كامله

Design Process
Overview
Lect. 1
The Nature of Design
• When you design something, you work out
or create its form or structure in a skillful
and creative way.
• You determine what the product looks like
(its form) and how it works (its function).
• A product’s final form is often determined
by it’s function.
Thinking Like an Engineer
• Critical thinking is usually abstract
thinking.
• Analysis is the act of breaking a subject
into parts so that it can be understood
better.
• Synthesis is the act of putting things
together to form a new idea or product.
• Evaluation is the act of judging the final
results based on specific criteria.
What is Design?
• The word “design” is often used as a
generic term that refers to anything
that was made by a conscious
human effort.
• Design is also a process that is
used to systematically solve
problems.
What is a Design Process?
A design process is a systematic
problem-solving strategy, with criteria
and constraints, used to develop many
possible solutions to solve or satisfy
human needs or wants and to narrow
down the possible solutions to one
final choice.
The 10 Steps in
Engineering Design
• Technological designs often begin as a need
that must be met or a problem to be solved.
• The process that engineers use to fulfill a
need or solve a problem can be described in
10 steps that address specific technology
factors.
 Cost, safety, reliability, positive and
negative impacts, and ethical
considerations.
Engineering Design Process
1. Define the problem
2. Brainstorm, research, and generate ideas
3. Identify criteria and specify constraints
4. Develop and propose designs and choose among
alternative solutions
5. Implement the proposed solution
6. Make a model or prototype
7. Evaluate the solution and its consequences
8. Refine the design
9. Create the final design
10.Communicate the processes and results
Step 1: Define the Problem
• Putting the problem into words
helps clarify it and may suggest a
possible solution.
•Defining exactly which problem to work on
avoids wasting time, money, and effort
•Receive a problem to solve from the client.
•Gather information.
•Be inspired through media exposure of a
current problem and take action.
Step 2: Brainstorm, Research, and
Generate Ideas
• Brainstorming occurs when two or
more people try to think of as many
possible solutions to a problem as
they can.
• Present ideas in an open forum.
• Generate and record ideas.
• Develop preliminary ideas.
• Research solutions that may
already exist; identify shortcomings
and reasons why they aren’t
appropriate to a given situation.
Step 3: Identify Criteria and
Specify Constraints
• Criteria are standards that a solution must meet in
order to be accepted.
• Constraints are restrictions on a solution.
• Identify what the solution should do and the
degree to which the solution will be pursued.
• Identify constraints (i.e., budget and time are
typical considerations).
Step 4: Develop and Propose Designs and
Choose Among Alternative Solutions
• Consider further development of
brainstorming ideas.
• Explore alternative ideas.
• Compromise to meet criteria and constraints.
• Decide on final idea, usually through group
consensus.
Step 5: Implement the Proposed
Solution
• Explore the idea in greater detail with annotated
sketches.
• Make critical decisions such as material types and
manufacturing methods.
• Generate through computer models detailed
sketches to further refine the idea.
• Produce working drawings so the idea can be built.
Step 6: Make a Model or Prototype
• Make models to help communicate the idea,
and study aspects such as shape, form, fit,
or texture.
• Construct a prototype from the working
drawings, so the solution can be tested.
Step 7: Evaluate the Solution
and its Consequences
• During evaluation the design is judged.
• Design experiments and test the prototype in
controlled and working environments.
• Analyze and check results against established
criteria.
• Identify shortcomings and establish any need for
redesign work.
Step 8: Refine the Design
• Make design changes; modify or rebuild

the prototype.
• Update documentation to reflect changes.
Step 9: Create the Final Design
• Approval of plans.
• Construction/fabrication
• Determine custom/mass production.
• Consider packaging.
Step 10: Communicate the
Processes and Results
• Most final designs are communicated

using drawings, specifications, and
computer models
Design for Fracture
Lecture Two
Lect. Dr. Hind B. Al-Attraqchi
FRACTU
R E
The Fundamentals
Fracture = separation of body into two or more pieces due to
application of static stress , at temperatures below the melting point.
Tensile,
Compressive
Shear or torsional
Steps in fracture:
1- crack formation 2- crack propagation
Modes of fracture DUCTILE BRITTLE
Depending on the ability of material to undergo plastic deformation before the

fracture two fracture modes can be defined - ductile or brittle.
Ductile Fracture:
• Classification is based on the ability of a material to
experience plastic deformation.
• Ductile materials typically exhibit substantial plastic
deformation with high energy absorption before
fracture.
• ductility may be quantified in terms of
Brittle Fracture
• Very little or no plastic deformation,

• Crack propagation is very fast ,
• Crack propagates nearly perpendicular to the
direction of the applied stress,
• Crack often propagates by cleavage - breaking of
atomic bonds along specific crystallographic planes
(cleavage planes).
Ductile Vs Brittle Fracture
ductile fracture brittle fracture
(Cup-and-cone fracture in Al) Brittle fracture in a mild steel

Ductile vs Brittle Failure
• Classification: Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
behavior: Ductile Ductile
%AR or %EL Large Moderate Small
• Ductile fracture is Ductile: Brittle:

usually more desirable Warning before No
than brittle fracture! fracture warning
6
Stress Concentration
Crack propagation
Critical stress for crack propagation
γs = specific surface energy

E = modulus of elasticity
𝜎 = tensile stress
a = length of a surface
When the tensile stress at the tip of crack exceeds the
critical stress value the crack propagates and results in
fracture.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
A relatively large plate of a glass is subjected to a tensile stress of 40 MPa. If
the specific surface energy and modulus of elasticity for this glass are 0.3 J/m2
and 69 GPa, respectively, determine the maximum length of a surface flaw that
is possible without fracture.
𝐸 = 69 𝐺𝑃𝑎 𝛾𝑠 =0.3 J/m2

𝜎 = 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Rearranging the equation
2𝐸𝛾 𝑎 = 8.2 * 10-6 m

𝑎=𝑠 2
𝜋𝜎
TOUGHNESS: Impact Resistance
• “The energy per unit volume that can be absorbed by a material up
to the point of fracture is called toughness”.
• This is the ability of a material to resist shatter. If a material shatters it
is brittle (e.g. glass). If it fails to shatter when subjected to an impact
load it is tough (e.g. rubber).
• Toughness of a material may be measured by calculating the area
under the stress-strain diagram and impact test indicates the relative
toughness energy.
Guidelines for design
• Interaction between fracture toughness, allowable crack size &
design stress need to be considered.
• Toughness – A qualitative measure of the energy require to cause
fracture of material.
• A material that resist failure by impact is said to be tough
• Fracture toughness :The ability of materials containing flaws to
withstand load.
• Measured using :
• Impact testing apparatus – Charpy and Izod test
• Another is the area under the true stress-strain curve.
IMPACT TESTING TECHNIQUES
• Various types of notched-bar impact tests are used to determine the tendency of
a material to behave in a brittle manner.
• Two standardized tests, the Charpy and Izod, were designed and are still used to
measure the impact energy, sometimes also termed notch toughness.
• The primary difference between the Charpy and Izod techniques lies in the
manner of specimen support, as illustrated
• For both Charpy and Izod, the specimen is in the shape
of a bar of square cross section, into which a V-notch
is machined as shown in figure.
Figure: Specimen used for charpy and izod impact test

