Syllabus

• The final course grade is 𝐺 = 0.2𝐿 + 0.8(max(𝐸, 0.9𝐸 + 𝐻 + 𝐴))

o L à lab grade
o E à exam grade (should be higher or equal to 5)
o H à homework which can give up to 0.5 bonus points (attendance + sufficient
homework grade)
o A à assessments on the tutorials (small tests and only the highest 3 out of 4
count)
Preparation for lab sessions
• Preparations need to be handed in before 13:00 (6:00 in MX) on the Sunday before
the lab session takes place
• The final report need to be handled at 23:59 (16:59 in MX) on the Thursday next week
after the lab session takes place
• All files that are handed in via Nestor (preparations and reports) need to be in PDF
and edited in the computer (no pictures or handwritten work are allowed)
• Your group is PTL 3
Lab sessions
1. Materials Engineering
• Measurement of mechanical properties of metals by tensile testing
• Consequences for production techniques
• Chapter 2 of Kalpakjian
• Instructor: Dr. Diego Gomes
2. Machining
• Knowledge how to machine products by turning and milling
• Able to calculate necessary parameters for turning and milling
• Get a general idea of processing time and costs
• Chapter 21-25
• Instructor: Marnick de Wolf
3. Rolling
• Measure / calculate strain, flow stress, forces and power in the rolling process
• Relate change in material properties and microstructure to the rolling process
• hardness measurement, microscopy
• Chapter 13
• Instructor: Dr. Diego Gomes

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Tutorial sessions

• To get the bonus point hand in 10 out of the 11 homework on time

• Tutorials are only for questions and discussion
• During the tutorials there are 4 assessments which are part of the final exam
• There’s a maximum of 2 tutorials per week
Exam material
The exam material comprises the theory discussed in the lectures and the supporting
chapters 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 from the book Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
Materials by Kalpakjian and Schmid (5th edition).

Schedule Overview

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What is manufacturing?
¤ Manufacturing à the process of converting raw materials int o products
• Complex activity involving skilled people and a wide variety of machinery & tools with
various levels of automation and controls
• Fully meet design specifications & standards to produce in an optimal way
Discrete manufacturing vs process manufacturing
¤ Discrete manufacturing à a technical term for the production of finished
products that consists of distinct parts
• In theory, a discrete product can be dissembled at the end of its lifecycle
o Ex. smartphones, car, computers, etc.
¤ Process manufacturing (products) à created by using a reaction formula
or recipe to refine raw ingredients
o Process products cannot be broken down to their basic components
o Ex. medicines, beverage, steels, etc.
• The scope of the course is mainly discrete manufacturing!

Realization process of a product

Design Phase
• Selection of materials
• Selection of manufacturing process (what goes first? How are the pieces joining to
be joined together?)
• Properties that are relevant in the design phase:
1. Material properties, performance of processed parts
2. Production rate & efficiency
3. Cost (material cost, equipment investment, process cost)

3
Design Triangle
Design for manufacture integrates product design process with materials selection,
manufacturing methods, process planning, assembly, and quality assurance.

Production Process
Key group of discrete production techniques
• Machining processes Ch. 21-25
• Bulk deformation Ch. 13-15
• Sheet metal forming Ch. 16
• Casting Ch. 10-12
• Material-removal (grinding, …) Ch. 26-27
• Relation to materials: machinability, formability, costability, weldability, … of
engineering materials Ch. 2-3

Ch 2: Mechanical behavior, Testing and Manufacturing

Properties of Materials

Introduction
Many manufacturing processes are based on plastic deformation with the use of forces.
Some of the mechanisms used are the following:
¤ Forging à make or shape (a metal object) by heating it in a fire or furnace
and hammering it.
¤ Rolling à process of reducing the thickness or changing the cross section
of a long workpiece by compressive forces applied through a set of rolls
¤ Extrusion à process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile.
A material is pushed through a die of the desired cross-section.
¤ Sheet bending à forming of sheet metal by application of force, which
exerts pressure on a certain length of material either at a certain point or
linear as an evenly distributed weight.

