurs when the
distortion strain energy per unit volume reaches or exceeds the
distortion strain energy per unit volume for yield in simple tension or
compression of the same material.
 The distortion-energy (DE) theory originated from the observation

that ductile materials stressed hydrostatically exhibited yield
strengths greatly in excess of the values given by the simple tension
test.
 Therefore it was postulated that yielding was not a simple tensile

or compressive phenomenon at all, but, rather, that it was related
somehow to the angular distortion of the stressed element.
Materials
Unit volume subjected to any three-dimensional stress
state designated by the stresses , , and .
Materials
+ +
=
3
Element in Figure(b) undergoes pure volume change,
that is, no angular distortion.
Materials
If we regard as a component of , , and , then this

component can be subtracted from them, resulting in the stress
state shown in Figure(c) . This element is subjected to pure
angular distortion, that is, no volume change.
Materials
The strain energy per unit volume for simple tension is
1
=
2
For the element of Figure(a) the strain energy per unit volume is
1
= ( + + )
2
Materials
Substituting for the principal strains in the previous equations
gives
1
= ( + + )
2
= [ − ( + )]
=?
=?
=?
u= [ + + −2 + + ]
Materials
The strain energy for producing only volume change can be

obtained by substituting for , and in Equation. The result is
3
= (1 − 2 )
2
If we now substitute the square of in the above equation and

simplify the expression, we get
= ( + + +2 +2 +2 )
Materials
Then the distortion energy is obtained by subtracting
1+ − + − + −
= − =
3 2
Note that the distortion energy is zero if = = .
For the simple tensile test, at yield, = and = =0
The distortion energy is

1+
=
3
Materials
So for the general state of stress given, yield is predicted if
/
− + − + −
≥
2
Von Mises stress
 If we had a simple case of tension σ, then yield would occur when σ ≥ .
Thus, the left of equation mentioned in the previous slide can be thought
of as a single, equivalent, or effective stress for the entire general state of
stress given by , , and .
 This effective stress is usually called the von Mises stress, σ′, named after
Dr. R. von Mises, who contributed to the theory.
 Thus equation mentioned in the previous slide, for yield, can be written as
≥
where the von Mises stress is
/
=
Materials
 For plane stress, let and be the two
nonzero principal stresses. Then from von
Mises stress, we get
= − + /
 Equation mentioned above is a rotated

ellipse in the , plane, as shown in
Figure with = .
 The dotted lines in the figure represent the

MSS theory, which can be seen to be more
restrictive, hence, more conservative
Materials
Using xyz components of three-dimensional stress, the von
Mises stress can be written as
1 /
= − + − + − + 6( + + )
2
and for plane stress,

=???
=( − + +3 )
/
Other names of Distortion-Energy
Theory
Von Mises or von Mises–Hencky theory
Shear-energy theory
Octahedral-shear-stress theory
Octahedral shear stress Theory
 Understanding octahedral shear stress will shed
some light on why the MSS is conservative.
 Consider an isolated element in which the

normal stresses on each surface are equal to
the hydrostatic stress .
 There are eight surfaces symmetric to the

principal directions that contain this stress. This
forms an octahedron as shown in Figure.
 The shear stresses on these surfaces are equal

and are called the octahedral shear stresses
(only one of the octahedral surfaces labeled).
1
= ( − ) +( − ) +( − )
3
Statement:
Under the name of the octahedral-shear-stress theory, failure is assumed to
occur whenever the octahedral shear stress for any stress state equals or
exceeds the octahedral shear stress for the simple tension-test specimen at
failure.
As before, on the basis of the tensile test results, yield occurs when =
and = = 0.
From Equation mentioned in the previous slides, the octahedral shear stress
under this condition is
2
=
3
When, for the general stress case, is equal or