• Designing with ductile unflawed parts, as the load
increase the nominal stress increase until it reaches the
yield stress and plastic deformation occurs.
• In the case of high-strength, low toughness material, as
the design stress increases (or as the size of the flaw
increase) the stress concentration at edge of crack, the
stress intensity KI, increase until reaches KIC and fracture
occurs.
• Thus the value of KI in a structure design should always
be kept below the value of KIC in the same manner that
the nominal stress is kept below the yield strength.
• Furthermore, these are termed impact tests in light of the manner of
load application. Variables including specimen size and shape as well
as notch configuration and depth influence the test results.
v- notch test:( calculate energy by using formula)
There is a formula which is used to measure the toughness if the
equipment is not computerized.
E = Pl (COSα2 - COSα1)
Where
E = Energy absorbed by a material, joules
P = Weight of the pendulum, Kg
l = length of the pendulum, m
α2 = lift angle, degree
α1 = Breaking angle, degree
Example: A MS sample is subjected to impact test, calculate the absorbed
energy of the specimen if the breaking angle is 100o.
The configuration of the impact tester is: Weight of the pendulum 26.72Kg,
Length of the pendulum 0.750m and lift angle 140.5o.
SIGNIFICANCE OF FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
• Impact test gives quantitative comparative useful data with
relative simple test specimens and equipment. However this test
does not provide property data for design purpose for material
selection containing cracks and flaws.
• The chief difficulty is that the result of the charpy test are
difficult to use in design, since there is no measurement in terms
of stress level, moreover there is no correlation of charpy data
with flaw size.
• Fracture toughness values can be used in mechanical design to
predict the allowable flaw size in alloy with limited ductility
when acted upon by specific stresses.
Fracture Toughness
• Fracture toughness is a quantitative way of expressing a material's resistance
to brittle fracture when a crack is present. If a material has much fracture
toughness it will probably undergo ductile fracture. Brittle fracture is very
characteristic of materials with less fracture toughness.
Definition:
• A property that is a measure of a material’s resistance to brittle fracture when a
crack is present.
Or
• Fracture toughness is a property which describes the ability of a material
containing a crack to resist fracture, and is one of the most important properties
of any material for virtually all design applications.
A. A. Griffith theory states that the fracture resistance
of a brittle material such as glass is inversely
proportional to the square root of the crack length and
suggested that fracture occurs when the fracture is
stressed. Corresponding to the critical value of the
Fracture Stress. According to the following
relationship:
Where
Gc= Crack Extension Force , Ib/in2
E = Modulus of Elasticity of Material Ib/in2
a = Crack Length , inches
STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR K:
§ The stress intensity factor K, is used in fracture mechanics to

predict the stress state ("stress intensity") near the tip of a crack
caused by a remote load or residual stresses
• The stress-distribution at the crack tip

in a thin plate for an elastic solid in
terms of the coordinate shown in figure
K= stress intensity factor

𝛔 = Nominal Stress based on Gross Cross-Section
a : is the crack length in meters or inches Fig. model for equations for
stresses at a point near a crack.
3. These have been standardized as shown in figure.
The three modes of crack surface displcement.

(a) Mode I, opening or tensile mode; (b) mode II, sliding mode; and ( c )
mode III, tearing mode.
Mode I: the crack opening mode, refer to a tensile stress applied in the y- direction
normal to the faces of the crack. This is the usual mode for fracture-toughness test and
the critical value of stress-intensity determined for this mode would be designated (KC).
Mode II: the forward shear mode, refer to s shear stress applied
normal to the leading edge of the crack but in the plane of the
crack.
Mode III: the parallel shear mode is for shearing stresses applied
parallel to the leading edge of the crack.
Most of the time, the cracks or fissures take a semi-oval shape in the
installation wall, such as pressure vessels in a shape (showing two
cases:) the surface crack and the submerged or combined fissure, and
in both cases the stress intensity factor can be expressed through the
following relationships:
(a) : surface crack (b) embedded crack

Problems related to Fracture toughness:
Example 1 A structural plate component of an engineering design must support
207MPa in tension. If aluminum alloy 2024-T851 is used for this application
what is the largest internal flaw size that this material can support? Use Y=1 and
KC of that alloy is 26.4Mpa√m.
Formula: KC = Y σ√πa
Ans: the largest internal crack size that plate can support = 10.36mm
Example 2 The critical stress intensity for a material for a component of a

design is 22.5Ksi√in. What is the applied stress that will cause fracture if the
component contains an internal crack 0.12in long? Assume Y=1.
Ans: 51.8Ksi
Example 3 What is the largest size (inches) internal crack that a thick plate of
aluminum alloy 7178-T651 can support at an applied stress of (a) ¾ of the
yield strength and (b) 1/2 of the yield strength? Assume Y=1. Hint:
Ans: (a) 0.072in (b) 0.163in

What affects toughness
Plane Strain and Plain Stress
§ Two terms that help explain some of the aspects of

Fracture Toughness that are intrinsic to the testing of
material and defining their toughness values.
§ Some materials show a strain rate dependence which can
serve to effectively increase the yield point of a material.
§ So, for the following discussions bear in mind that sudden
impacts can make a difference to toughness properties.
Plane Strain
• A material in a plane strain condition
shows strains only perpendicular to the
crack direction, with no strains along
the crack direction.
• This is most nearly attained in large
sections with material either side of the
crack preventing movement of the
material.
• Plane Strain conditions give the lowest
Fracture Toughness values and typically
produce brittle fractures.
ac = a
K IC = Fracture toughness
K IC = K
Plane Stress
• Loads across the crack produce a
displacement along the crack; this
becomes more prevalent the closer to
the surface and the lower the yield of
the material (and is hence affected by
temperature and material thickness).
• Under Plane Stress conditions materials
fail by a ductile mode.
• This condition is most prevalent in oil
industry engineering materials due to
thickness and yields.
The Effect of Thickness
• As materials get thinner, the
amount of material under plane
stress decreases, increasing the
likelihood of a ductile failure
mode.
§ The relationship between stress
intensity, KI, and fracture
toughness, KIC, is similar to the
relationship between stress and
tensile stress.
§ The stress intensity, KI, represents the level of “stress” at the tip of the crack
and the fracture toughness, KIC, is the highest value of stress intensity that a
material under very specific (plane-strain) conditions that a material can
withstand without fracture.
1. Plane Strain - a condition of a body in
which the displacements of all points
in the body are parallel to a given
plane, and the values of theses
displacements do not depend on the
distance perpendicular to the plane
2. Plane Stress – a condition of a body

in which the state of stress is such that
two of the principal stresses are
always parallel to a given plane and
are constant in the normal direction
The Effect of Thickness
• Examination of a fracture
surface of a fracture
mechanics test can show the
extent of the plane strain and
plane stress seen by the
sample. The more flat,
featureless area there is,
typically the lower the
toughness values, as more of
the material is in the Plane
Strain condition.
The Effect of Yield
• The higher the yield of the material, the closer to

the surface you can be and still have a Plane
Strain condition.
• Since the toughness of the sample is dependent
on the amount of Plane Strain material, the more
there is, the lower the toughness.
• This partially explains why materials get more
brittle as they get colder.
The Effect of Temperature
• As temperature decreases, the
toughness of a material
decreases.
• The extent of that change, and
the temperature over which it
occurs, varies from material to
material.
• Some materials exhibit a sharp
transition others a gentle
change, while others show no
distinct change at all.
The Effect of Loading Rate
• As strain rates increase

the toughness at any
temperature tends to
decrease, the amount
this happens is
dependent on the
materials.
Design for Fatigue
Lecture Three

2020-2021
 Material fatigue is a phenomenon where structures fail when
subjected to a cyclic load.
 This type of structural damage occurs even when the experienced
stress range is far below the static material strength.
 Fatigue is the most common source behind failures of mechanical
structures.
Design of Materials Engineering- Lecture 3

 Fatigue is caused by repeated application of stress to the
metal. It is the failure of a material by fracture when

subjected to a cyclic stress.
 Fatigue is distinguished by three main features.
 i) Loss of strength
 ii) Loss of ductility
 iii) Increased uncertainty in strength and service life.