4
 ¤ Machining à processes remove material from the workpiece by producing
chips. Sharp tool (chisel) moves along the workpiece and remove material
by chips. Tool can have all kind of shapes (e.g. drill)

Stress
+,-./
• 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
0-/0
[N/m2]
23
o Normal stress 𝜎 =
45

2∥
o Shear stress 𝜏 =
45

• As an example, we can say that it is a punching process

Engineering Strain
¤ Strain à relative change in the length that results from applied stress (it
is dimensionless)
Example
• Square rod
• Assume P = 100 [N]
= ± 10 [kg] on the square rod (always use Newtons!)
• Assume thickness = 10 [mm] preferred units!
=> A0= d2 = 100 [mm2] = 100*10-6 [m2]
• σ = P/A0
= 100/ 100*10-6 = 1*106 [Pa] = 1 [MPa]
= 1.0 [N/mm2]
= 100 [N/cm2]

8
The engineering strain has the following formula à 𝑒 =
85
There are three types of strain:

• Tension

𝒍
𝒆=
𝒍𝟎

𝑙
• Compression
𝑒=
𝑙=

5
 • Shearing

𝑎
o Shearing strain
𝛾=
𝑏

Poisson’s ratio aka Transverse strain

¤ Transverse strain à stretching causes object not only to

(EFE5 )
become longer but also thinner and thicker when shortening
/BB HE
It is expressed using the Poisson’s ration à 𝜐 = = (8F85 )
5
/CC H8
5

Tensile testing
¤ Tensile testing à is a standard test to measure stress-strain characteristics
of materials in which a sample is subjected into a controlled tension until
failure (it pulls the material and it elongates until it breaks)

Stress-strain curve
Elastic region
• When stress is removed, deformation vanishes
as well
• Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity is
the linear relation between the stress and
strain
o It can be calculates via Hooke’s law
𝐸 = J [Pa]
I

o It is the slope, a measure of stiffness

• The elastic region is limited/restricted by the
Yield stress Y

6
 Poisson’s ratio for metals: 𝝊 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓 therefore, volume does not
¤ The ratio between the transverse strain and longitudinal strain a.k.a

stay the same

Plastic region
• Plastic deformation = permanent deformation
o When stress is removed à plastic strain remains and the elastic strain will
finish
• Yield stress Y = transformation from elastic to plastic
o Defined by plastic deformation of 0.2% (strain=0.002)
o After removal of load, 0.2% deformation remains

Volume of a metal part stays the same in the plastic region à 𝝊 = 𝟎. 𝟓

• Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) = max. stress relative to initial section (A0)
•
Necking
• Occurs after the UTS (point M), it starts to quickly become longer and very thin until
it breaks (point of fracture in the curve)
Fracture
• After reaching UTS, a diminished load is needed for increased strain.
• A sudden increase in strain is the consequence of rapid local thinning and lengthening
= necking.
• Fracture strain = strain at which rupture takes place
Properties in stress-strain curve
¤ Ductility à deformable (plastic), fracture strain can serve as measure
§ Ductile à fracture strain significantly larger than max elastic
strain (much permanent deformation) a lot of deformation is
possible
§ Brittle à fracture strain mainly elastic (little permanent
deformation)
¤ Toughness à area under stress-strain curve , the energy needed to be

J
• 𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = ∫= Y 𝜎𝑑𝜀 [N/m2]
applied to the material until fracture occurs

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Mechanical Properties of various materials

Table 2.2- pg. 58

True Stress
So far we have discussed the
2
engineering stress: 𝜎/Z[ =
•

45
The true stress is the actual area A
2
which is not constant: 𝜎\-]/ =
•

True strain
𝑙 − 𝑙,
• So far we have discussed the engineering strain with constant initial length l0:

𝑒=
𝑙=

𝑑𝑙^ 𝑑𝑙` 𝑑𝑙a

• For true strain we calculate the actual initial length for each small length change:

𝜀= + + +⋯
𝑙= 𝑙^ 𝑙`

We need to divide the true strain into small

steps, with a changed initial length each
time and therefore we obtain

8
 8 E8 8
𝜀 = ∫8 = ln e8 f definition of true strain!
5 8 5

• Importance: large, plastic deformation require true stress and strain

• Advantages:
o True strain can be summed up (engineering strain cannot)
o True strain better matches reality (especially for large strain)