greater than tensile test results, yield is
predicted.
This reduces to
/
− + − + −
2
≥
Design equation Octahedral shear
stress
This equation can be expressed as a design equation
by
=
Widely used theory
The distortion-energy theory predicts
 No failure under hydrostatic stress
 Agrees well with all data for ductile behavior
Hence, it is the most widely used theory for ductile materials and is
recommended for design problems unless otherwise specified.
Final note concerns the shear yield
strength
 Consider a case of pure shear , where for plane stress = = 0.
For yield,
/
Von Mises stress =( − + +3 )
/
(3 ) =
= =0.577
Thus, the shear yield strength predicted by the distortion-energy theory is
= 0.577
 About 15 percent greater than the 0.5 predicted by the MSS theory.
Final note concerns the shear yield
strength
 For pure shear, the principal
stresses from equation of Mohrs circle
are = - = .
 The load line for this case is in the third

quadrant at an angle of 45 degree from
the , axes shown in Figure.
Example-1
A hot-rolled steel has a yield strength of = = 700 MPa and a true
strain at fracture of = 0.55. Estimate the factor of safety for the
following principal stress states state:
(a) 490, 490, 0 MPa.

(b) 210, 490, 0 MPa.
(c) 0, 490, −210 MPa.
(d) 0, −210, −490 MPa .
(e) 210, 210, 210 MPa.
Example-1
Solution:
Since > 0.05 and and are equal, the material is ductile and the
distortion energy (DE) theory applies. The maximum-shear-stress (MSS) theory
will also be applied and compared to the DE results. Note that cases a to d are
plane stress states.
(a) The ordered principal stresses are = = 490, = = 490, = 0 MPa.
From distortion energy, von Mises stress
/
= [490 −490(490)+490 ] = 490 MPa
700
Answer n= = 490 =1.43
MSS Case 1, with a factor of safety,
700
Answer n= = 490 =1.43
Example-1
Solution:
(b)
The ordered principal stresses are = = 490, = = 210, =0
MPa.
/
using DE = [490 −490(210)+210 ] = 426 MPa
Answer n= = = 1.64
σ′
MSS Case 1,
Answer n = = = 1.43
Example-1
Solution:
(c)
The ordered principal stresses are = = 490, = 0, = = -210
MPa
/
using DE = [490 −490(−210)+(−210) ] = 622
MPa
Answer n= = = 1.13
σ′
MSS Case 2,
Answer n = = =1
( )
Example-1
Solution:
(d)
The ordered principal stresses are = 0, = = -210, = = -490
MPa.
/
using DE = [(−490) −(−490)(−210)+(−210) ] = 426
MPa
Answer n= = = 1.64
σ′
MSS Case 3,
Answer n = - = - = 1.43
Example-1
Solution:
(e)
The ordered principal stresses are = 210, = 210, = 210 Mpa .
/
using DE = [(210−210) +(210−210) +(210−210) ] =0
Mpa
Answer n= = =∞
σ′
MSS
Answer n = = =∞
Coulomb-Mohr Theory for Ductile
Materials
 All materials do not have compressive strengths equal to
their corresponding tensile values.
 For example, the yield strength of magnesium alloys in compression
may be as little as 50 percent of their yield strength in tension.
 The ultimate strength of gray cast irons in compression varies from 3
to 4 times greater than the ultimate tensile strength.
 Focus
 Theories that can be used to predict failure for materials whose
strengths in tension and compression are not equal.
Materials
 Historically, the Mohr theory of failure dates to 1900, a date that is
relevant to its presentation.
 There were no computers, just slide rules, compasses, and French

curves. Graphical procedures, common then, are still useful today for
visualization.
 The idea of Mohr is based on three simple tests:

 Tension
 Compression
 Shear
 The test are conducted up to yielding if the material can yield, or to
rupture.
 It is easier to define shear yield strength as than it is to test for it.
Materials
 The practical difficulties aside, Mohr’s hypothesis was to use
the results of tensile, compressive, and torsional shear tests
 Construct the three circles of Figure defining a failure envelope,
depicted as line ABCDE in the figure, above the axis.
 The failure envelope need not be straight.
 The argument amounted to the three Mohr circles describing
the stress state in a body growing during loading until one of
them became tangent to the failure envelope, thereby defining
failure.
 Was the form of the failure envelope straight, circular, or
quadratic?
 A compass or a French curve defined the failure envelope.
Materials
• A variation of Mohr’s theory, called the Coulomb-Mohr theory or the
internal-friction theory, assumes that the boundary BCD shown in figure is
straight.
• With this assumption only the tensile and compressive strengths are
necessary. Consider the conventional ordering of the principal stresses such
that ≥ ≥ .
• The largest circle connects and , as shown in Figure.
• The centers of the circles in Figure are , , and .
• Triangles are similar, therefore
= , = , =
Materials
−
− −
2 2 = 2 2
+
− +
2 2 2 2
Cross-multiplying and simplifying reduces
this equation to
− =1
where either yield strength or ultimate

strength can be used.
Materials
For plane stress, when the two nonzero principal stresses are ≥ , we
have a situation similar to the three cases given for the MSS theory .
− =1
 Case 1: ≥ ≥ 0. For this case, = and = 0. Equation reduces to

a failure condition of
≥
 Case 2: ≥ 0≥ . Here, = and = , and Equation becomes
− ≥1
 Case 3: 0≥ ≥ . For this case, = 0 and = , and Equation gives

≤−
Materials
• A plot of these cases, together with the normally unused cases
corresponding to ≥ , is shown in Figure.
• For design equations, incorporating the factor of safety n, divide all

strengths by n. For example, equation derived earlier as a design equation
can be written as
1
− =
Materials
• Since for the Coulomb-Mohr theory we do not need the torsional shear
strength circle we can deduce it from equation.
For pure shear , =− =
• The torsional yield strength occurs when = . Substituting =−

= into equation
− =1
and simplifying gives
=
+
Example-2
A 25-mm-diameter shaft is statically torqued to 230 N·m. It is made of cast
195-T6 aluminum, with a yield strength in tension of 160 MPa and a yield
strength in compression of 170 MPa. It is machined to final diameter.
Estimate the factor of safety of the shaft.
Example-2
Solution:
The maximum shear stress is given by
( )
= = =75MPa
[ ]
The two nonzero principal stresses are 75 and −75 MPa,
making the ordered principal
Stresses = 75, = 0, = -75 Mpa . For yield,
1
− =
= = =1.1
( ) ( )
Example-2
Solution:
Alternatively
( )
= = =82.4MPa
and = 75 MPa.
= =1.1
Failure of Ductile Materials Summary
• Marin collected data from many sources
• Either the maximum-shear-stress theory
or the distortion-energy theory is
acceptable for design and analysis of
materials that would fail in a ductile
manner.
• For design purposes the maximum-
shear-stress theory is easy, quick to use,
and conservative.
• If the problem is to learn why a part
failed, then the distortion-energy theory
may be the best to use.
• For ductile materials with unequal yield
strengths, in tension and in
compression, the Mohr theory is the best
available.
Example-3
This example illustrates the use of a failure theory
to determine the strength of a mechanical
element or component. The example may also
clear up any confusion existing between the
phrases strength of a machine part, strength of a
material, and strength of a part at a point.
A certain force F applied at D near the end of the
380mm lever shown in the Figure, which is quite
similar to a socket wrench, results in certain
stresses in the cantilevered bar OABC. This bar
(OABC) is of AISI 1035 steel, forged and heat-
treated so that it has a minimum (ASTM) yield
strength of 560 MPa. We presume that this
component would be of no value after yielding.
Thus the force F required to initiate yielding can
be regarded as the strength of the component
part. Find this force.
Example-3
Solution:
We will assume that lever DC is strong enough and
hence not a part of the problem. A 1035 steel, heat-
treated, will have a reduction in area of 50 percent or
more and hence is a ductile material at normal
temperatures. This also means that stress
concentration at shoulder A need not be considered.
A stress element at A on the top surface will be
subjected to a tensile bending stress and a torsional
stress. This point, on the 25 mm diameter section, is
the weakest section, and governs the strength of the
assembly. The two stresses are
Example-4
The cantilevered tube shown in Figure is to be made of
2014 aluminum alloy treated to obtain a specified
minimum yield strength of 276 MPa. We wish to select
a stock-size tube from Table using a design factor =
4. The bending load is = 1.75 , the axial tension
is P = 9.0 kN, and the torsion is T = 72 N·m. What is the
realized factor of safety?
Example-3
.
= = = 4.57
.
Example-4
Solution:
Since the maximum bending moment is M =
120F, the normal stress, for an element on the
top surface of the tube at the origin, is
9 120(1.75)( )
= + = + 2 = 9 + 105
/
where, if millimeters are used for the area
properties, the stress is in giga pascals.
Example-4
Solution:
The torsional stress at the same point is
( )
= = =
For accuracy, we choose the distortion-energy
theory as the design basis. The von Mises
stress, as in the previous example, is
Von Mises stress =( +3 ) /
Example-4
Solution:
On the basis of the given design factor, the goal for
is
.
≤ = =0.0690
where we have used giga pascals in this relation to
agree with Eqs. and .
• Programming first three equation on a spreadsheet
and entering metric sizes from Table reveals that a 42
× 5mm tube is satisfactory. The von Mises stress is
found to be = 0.06043 GPa for this size. Thus the
realized factor of safety is
.
= = = 4.57
.
Example-4
Solution:
For the next size smaller, a 42 × 4mm tube,
= 0.07105 GPa giving a factor of safety of
.
= = = 3.88
.
Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory
for Brittle Materials
Statement:
Failure occurs whenever one of the three principal stresses
equals or exceeds the strength.
Let the principal stresses for a general stress state in the