 The process until a component finally fails under repeated loading
can be divided into three stages:
1. During a large number of cycles, the damage develops on the

microscopic level and grows until a macroscopic crack is formed.
2. The macroscopic crack grows for each cycle until it reaches a

critical length.
3. The cracked component breaks because it can no longer sustain

the peak load.

 Fatigue is an important form of behavior in all materials including metals,
plastics, rubber and concrete. All rotating machine parts are subjected to
alternating stresses.
 Example: aircraft wings are subjected to repeated loads, oil and gas pipes
are often subjected to static loads but the dynamic effect of temperature
variation will cause fatigue.
 There are many other situations where fatigue failure will be very harmful.
Because of the difficulty of recognizing fatigue conditions, fatigue failure
comprises a large percentage of the failures occurring in engineering.
 To avoid stress concentrations, rough surfaces and tensile residual stresses,

fatigue specimens must be carefully prepared.

 The critical factors of fatigue
loadings are:
1. the Stress Range
2. The number of load cycles.

Steps Leading to Fatigue Fracture
 Nucleation - formation of macroscopic cracks and

production of stress concentrations.
 Crack growth- The propagation of microscopic cracks.
 Fracture
 Fatigue fracture is neither sudden nor hidden. It is progressive and
discernable.

 A very useful way to visual the failure for
a specific material is with the S-N curve.
 The “S-N” means stress verse cycles to

failure, which when plotted using the
stress amplitude on the vertical axis and
the number of cycle to failure on the
horizontal axis.
 An important characteristic to this plot

as seen is the “fatigue limit”.

 The point at which the curve flatters out is termed as fatigue limit and is well
below the normal yield stress.
 The significance of the fatigue limit is that if the material is loaded below this
stress, then it will not fail, regardless of the number of times it is loaded.
Materials such as aluminum, copper and magnesium do not show a fatigue
limit; therefore they will fail at any stress and number of cycles.
 Other important terms are fatigue strength and fatigue life.
 The fatigue strength can be defined as the stress that produces failure in a
given number of cycles.
 The fatigue life can be defined as the number of cycles required for a material
to fail at a certain stress
 There are different arrangements of fatigue loading.
 The simplest type of load is the alternating stress where the stress amplitude is
equal to the maximum stress and the mean or average stress is zero. The bending
stress in a shaft varies in this way.

 Under the influence of a nonconstant external load, the state in the material also varies
with time.
 The state at a point in the material can be described by many different variables such as
stress, strain, or energy dissipation.
 The fatigue process is typically viewed as controlled by a specific such variable.
 A load cycle is defined as the duration from one peak in the studied variable to the next
peak.
 In a general case, all cycles do not have the same amplitude.
 The fatigue-controlling state variable has the same value at the start and end of each load
cycle.
 In elastic materials, a cyclic load causes a periodic-cyclic stress response. For such cases,
the load cycle is easily defined.
 This is illustrated by the figure below, where stress is the fatigue-controlling state
variable.
Dr. Hind B. Al-attraqchi
Common variables used for fatigue prediction.

 Types of stresses for fatigue tests include,
axial (tension – compression)
flexural (bending)
torsional (twisting)
Note: By convention, tensile stresses are positive and compression

stresses are negative.

 From these tests the following data is generated.

 As the mean stress, 𝞂m, increases, the stress amplitude, 𝞂a, must decrease in order
for the material to withstand the applied stress.
 This condition is summarized by the Goodman relationship:
𝜎𝑎 = 𝜎𝑒 [1 − (𝜎𝑚/𝜎𝑢𝑡𝑠)]
 Where 𝜎e endurance limit, 𝜎𝑢𝑡𝑠 ultimate tensile strength
 Example, if an airplane wing is loaded near its yield strength, vibrations of even a
small amplitude may cause a fatigue crack to initiate and grow. This is why aircraft
have a routine inspection in order to detect the high-stress regions for cracks.

 Examples of stress cycles where
a) shows the stress in

compression and tension, b)
shows there’s greater tensile
stress than compressive stress
and in c) all of the stress is
tensile.

 The most important parameter for the fatigue damage is the
stress amplitude.
 For any detailed analysis, the mean stress, however, must
be taken into account as well.
 A tensile mean stress increases the sensitivity to fatigue,
whereas a compressive mean stress allows for higher stress

amplitudes.

 The material response to a sequence of load cycles is highly
dependent on the nature of the external load, which can be

periodic, random, and even consist of repeatable blocks.

 Surface finish:
 Scratches dents identification marks can act as stress raisers and so reduce the
fatigue properties.
 Electro-plating produces tensile residual stresses and have a detrimental effect on
the fatigue properties.
 Temperature:
 As a consequence of oxidation or corrosion of the metal surface increasing,
increase in temperature can lead to a reduction in fatigue properties.

 Residual stresses:
 Residual stresses are produced by fabrication and finishing processes.
 Residual stresses on the surface of the material will improve the fatigue properties.
 Heat treatment:
 Hardening and heat treatments reduce the surface compressive stresses; as a result the
fatigue properties of the materials are getting affected.
 Stress concentrations:
 These are caused by sudden changes in cross section holes or sharp corners can more
easily lead to fatigue failure. Even a small hole lowers fatigue-limit by 30%.

 Fatigue analysis is not always based on a stress response.
 This branch, however, has historically received much attention since the
majority of research has been performed in regimes where stress-based models
are useful.
 Based on the number of load cycles needed to produce a crack, it is customary
to make a distinction between low-cycle fatigue (LCF) and high-cycle
fatigue(HCF).
 The limit between the two is not distinct, but it is typically of the order of 10,000
cycles.
 The physical rationale is that in the case of HCF, the stresses are low enough
that the stress-strain relation can be considered elastic. When working with
HCF, the stress range is usually used for describing the local state. For LCF,
meanwhile, strain range or dissipated energy are common choices.

 Research in the field of fatigue first began in the 19th century and
its continuation has resulted in a number of methods for fatigue
prediction.
 One of the classical models is the so-called S-N curve.
 This curve relates the number of cycles until failure (i.e.,
lifetime), N, to the stress amplitude in uniaxial loading.
 The general trend is that a longer lifetime is obtained with a
decrease in stress amplitude.
 Usually, the dependence is very strong, so that a decrease of the
stress amplitude by 10% can increase the lifetime by 50%.
 Some materials exhibit a stress threshold in fatigue testing.

• At stresses below this
threshold, known as the
endurance limit, no fatigue
damage is observed and
components can operate for an
infinite lifetime.
• Not all materials have an
endurance limit, though.
Therefore, they can fail due to
fatigue even at low levels of
stress.  S-N curve for a material with an endurance limit (solid line)
and without an endurance limit (dashed line).