Relation between engineering and true strain

8F8g 8 8
𝑒= 85
= 8 − 1 and if we rewrite it we obtain 85
= 𝑒 + 1 therefore,
5
𝑙
𝜀 = ln i j = ln(𝑒 + 1)
𝑙=

The table shows that when there is a small strain the engineering and true strain are almost
the same but is the strain becomes larger, the difference between the engineering and true
strain also becomes larger! Therefore, for depending on the dimension of the strain, which
of the two types of strain you should use. In this course we will deal with large strain
therefore we will use true strain!

True strain in the plastic region

𝑉= = 𝑙= ∙ 𝐴= 𝑙 𝐴
• For metal, the volume stays the same in the plastic region, thus:
m =
𝑉 = 𝑙 ∙ 𝐴 𝑙= 𝐴=
8 4
This allows us to rewrite the true strain as: 𝜀 = 𝑙𝑛 e f = ln e f
85 45

True stress-strain curve

True stress-strain curve can be approximated by 𝜎 = 𝐾𝜀 Z
o 𝜎 = true stress
•

o 𝜀 = true strain
o 𝑛 = strain hardening exponent
o 𝐾 = strength coefficient [MPa]

Necking occurs when 𝜺 = 𝒏

• Slope diminishes with increasing strain
•

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Typical values for K and n

Table 2.3- pg.61 (important!)

True and engineering stress-strain curve

𝑃 = 𝑈𝑇𝑆/Z[ ∗ 𝐴= = 𝑈𝑇𝑆\-]/ ∗ 𝐴

UTS
Failure

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 Example: Problem 2.50 – Calculate engineering UTS
• A material has a given true stress-true strain curve: 𝜎 = 400𝜀 Z [MPa]
• The material starts necking at a true strain of 0.20. Calculate the engineering UTS

Solution:

𝜀 = 𝑛 = 0.2
• The maximal tensile strength occurs when necking starts and for necking

• The true tensile can be calculated as follows: 𝜎 = 𝐾𝜀 Z therefore, 𝑈𝑇𝑆\-]/ =

400(0.2)=.` = 290 [𝑀𝑃𝑎]
The cross section during necking is obtained using: 𝜀 = 𝑙𝑛 e 45 f = 𝑛 = 0.2
4

= 𝑒 =.`
45
4
i.e.
𝑃 = 𝑈𝑇𝑆/Z[ ∗ 𝐴= = 𝑈𝑇𝑆\-]/ ∗ 𝐴 ⟹ 𝑈𝑇𝑆/Z[ = 𝑈𝑇𝑆\-]/ ∗ 4 = / 5.€ = 𝟐𝟑𝟕 [𝐌𝐏𝐚]
4 `•=
•
5

Example: Problem 2.48 – Calculate the strength coefficient K

o 𝑈𝑇𝑆/Z[ = 345 [MPa]

• A material has the following properties:

o 𝑛 = 0.25
• Calculate the strength coefficient K

Solution:
• For the true stress-strain curve, the true strain during necking is given by:
𝜀 = 𝑛 thus 𝜀 = 𝑙𝑛 e 45 f = 0.25 ⟹ = 𝑒 =.`Š
4 45
4
The true tensile can be calculated as follows: 𝜎 = 𝐾𝜀 Z therefore,
𝑈𝑇𝑆\-]/ 𝐾(0.25)=.`Š [𝑀𝑃𝑎]
•

𝐴 𝐾 ∙ 0.25=.`Š
• The relation between UTSeng and UTStrue is:
𝑃 = 𝑈𝑇𝑆/Z[ ∗ 𝐴= = 𝑈𝑇𝑆\-]/ ∗ 𝐴 ⟹ 𝑈𝑇𝑆/Z[ = 𝑈𝑇𝑆\-]/ ∗ ⇒ 345 =
𝐴= 𝑒 =.`Š
345 ∙ 𝑒 =.`Š
⇒𝐾= = 𝟔𝟐𝟓 [𝐌𝐏𝐚]
0.25=.`Š