ordered form ≥ ≥ .
This theory then predicts that failure occurs whenever
≥
Or
≤−
and are the ultimate tensile and compressive
strengths and considered as positive quantity.
for Brittle Materials
Plain stress:
Let the principal stresses for plain stress ≥ .
≥
Or
≤−
(Design equations)
Plain stress:
Let the principal stresses for plain stress ≥ .
≥
Or
≤−
(Design equations)
Plain stress:
Consider two sets of equations for load lines where ≥
= ≥ ≥0 Load Line 1
≥0≥ and ≤ Load Line 2
=− ≥0≥ Load Line 3
0≥ ≥ and > Load Line 4

(Load lines)
Plain stress:
Brittle-Coulomb-Mohr (BCM) theory
• Two modifications of the Mohr theory for brittle materials:
the Brittle- Coulomb-Mohr (BCM) theory and the modified
Mohr (MM) theory.
• The equations provided for the theories will be restricted
to plane stress and be of the design type incorporating the
factor of safety.
Brittle-Coulomb-Mohr (BCM) theory
 Case 1: ≥ ≥ 0. Design equation becomes
=
 Case 2: ≥ 0≥ . Design equation becomes
1
− =
 Case 3: 0≥ ≥ . Equation gives

=−
Modified Mohr theory for brittle
Material
 Case 1:. Design equation becomes
= ≥ ≥0
≥0≥ and ≤1
 Case 2: Design equation becomes
( )
− = ≥ 0≥ and >1
 Case 3: Equation gives

=− 0≥ ≥
Material
• Data are still outside this extended region.
• The straight line introduced by the modified Mohr theory,
for ≥ 0≥ and > 1 can be replaced by a parabolic
relation which can more closely represent some of the
data
• However, this introduces a nonlinear equation for the sake
of a minor correction, and will not part of the discussion.
Material
Biaxial of gray cast iron compared with various failure criteria

Example-5
Consider the wrench in Example 4, shown in
figure, as made of cast iron, machined to
dimension. The force F required to fracture this
part can be regarded as the strength of the
component part. If the material is ASTM grade
30 cast iron, find the force F with
(a)Coulomb-Mohr failure model.
(b)Modified Mohr failure model.