 In multiaxial loading, the directions or locations of the external load vary and
thus deform a structure in different directions.
 This means that at each time instance, a full stress or strain tensor rather than
a scalar value must be evaluated.
 This is often treated by critical plane methods, where many planes in space are
investigated in search for the critical one where fatigue is expected to be
initiated.
 In random loading, the stress cycle cannot be described with single stress
amplitudes since each cycle is different from the next.
 To predict fatigue, the full stress history must be transformed into a stress
spectrum that can be related to fatigue in the next step of the analysis.
 The Rainflow counting algorithm can be used to define a set of stress
amplitudes with corresponding mean stresses.
 The Palmgren-Miner linear damage rule is a popular way to predict fatigue
under such a set of different stress levels.
 Random loading is common in vibrational fatigue where structures experience
dynamic loads. Since the stress depends on the excitation frequency, the fatigue
evaluation can be made in the frequency domain using, for example, power-spectral
density methods.
 In the case of certain materials, fatigue life is highly influenced by the number of
micromechanical defects. For these materials, the location of the defects has a
strong influence on the component's lifetime.
 For instance, a defect in the vicinity of the stress concentration significantly reduces
the lifetime of a component as compared to a component with a defect that is far

from the stress concentration. Probabilistic methods can be used to handle these
types of applications.

 Fatigue fracture results from the presence of fatigue cracks, usually initiated
by cyclic stresses, at surface imperfections such as machine marking and slip

steps.
 The initial stress concentration associated with these cracks are too low to
cause brittle fracture they may be sufficient to cause slow growth of the
cracks into the interior.
 Eventually the cracks may become sufficiently deep so that the stress
concentration exceeds the fracture strength and sudden failure occurs.

 The extent of the crack propagation process depends upon the
brittleness of the material under test.
 In brittle materials the crack grows to a critical size from which it
propagates right through the structures in a fast manner, whereas

with ductile materials the crack keeps growing until the remaining
area cannot support the load and an almost ductile fracture suddenly
occurs.
 Failure can be recognized by the appearance of fracture.

 The fracture surface near the origin is usually smooth. The surface becomes rougher as the crack
increases in size.
 Microscopic and macroscopic examination reveal a beach mark pattern and striations.
 Beach mark patterns indicate that the load is changed during service or the load is intermittent.
 Striations are on a much finer scale and show the position of the crack tip after each cycle.

Statistical Nature of Fatigue Fracture I
 Cycles endured, n: The number of cycles that a specimen can
 Fatigue life, N: The number of cycles required to cause fracture
under a given stress condition.
 Probability Fatigue life, Np: The fatigue life for which p percent of
the population will survive.

Statistical Nature of Fatigue Fracture II
 Fatigue strength: The highest stress that a material can withstand
for N cycles.
 Fatigue limit: The highest stress that a material will withstand if it is
subjected to an infinite amount of stress cycles.
 S-N diagram: A means of representing the results of fatigue tests or
the predicted fatigue life of a material.

Dr. Hind B. Al-Attraqchi

 For some materials such as BCC steels and Ti alloys, the S-N curves
become horizontal when the stress amplitude is decreased to a certain
level.
 This stress level is called the Fatigue Limit, or Endurance Limit,

which is typically ~35-60% of the tensile strength for steels.
 In some materials, including steels, the endurance limit is

approximately half (50%) the tensile strength given by:

 For materials, which do not show a fatigue limit, i.e., the
S-N curves do not become horizontal such as Al, Cu, and

Mg (non-ferrous alloys).
 Fatigue strength is specified as the stress level at which
failure will occur for a specified number of cycles, where 107

cycles is often used.

Design for Fatigue
Lecture Three

2020-2021
 Material fatigue is a phenomenon where structures fail when
subjected to a cyclic load.
 This type of structural damage occurs even when the experienced
stress range is far below the static material strength.
 Fatigue is the most common source behind failures of mechanical
structures.

 Fatigue is caused by repeated application of stress to the
metal. It is the failure of a material by fracture when

subjected to a cyclic stress.
 Fatigue is distinguished by three main features.
 i) Loss of strength
 ii) Loss of ductility
 iii) Increased uncertainty in strength and service life.

 The process until a component finally fails under repeated loading
can be divided into three stages:
1. During a large number of cycles, the damage develops on the

microscopic level and grows until a macroscopic crack is formed.
2. The macroscopic crack grows for each cycle until it reaches a

critical length.
3. The cracked component breaks because it can no longer sustain

the peak load.

 Fatigue is an important form of behavior in all materials including metals,
plastics, rubber and concrete. All rotating machine parts are subjected to
alternating stresses.
 Example: aircraft wings are subjected to repeated loads, oil and gas pipes
are often subjected to static loads but the dynamic effect of temperature
variation will cause fatigue.
 There are many other situations where fatigue failure will be very harmful.
Because of the difficulty of recognizing fatigue conditions, fatigue failure
comprises a large percentage of the failures occurring in engineering.
 To avoid stress concentrations, rough surfaces and tensile residual stresses,

fatigue specimens must be carefully prepared.

 The critical factors of fatigue
loadings are:
1. the Stress Range
2. The number of load cycles.

Steps Leading to Fatigue Fracture
 Nucleation - formation of macroscopic cracks and

production of stress concentrations.
 Crack growth- The propagation of microscopic cracks.
 Fracture
 Fatigue fracture is neither sudden nor hidden. It is progressive and
discernable.

 A very useful way to visual the failure for
a specific material is with the S-N curve.
 The “S-N” means stress verse cycles to

failure, which when plotted using the
stress amplitude on the vertical axis and
the number of cycle to failure on the
horizontal axis.
 An important characteristic to this plot

as seen is the “fatigue limit”.

 The point at which the curve flatters out is termed as fatigue limit and is well
below the normal yield stress.
 The significance of the fatigue limit is that if the material is loaded below this
stress, then it will not fail, regardless of the number of times it is loaded.
Materials such as aluminum, copper and magnesium do not show a fatigue
limit; therefore they will fail at any stress and number of cycles.
 Other important terms are fatigue strength and fatigue life.
 The fatigue strength can be defined as the stress that produces failure in a
given number of cycles.
 The fatigue life can be defined as the number of cycles required for a material
to fail at a certain stress
 There are different arrangements of fatigue loading.
 The simplest type of load is the alternating stress where the stress amplitude is
equal to the maximum stress and the mean or average stress is zero. The bending
stress in a shaft varies in this way.

 Under the influence of a nonconstant external load, the state in the material also varies
with time.
 The state at a point in the material can be described by many different variables such as
stress, strain, or energy dissipation.
 The fatigue process is typically viewed as controlled by a specific such variable.
 A load cycle is defined as the duration from one peak in the studied variable to the next
peak.
 In a general case, all cycles do not have the same amplitude.
 The fatigue-controlling state variable has the same value at the start and end of each load
cycle.
 In elastic materials, a cyclic load causes a periodic-cyclic stress response. For such cases,
the load cycle is easily defined.
 This is illustrated by the figure below, where stress is the fatigue-controlling state
variable.
Dr. Hind B. Al-attraqchi
Common variables used for fatigue prediction.

 Types of stresses for fatigue tests include,
axial (tension – compression)
flexural (bending)
torsional (twisting)
Note: By convention, tensile stresses are positive and compression

stresses are negative.

 From these tests the following data is generated.

 As the mean stress, 𝞂m, increases, the stress amplitude, 𝞂a, must decrease in order
for the material to withstand the applied stress.
 This condition is summarized by the Goodman relationship:
𝜎𝑎 = 𝜎𝑒 [1 − (𝜎𝑚/𝜎𝑢𝑡𝑠)]
 Where 𝜎e endurance limit, 𝜎𝑢𝑡𝑠 ultimate tensile strength
 Example, if an airplane wing is loaded near its yield strength, vibrations of even a
small amplitude may cause a fatigue crack to initiate and grow. This is why aircraft
have a routine inspection in order to detect the high-stress regions for cracks.

 Examples of stress cycles where
a) shows the stress in

compression and tension, b)
shows there’s greater tensile
stress than compressive stress
and in c) all of the stress is
tensile.