Types of stress-strain curves

• For metals, the following often applies: 𝜎 = 𝐾𝜀 Z
• Other stress-strain curves are also possible:

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 Purely elastic Only Hooke’s law is
applied so there’s a linear
relationship between
stress and strain. An
example are brittle
materials s.a. ceramics

Rigid and purely plastic There’s no elastic

behavior (only plastic)
and stress is no increasing
with increasing strain. Ex.
when you put the knife in
the butter

Elastic and purely plastic There’s an elastic and

plastic region. In the
plastic region if you
increase the strain the
stress will not increase.
Ex. the “rope” candy

Rigid and linear hardening Only plastic region where

there is a linear hardening
(if stress is increased so is
the strain)

approximation of the 𝜎 =
Elastic and linear hardening Used for metals so it is an

𝐾𝜀 Z curve. Linear region

for both, plastic and
elastic region.

• We say the curve is normal when 0<n<1 but there are two

1. Purely plastic (no hardening) à n=1 à 𝝈 = 𝑲 only a

extremes:

2. Purely elastic (no plastic region) à n=1 à 𝝈 = 𝑲𝜺

flat line in K (i.e. purely plastic)

linear behavior (i.e. purely elastic behavior)

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 • According to the figure, when 𝜺 = 𝟏 we can obtain the value of K

Effects of temperature
Influence on stress-strain curve
• At room temperature we have the upper curve
• If temperature is increasing the curve is
decreasing à the deformation will become more
easy. If you want to strain certain material, less
stress is needed.
Increasing temperature
• Lowers modulus of elasticity, yield stress and ultimate
tensile stress
• Increases ductility and toughness
• Strain hardening exponent n diminishes so the curve is
flattened
• There are processes where temperature is used to
obtain deformation s.a. hot rolling, forging, extrusion

Strain rate
Influence on stress-strain curve
• If you increase the strain rate, i.e. increasing the velocity of
applying strain to the material, the stress-strain curve will
increase
¤ Strain rate (deformation rate) à the change in strain

EJ
𝜀̇ =
per unit of time and it is defined as:

E\
[s-1]
• For a tensile test the typical values of the strain rate are between 0.001-0.01 [s-1]
which is quite slow compared to the following other metalworking processes:

13
 expressed as 𝜎 = 𝐶𝜀̇ ’ where:
• The effect of strain rate on the strength of materials is

o C à strength coefficient
o m à strain rate “sensitivity exponent”
• Strength of materials increases with increasing strain rate as
seen on the figure
• The effect of temperature the UTS goes down and the
sensitivity for the strain rate increases (compare the 303 K
curve and the 1273 K curve, the lower one is more sensitive
to the strain rate)

UTS of Aluminum increases with strain rate

Hardness
¤ Hardness à resistance to permanent deformation by compression
¤ Indenter à a small hard object used for producing an indentation in a solid
in an indentation test
§ Hardened steel sphere à for the Brinell and Rockwell methods that measure
hardness based on the indentation size
§ Pyramidal diamond indenter à for the Vickers method that measures hardness
based on the depth of penetration
• Hardness is NOT determined by tensile testing
• It is a measure for resistance to wear
• Hardness is an important property for tools
• There are 4 tests: Brinell test, Rockwell test, Vickers test and Knoop test
Standardized measurements and shapes of indentation
Test Indenter Side view Top view Load, P Hardness #
𝐻𝐵
2𝑃
Brinell 10-mm steel 500 kg
=
(𝜋𝐷)(𝐷 − √𝐷` − 𝑑`
or tungsten 1500 kg
carbide ball 3000 kg
1.854𝑃
𝐻𝑉 =
𝐿`
Vickers Diamond 1-120 kg
pyramid

14.2𝑃
𝐻𝐾 =
𝐿`
Knoop Diamond 25 g-5 kg
pyramid

Brinell test
¤ Brinell hardness (HB) à is the ratio of P to the size
of the indentation. It characterizes the
indentation hardness of materials through the
scale of penetration of an indenter, loaded on a
material test-piece

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