Example-5
We assume that the lever DC is strong enough, and not
part of the problem.
Grade 30 cast iron is a brittle material and cast iron, the
stress-concentration factors and are set to unity.
From Table, the tensile ultimate strength is 210 MPa
and the compressive ultimate strength is 750MPa. The
stress element at A on the top surface will be subjected
to a tensile bending stress and a torsional stress. This
location, on the 1-in diameter section fillet, is the
weakest location, and it governs the strength of the
assembly. The normal stress and the shear stress at
A are given by
Example-5
Solution:
( . )
σ =K =K =(1) =231424F
/ [ . ]
( . )
τ =K =K =(1) =123860F
[ . ]
Nonzero principal stresses σ and σ are
σ ,σ
231424F + 0 1
= ± (231424F − 0) +(123860F )
2 4
Example-5
Solution:
, = 285213F, −53789F
This puts us in the fourth-quadrant of the ,
plane.
Example-5
Solution:
(a)
For BCM, with n = 1 for failure.
1
− =
285213F (−53789F )
− = − =1
210 × 10 750 × 10
F=699N
Example-5
Solution:
(b) For MM, the slope of the load line is =

33.2
=0.189 < 1.
175.8
285213F
= =1
×
F=736N
As one would expect from inspection Coulomb-
Mohr is more conservative.
Example-5
Solution:
, = 285213F, −53789F
This puts us in the fourth-quadrant of the ,
plane.
Failure of Brittle Materials Summary
Brittle materials have true strain at
fracture is 0.05 or less.
• In the first quadrant the data appear on
both sides and along the failure curves of
maximum-normal-stress, Coulomb-Mohr,
and modified Mohr. All failure curves are
the same, and data fit well.
• In the fourth quadrant the modified
Mohr theory represents the data best.
• In the third quadrant the points A, B, C,
and D are too few to make any
suggestion concerning a fracture locus.
Selection of Failure Criteria
THANK YOU
95

L3 - Failure Theories

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FAILURE THEORIES

Why do parts fail????

• Decisions depend on relations between

Constant loads Time-varying load

Static load analysis is necessary

Failure of a truck drive-shaft spline Direct end view

• If it is to be subjected to combined bending and torsion

• If it is made of heat-treated AISI 1040 steel drawn at

Such tests will provide very useful and precise information.

• The tension test is uniaxial (that’s simple)

Ductile materials (yield criteria)

Maximum shear stress (MSS)

Maximum normal stress (MNS)

• The MSS theory is also referred to as the

• For design purposes, equations can be

• The remaining unmarked lines are

• Convert to design equations by

 The distortion-energy (DE) theory originated from the observation

 Therefore it was postulated that yielding was not a simple tensile

If we regard as a component of , , and , then this

The strain energy for producing only volume change can be

If we now substitute the square of in the above equation and

Note that the distortion energy is zero if = = .

For the simple tensile test, at yield, = and = =0

The distortion energy is

where the von Mises stress is

 Equation mentioned above is a rotated

 The dotted lines in the figure represent the

and for plane stress,

 Consider an isolated element in which the

 There are eight surfaces symmetric to the

 The shear stresses on these surfaces are equal

When, for the general stress case, is equal or

Thus, the shear yield strength predicted by the distortion-energy theory is

 The load line for this case is in the third

(a) 490, 490, 0 MPa.

MSS Case 1, with a factor of safety,

 There were no computers, just slide rules, compasses, and French

 The idea of Mohr is based on three simple tests:

where either yield strength or ultimate

 Case 1: ≥ ≥ 0. For this case, = and = 0. Equation reduces to

 Case 3: 0≥ ≥ . For this case, = 0 and = , and Equation gives

• For design equations, incorporating the factor of safety n, divide all

For pure shear , =− =

• The torsional yield strength occurs when = . Substituting =−

Let the principal stresses for a general stress state in the

≥0≥ and ≤ Load Line 2

=− ≥0≥ Load Line 3

0≥ ≥ and > Load Line 4

 Case 3: 0≥ ≥ . Equation gives

 Case 3: Equation gives

Biaxial of gray cast iron compared with various failure criteria

(a)Coulomb-Mohr failure model.

(b)Modified Mohr failure model.

(b) For MM, the slope of the load line is =

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