 The most important parameter for the fatigue damage is the
stress amplitude.
 For any detailed analysis, the mean stress, however, must
be taken into account as well.
 A tensile mean stress increases the sensitivity to fatigue,
whereas a compressive mean stress allows for higher stress

amplitudes.

 The material response to a sequence of load cycles is highly
dependent on the nature of the external load, which can be

periodic, random, and even consist of repeatable blocks.

 Surface finish:
 Scratches dents identification marks can act as stress raisers and so reduce the
fatigue properties.
 Electro-plating produces tensile residual stresses and have a detrimental effect on
the fatigue properties.
 Temperature:
 As a consequence of oxidation or corrosion of the metal surface increasing,
increase in temperature can lead to a reduction in fatigue properties.

 Residual stresses:
 Residual stresses are produced by fabrication and finishing processes.
 Residual stresses on the surface of the material will improve the fatigue properties.
 Heat treatment:
 Hardening and heat treatments reduce the surface compressive stresses; as a result the
fatigue properties of the materials are getting affected.
 Stress concentrations:
 These are caused by sudden changes in cross section holes or sharp corners can more
easily lead to fatigue failure. Even a small hole lowers fatigue-limit by 30%.

 Fatigue analysis is not always based on a stress response.
 This branch, however, has historically received much attention since the
majority of research has been performed in regimes where stress-based models
are useful.
 Based on the number of load cycles needed to produce a crack, it is customary
to make a distinction between low-cycle fatigue (LCF) and high-cycle
fatigue(HCF).
 The limit between the two is not distinct, but it is typically of the order of 10,000
cycles.
 The physical rationale is that in the case of HCF, the stresses are low enough
that the stress-strain relation can be considered elastic. When working with
HCF, the stress range is usually used for describing the local state. For LCF,
meanwhile, strain range or dissipated energy are common choices.

 Research in the field of fatigue first began in the 19th century and
its continuation has resulted in a number of methods for fatigue
prediction.
 One of the classical models is the so-called S-N curve.
 This curve relates the number of cycles until failure (i.e.,
lifetime), N, to the stress amplitude in uniaxial loading.
 The general trend is that a longer lifetime is obtained with a
decrease in stress amplitude.
 Usually, the dependence is very strong, so that a decrease of the
stress amplitude by 10% can increase the lifetime by 50%.
 Some materials exhibit a stress threshold in fatigue testing.

• At stresses below this
threshold, known as the
endurance limit, no fatigue
damage is observed and
components can operate for an
infinite lifetime.
• Not all materials have an
endurance limit, though.
Therefore, they can fail due to
fatigue even at low levels of
stress.  S-N curve for a material with an endurance limit (solid line)
and without an endurance limit (dashed line).

 In multiaxial loading, the directions or locations of the external load vary and
thus deform a structure in different directions.
 This means that at each time instance, a full stress or strain tensor rather than
a scalar value must be evaluated.
 This is often treated by critical plane methods, where many planes in space are
investigated in search for the critical one where fatigue is expected to be
initiated.
 In random loading, the stress cycle cannot be described with single stress
amplitudes since each cycle is different from the next.
 To predict fatigue, the full stress history must be transformed into a stress
spectrum that can be related to fatigue in the next step of the analysis.
 The Rainflow counting algorithm can be used to define a set of stress
amplitudes with corresponding mean stresses.
 The Palmgren-Miner linear damage rule is a popular way to predict fatigue
under such a set of different stress levels.
 Random loading is common in vibrational fatigue where structures experience
dynamic loads. Since the stress depends on the excitation frequency, the fatigue
evaluation can be made in the frequency domain using, for example, power-spectral
density methods.
 In the case of certain materials, fatigue life is highly influenced by the number of
micromechanical defects. For these materials, the location of the defects has a
strong influence on the component's lifetime.
 For instance, a defect in the vicinity of the stress concentration significantly reduces
the lifetime of a component as compared to a component with a defect that is far

from the stress concentration. Probabilistic methods can be used to handle these
types of applications.

 Fatigue fracture results from the presence of fatigue cracks, usually initiated
by cyclic stresses, at surface imperfections such as machine marking and slip

steps.
 The initial stress concentration associated with these cracks are too low to
cause brittle fracture they may be sufficient to cause slow growth of the
cracks into the interior.
 Eventually the cracks may become sufficiently deep so that the stress
concentration exceeds the fracture strength and sudden failure occurs.

 The extent of the crack propagation process depends upon the
brittleness of the material under test.
 In brittle materials the crack grows to a critical size from which it
propagates right through the structures in a fast manner, whereas

with ductile materials the crack keeps growing until the remaining
area cannot support the load and an almost ductile fracture suddenly
occurs.
 Failure can be recognized by the appearance of fracture.

 The fracture surface near the origin is usually smooth. The surface becomes rougher as the crack
increases in size.
 Microscopic and macroscopic examination reveal a beach mark pattern and striations.
 Beach mark patterns indicate that the load is changed during service or the load is intermittent.
 Striations are on a much finer scale and show the position of the crack tip after each cycle.

Statistical Nature of Fatigue Fracture I
 Cycles endured, n: The number of cycles that a specimen can
 Fatigue life, N: The number of cycles required to cause fracture
under a given stress condition.
 Probability Fatigue life, Np: The fatigue life for which p percent of
the population will survive.

Statistical Nature of Fatigue Fracture II
 Fatigue strength: The highest stress that a material can withstand
for N cycles.
 Fatigue limit: The highest stress that a material will withstand if it is
subjected to an infinite amount of stress cycles.
 S-N diagram: A means of representing the results of fatigue tests or
the predicted fatigue life of a material.

Dr. Hind B. Al-Attraqchi

 For some materials such as BCC steels and Ti alloys, the S-N curves
become horizontal when the stress amplitude is decreased to a certain
level.
 This stress level is called the Fatigue Limit, or Endurance Limit,

which is typically ~35-60% of the tensile strength for steels.
 In some materials, including steels, the endurance limit is

approximately half (50%) the tensile strength given by:

 For materials, which do not show a fatigue limit, i.e., the
S-N curves do not become horizontal such as Al, Cu, and

Mg (non-ferrous alloys).
 Fatigue strength is specified as the stress level at which
failure will occur for a specified number of cycles, where 107

cycles is often used.

DESIGN OF ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
Design for Fatigue

Lecture Four
Asst. Prof. Dr. Jamal J. Al –Khazraji + Lect. Dr. Hind B. Al-Attraqchi

2020-2021
FATIGUE LOADING:
• Fatigue loading is primarily the type of loading which causes cyclic variations in the applied stress
or strain on a component. Thus any variable loading is basically a fatigue loading.
• Types of loading
• Change in the magnitude of applied load Example: punching or shearing operations
• Change in direction of load application Example: a connecting rod
• Change in point of load application Example: a rotating shaft
Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4

ENDURANCE LIMIT
• Whenever a cyclic (repetitive) load is applied on the material, If the material shows
no evidence of fracture then this property of the material is called, “Endurance
Limit”.
h i
c during the loading this property
t r q
• While if the material shows any evidence of afracture
is called,“Fatigue Limit” l -At
B .A
i n d has been concerned primarily with the testing of
r. H
• The conventional fatigue testing
specimens with D smooth surfaces under the conditions of rotating-bending or uniaxial
tension- compression cycling.

ENDURANCE LIMIT
• The results of these tests are presented in the form of plots of stress verses the
number N of stress cycles required to cause the fracture.
• These plots are called δ-N diagrams,. These diagrams are also called, “S-N diagrams”
h i
aqc
in some literatures.
t t r
A A
• Usually in mild steel or certain otherl-steels, an endurance limit is observed.
B .
i n d is applied on the material stress decreases and once a
r . H
• Actually when the cyclic load
D
point is arrived where the stress becomes constant, means there is no further
decrease in stress with the increase of N.
• However many materials do not exhibit a clear cut endurance limit, but δ-N curves
continues downward as N increases.
ENDURANCE LIMIT
• Engineering parts, which fail under fatigue loading,

experience extreme stresses, σmax and σmin.
Such parts are more likely to fail than those parts
h i
aqc
that experience only maximum stress, σmax.
t t r
l
• The stress amplitude, at which the machine
A -A
B.
i n d
member will fail after a given number of stress-
cycle is known as r . Hfatigue strength,
D the
designated as Sn.
• As n approaches ∞ the fatigue strength approaches

the endurance limit, designated as S’n, .
• However, surface imperfections due to manufacturing processes and environmental
affects negatively impacts the endurance limit.
• Therefore a modified endurance limit is given as
Se =ksf kr ks kt km S´n
h i
• where ks f= surface finish factor
t t r aqc
k = reliability factor
Al -A
.
r
d B
k = size factor
s
i n
Hfactor
D r .
k = temperature
t
km = stress concentration modifying factor

= inverse of fatigue stress concentration factor (km = 1/kf)
S´n = half of the ultimate strength of the material (Su/2)
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED
(a) Surface Condition (ksf): such as: polished, ground, machined, as-forged, corroded, etc. Surface is perhaps
the most important influence on fatigue life
(b) Size (ks ):This factor accounts for changes which occur when the actual size of the part or the cross-
section differs from that of the test specimens
(c) Load (Kc):This factor accounts for differences in loading (bending, axial, torsional) between the actual
part and the test specimens
(d) Temperature (kt ): This factor accounts for reductions in fatigue life which occur when the operating
temperature of the part differs from room temperature (the testing temperature)
(e) Reliability (kr):This factor accounts for the scatter of test data. For example, an 8% standard deviation in
the test data requires a kr value of 0.868 for 95% reliability, and 0.753 for 99.9% reliability.
(f) Miscellaneous (Kf):This factor accounts for reductions from all other effects, including residual stresses,
corrosion, plating, metal spraying, fretting, and others.

• and q is the notch sensitivity usually given graphically and is a function of
the material’s ultimate strength and notch radius of the part.
• The stress concentration factor, kst, is also a function of the part’s
geometry.When q and kst have been established, kf can then be obtained.
• For no notch round shaft, kt = 1, which implies kf = 1, and hence km = 1.
By using these modified factors in equation, the modified endurance limit
can then be obtained.

FATIGUE STRENGTH
• When the mean stress and the stress

range are varied, the fatigue resistance
of parts subjected to these fluctuating
stresses can be studied using Goodman
diagram shown in Figure.

FATIGUE STRENGTH
• The diagram is drawn by marking out the yield strength of a material in both the x- and y-axes, Sy.
• The ultimate strength of the material is marked out in the x-axis, Sult, and this is usually greater
than the yield strength .
• The endurance limit is marked out in the y-axis, Se.
• The points corresponding to the yield points on the x-axis and y-axis are connected by a straight
line, so are the points corresponding to the ultimate strength along the x-axis and the endurance
limit along the y-axis.
• A region is defined by the intersection of the endurance limit-ultimate strength line and the yield
strength-yield strength lines, within which design is feasible (shaded area).
• The stress range is associated with the y-axis and the mean stress is associated with the x-axis. By
plotting a line defined by the gradient obtained from the loads related to the stress range and
mean stress respectively, it is possible to locate the stress range and mean stress values.
h i
t t r aqc
l -A
B.A
i nd
Dr. H

h i
t t r aqc
l -A
B.A
i nd
Dr. H

h i
t t r aqc
l -A
B.A
i nd
Dr. H

DESIGN AGAINST FATIGUE
• In general, loosening, posterior menus are in fatigue design

v infinite life design
v safe life design
h i
v damage tolerant design
t t r aqc
v fail safe design l -A
B.A
i nd
D r. H

DESIGN AGAINST FATIGUE
1. infinite life design :This is oldest method of design wherein importance is given to unlimited safety and life of
product. To achieve infinite life it requires local stresses or strains to be essentially elastic and safely below the
fatigue limit. This approach is not economical cost and competitiveness in market. (i.e to reduce stress you are
h i
aqc
ending up to adding more weight to components)
t t r
2.
l -A
Safe-Life Design: In this approach component are designed for a finite life. Generally this approach is used in
B . Alife of product it is easy to decide allowable stress or strain. A design

i n d
automotive industry. As we are pre-defining
. H
Dr
criterion is based on stress-life, strain-life, or crack growth relations.
3. Fail-Safe Design: Fail-safe design requires that if one part fails, the system does not fail. Fail- safe design
recognizes that fatigue cracks may occur and structures are arranged so that cracks will not lead to failure of the
structure before they are detected and repaired.

• To design component on Safe- Life Design approach we must know life expectancy
of component in terms of hours or cycles of usage. With physical testing we can
easily plot S-N curve and predict stress at particular cycle and accordingly decide
fatigue strength. But it is always not possible to do testing each and every case.
h i
c vehicle frame at 10 cycles.
t r q
• Example: Calculate the approximate fatigue astrength 3
A
Assume that ultimate tensile strengthl-of
t
B . A the steel (SUT)= 80,000 psi and yield
strength (Sy ) = 60 ksi ind
r . H
D

h i
t t r aqc
l -A
B.A
i nd
Dr. H

• if we have designed frame considering static loading with F.O.S of 1.5
then our
allowable stress = 60 ksi h i = 40 ksi

/ 1.5
c
t r a q
-A t
• if we design frame for safe lifelconsidering fatigue then
B .A
i n d stress = 50.12 ksi / 1.5 = 33.4 ksi
r . H
allowable
D

THE GOODMAN-HAIGH DIAGRAM FOR INFINITE LIFE
• Infinite life is often used in designing critical components of products with demanding use. Examples
h i
aqc
include crankshafts of an engines, vehicles for public transportation, spacecraft, etc.
t t r
l -
• What is meant by infinite life? Ferrous materialsA have an "infinite life" region defined by an ‘endurance
B . Astress level for a material, where stress cycles below a certain
i n d
limit’. The endurance limit is a specific
r
amplitude and mean will . H
not accumulate fatigue damage.
D
• The Goodman-Haigh diagram is used to check if a cyclic stress time history is within the infinite life
region for a product made of a given material (Figure 1).


• It is important that none of the stress cycles in a load history exceed the infinite life
endurance limit. If they do, the material will behave as if the infinite life region does not
exist, and failure will occur given enough additional cycles, even if they are below the
endurance limit.
• Goodman published his original diagram in 1899. Haigh added alternating and mean
stress in 1917. The combination of these two is referred to as the ‘Goodman-Haigh
Diagram’.

GOODMAN-HAIGH DIAGRAM
Two major pieces of information are needed to use a Goodman-Haigh diagram:
h i
aqc
• Stress cycles: A stress cycle time history of the expected loading that includes both
t t r
alternating and mean stress information
A l -A
• Material Information: Thed B .
H i n yield strength, ultimate strength, and endurance limit of the
part material Dr.
• The material information is used to define an infinite life region. The stress cycles are
plotted against this region to see if they are contained within it.
STRESS CYCLES
• A stress time history can be broken down into individual cycles. A cycle has an alternating component
as shown in Figure 2.
Cyclic Stress Time History

STRESS CYCLES
• A stress cycle can also have a mean stress. This mean stress puts the part in either
net compression or tension as shown in Figure 3.
h i
t t r aqc
l -A
B.A
i n d
D r. H

STRESS CYCLES
• The mean stress is very important factor in governing the fatigue life. Net tension on a part tries to pull it apart, which
significantly reduces its life. Net compression pushes a part together, which is not as damaging.
• In the Haigh diagram, the alternating and mean stress of the cycles will be plotted against each other as shown in Figure 4.
h i
t t r aqc
l -A
B.A
i n d
D r. H
Figure 4: Alternating versus mean stress

Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture
MATERIAL INFORMATION
• Using a static stress-strain test on a material, the following material properties can
be determined:
h i
aqc
• Yield Strength – Stress level at which there is a transition between the elastic region
t t r
and plastic region of the material, where the relationship between stress and strain
l -A
ceases to be linear
B .A
i n
• Ultimate Strength – Stress dlevel where the material starts to fail
• These material D r. H
properties are determined via applying static loads to the material
and plotting the relationship of stress and strain as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Yield and Ultimate strength are determined from static stress-strain test
• The Yield strength and Ultimate strength are plotted on the Goodman-Haigh diagram as shown
in Figure 6.
A yield envelope is created by

connecting the yield strength points.
However, this yield envelope is
symmetric around the Y-axis, and does
not distinguish between compression
and tension.
Figure 6: Ultimate strength and yield strength are plotted on diagram

• Additional material information is needed from a dynamic/cyclic stress test. The result of a dynamic stress test
can be found in a SN-curve as shown as shown in Figure 7.
h i
t t r aqc
l -A
B.A
i n d
D r. H
Figure 7: SN-Curve with Infinite Life Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4

• The endurance limit is determined from the SN-Curve. The endurance limit is then plotted on the
Goodman-Haigh diagram as shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8: Goodman-Haigh diagram with Endurance limit Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4
• An infinite life region can then be created by:
• Connecting the endurance limit to the ultimate

strength on the tension side (called the Modified
h i
aqc
Goodman line)
t t r
• Project the endurance limit on the compression side
l -A
B .A
d
• This infinite life region defined by these connections
and projections are shown in Figure 9. in
r. H
D
• This infinite life region has a smaller region for tension
versus compression, as would be expected. A stress time
history can then be evaluated against the infinite life Figure 9: Infinite life region defined by Modified Goodman line
region.

USING THE GOODMAN-HAIGH DIAGRAM
• The mean and alternating stress of a stress time history is plotted on the Goodman-Haigh diagram as
shown in Figure 10.
• This is done for each cycle in the time

h i
history. Each cycle is evaluated as to
t t r aqc
whether it falls in the infinite life region. In
l -A
Figure 10, the stress cycles are contained
B.A
entirely in the infinite life region.
i n d
. H how
Any stress time history, normatter
•
D
complicated, can be broken into individual
cycles via the rainflow counting process.
These cycles produced by the rainflow
counting process include a mean and
alternating stress.
Figure 10: Mean and alternating stress Design of Engineering Materials- Lecture 4
plotted against Infinite life region
• Projecting from the origin to the cycle
versus the region, a factor of safety can be
calculated (Figure 11).
• in this case, the factor of safety is

approximately two: the ratio of the magenta
h i
aqc
and green lines.
• In many engineering applications, a factor of A t t r

. Al -
B
safety of three or higher is often desired.
d
H i n
• This would ensure that
D r . the part would
survive with three times higher than
expected loads. Figure 11: Factor of Safety

Design of Engineering Materials
Stress-strain Diagram
Lecture Five
Asst. Prof. Dr. Jamal J. Al –Khazraji Contact info.

Lect. Dr. Hind B. Al-Attraqchi Department of Materials Engineering
https://mae.uotechnology.edu.iq/index.php/s/cv/1121-rawnaq-s-mahdi E-mail: 130047@uotechnology.edu.iq
• In designing various parts of a machine, it is necessary to know how the

material will function in service. For this, certain characteristics or properties
of the material should be known.
• The mechanical properties mostly used in mechanical engineering
practice are commonly determined from a standard tensile test.
• This test consists of gradually loading a standard specimen of a material
and noting the corresponding values of load and elongation until the
specimen fractures.
• The load is applied and measured by a testing machine.

Lecture 5
• The stress is determined by dividing the load values by the original cross-
sectional area of the specimen.
• The elongation is measured by determining the amounts that two
reference points on the specimen are moved apart by the action of the
machine.
• The original distance between the two reference points is known as gauge
length.
• The strain is determined by dividing the elongation values by the gauge
length.

Lecture 5
• The values of the stress and corresponding strain

are used to draw the stress-strain diagram of the
material tested.
• A stress-strain diagram for a mild steel under
tensile test is shown in Figure 1.
• The various properties of the material are
discussed below :
Figure 1: Stress-strain diagram for a mild steel.

Lecture 5
1.Proportional limit.
• We see from the diagram that from point O to A is a

straight line, which represents that the stress is
proportional to strain.
• Beyond point A, the curve slightly deviates from the
straight line. It is thus obvious, that Hooke's law holds
good up to point A and it is known as proportional
limit.
• It is defined as that stress at which the stress-strain
curve begins to deviate from the straight line.

Lecture 5
2. Elastic limit.
• It may be noted that even if the load is increased

beyond point A up to the point B, the material will
regain its shape and size when the load is removed.
• This means that the material has elastic properties up
to the point B. This point is known as elastic limit.
• It is defined as the stress developed in the material
without any permanent set.
• Note: Since the above two limits are very close to
each other, therefore, for all practical purposes these
are taken to be equal.

Lecture 5
3. Yield point.
• If the material is stressed beyond point B, the plastic stage
will reach i.e. on the removal of the load, the material will
not be able to recover its original size and shape.
• A little consideration will show that beyond point B, the strain
increases at a faster rate with any increase in the stress until
the point C is reached.
• At this point, the material yields before the load and there is
an appreciable strain without any increase in stress.
• In case of mild steel, it will be seen that a small load drops to
D, immediately after yielding commences.
• Hence there are two yield points C and D. The points C and
D are called the upper and lower yield points respectively.
• The stress corresponding to yield point is known as yield point
stress.

Lecture 5
4. Ultimate stress.
• At D, the specimen regains some strength and higher values of

stresses are required for higher strains, than those between A
and D.
• The stress (or load) goes on increasing till the point E is reached.
• The gradual increase in the strain (or length) of the specimen is
followed with the uniform reduction of its cross-sectional area.
• The work done, during stretching the specimen, is transformed
largely into heat and the specimen becomes hot.
• At E, the stress, which attains its maximum value is known as
ultimate stress.
• It is defined as the largest stress obtained by dividing the largest
value of the load reached in a test to the original cross-
sectional area of the test piece.

Lecture 5
5. Percentage reduction in area
• It is the difference between the original cross-sectional area and cross-sectional

area at the neck (i.e. where the fracture takes place).
• This difference is expressed as percentage of the original cross-sectional area.

Lecture 5
6. Percentage elongation.
• It is the percentage increase in the standard gauge length (i.e. original

length) obtained by measuring the fractured specimen after bringing the
broken parts together.

Lecture 5
Example1.
• A mild steel rod of 12 mm diameter was tested for tensile strength with the
gauge length of 60 mm. Following observations were recorded : length = 80
mm; Final diameter = 7 mm; Yield load = 3.4kN and Ultimate load = 6.1 kN.
• Calculate : 1. yield stress, 2. ultimate tensile stress, 3. percentage reduction in
area, and 4. percentage elongation.

Lecture 5
Lecture 5
Working Stress
• When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the

stress lower than the maximum or ultimate stress at which
failure of the material takes place.
• This stress is known as the working stress or design stress. It is
also known as safe or allowable stress.
• Note : By failure it is not meant actual breaking of the
material. Some machine parts are said to fail when they have
plastic deformation set in them, and they no more perform
their function satisfactory.

Lecture 5
Factor of Safety:

Lecture 5
Selection of Factor of Safety
• The selection of a proper factor of safety to be used in designing any
machine component depends upon a number of considerations, such as
the material, mode of manufacture, type of stress, general service
conditions and shape of the parts.
• Before selecting a proper factor of safety, a design engineer should
consider the following points :
1. The reliability of the properties of the material and change of these
properties during service ;
2. The reliability of test results and accuracy of application of these results
to actual machine parts ;
3. The reliability of applied load ;
4. 4. The certainty as to exact mode of failure ;

Lecture 5
6. The extent of simplifying assumptions ;

7. The extent of localised stresses ;
8. The extent of initial stresses set up during manufacture ;
9. The extent of loss of life if failure occurs ; and
10. The extent of loss of property if failure occurs.

Lecture 5
• Each of the above factors must be carefully considered and evaluated.

• The high factor of safety results in unnecessary risk of failure.
• The values of factor of safety based on ultimate strength for different
materials and type of load are given in the following table:
Table 1. Values of factor of safety.

Lecture 5
Poisson's Ratio
• It has been found experimentally that when a body is stressed within

elastic limit, the lateral strain bears a constant ratio to the linear strain,
Mathematically:
• This constant is known as Poisson's ratio and is denoted by 1/m or μ.

Following are the values of Poisson's ratio for some of the materials commonly used in
engineering practice.

Lecture 5
Poisson's Ratio
Table 2. Values of Poisson’s ratio for commonly used materials.

Lecture 5
Volumetric Strain
• When a body is subjected to a system of forces, it undergoes some

changes in its dimensions. In other words, the volume of the body is
changed.
• The ratio of the change in volume to the original volume is known as
volumetric strain. Mathematically, volumetric strain,

Lecture 5
Bulk Modulus
• When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular stresses,

of equal intensity, then the ratio of the direct stress to the
corresponding volumetric strain is known as bulk modulus.
• It is usually denoted by K. Mathematically, bulk modulus,

Lecture 5
Relation Between Bulk Modulus and Young’s Modulus
• The bulk modulus (K) and Young's modulus (E) are related by the following
relation,
Relation Between Young’s Modulus and Modulus of Rigidity

The Young's modulus (E) and modulus of rigidity (G) are related by the following relation,

Lecture 5
Example 2.
• A mild steel rod supports a tensile load of 50 kN. If the stress in the rod is
limited to 100 MPa, find the size of the rod when the cross-section is 1.
circular, 2. square, and 3. rectangular with width = 3 × thickness

Lecture 5
Example 3.
• A steel bar 2.4 m long and 30 mm square is elongated by a load of 500 kN.
If Poisson's ratio is 0.25, find the increase in volume. Take E = 0.2 × 106
N/mm2

Lecture 5
Impact Stress
• Sometimes, machine members are subjected to the load with
impact.
• The stress produced in the member due to the falling load is
known as impact stress.
• Consider a bar carrying a load W at a height hand falling on the
collar provided at the lower end, as shown in Figure 2.
Let
A= Cross-sectional area of the bar,
E= Young's modulus of the material of the bar,
l = Length of the bar,
δl = Deformation of the bar,
P= Force at which the deflection δl is produced,
σi= Stress induced in the bar due to the application of impact load, and
h= Height through which the load falls. Figure 2.Impact stress

Lecture 5
Impact Stress

Lecture 5
Example 4.
• An unknown weight falls through 10 mm on a collar rigidly attached to the

lower end of a vertical bar 3 m long and 600 mm2 in section. If the
maximum instantaneous extension is known to be 2 mm, what is the
corresponding stress and the value of unknown weight? Take E = 200
kN/mm2.

Lecture 5
Lecture 5
Resilience
• When a body is loaded within elastic limit, it changes its dimensions and on the removal of the
load, it regains its original dimensions. So long as it remains loaded, it has stored energy in
itself.
• On removing the load, the energy stored is given off as in the case of a spring.
• This energy, which is absorbed in a body when strained within elastic limit, is known as strain
energy.
• The strain energy is always capable of doing some work. The strain energy stored in a body
due to external loading, within elastic limit, is known as resilience and the maximum energy
which can be stored in a body up to the elastic limit is called proof resilience.
• The proof resilience per unit volume of a material is known as modulus of resilience. It is an
important property of a material and gives capacity of the material to bear impact or shocks.
• Mathematically, strain energy stored in a body due to tensile or compressive load or resilience

Lecture 5
Resilience

Lecture 5
Example 5.
• A wrought iron bar 50 mm in diameter and 2.5 m long transmits a shock
energy of 100 N-m. Find the maximum instantaneous stress and the
elongation. Take E = 200 GN/m2

Lecture 5
H.W:
1. A bar of 2 m length, 20 mm breadth and 15 mm thickness is subjected to a tensile load of 30 kN. Find the
final volume of the bar, if the Poisson’s ratio is 0.25 and Young's modulus is 200 GN/m2.[Ans. 600 150 mm3]
2. A bar of 12 mm diameter gets stretched by 3 mm under a steady load of 8 kN. What stress would be
produced in the bar by a weight of 800 N, which falls through 80 mm before commencing the stretching of
the rod, which is initially unstressed. Take E= 200 KN/mm2. [Ans. 170.6 N/mm2]
3. The following results were obtained in a tensile test on a mild steel specimen of original diameter20 mm
and gauge length 40 mm.
Load at limit of proportionality = 80 kN
Extension at 80 kN load = 0.048 mm
Load at yield point = 85 kN
Maximum load = 150 kN
When the two parts were fitted together after being broken, the length between gauge length was found to
be 55.6 mm and the diameter at the neck was 15.8 mm.
Calculate Young's modulus, yield stress, ultimate tensile stress, percentage elongation and percentage
reduction in area. [Ans. 213 kN/mm2; 270 N/mm2; 478 N/mm2; 39%; 38%]

Lecture 5
Design for Wear
Lecture Six
Asst. Prof. Dr. Jamal J. Al –Khazraji Contact info.

Lect. Dr. Hind B. Al-Attraqchi Department of Materials Engineering
E-mail: 130047@uotechnology.edu.iq
What is Metallic Wear?
• The deterioration of metal surfaces is known as
the Metallic Wear.
• Wear is the result of erosion, abrasion, impact,
metal-to-metal contact, oxidation, oxidation and
corrosion or a corrosion, combination of these.

Lecture 6
Introduction to Wear
• Plastic deformation at the interface often leads to
wear, i.e., deformation induced wear.
• Wear can also be caused by chemical processes.
• There are many different kinds of wear
mechanisms
• We have to analyze these wear mechanisms
using mechanics, thermodynamics, etc. Tribology
is a multi-disciplinary subject.

Lecture 6
Types of Wear:
There are generally 12 Types of Metallic Wear:
1 Mild Adhesion
2. Severe Adhesion
3. Abrasion
4. Erosion
5. Polishing
6. Contact Fatigue
7. Corrosion
8. Fretting Corrosion
9. Brinelling
10.Electro-Corrosion
11 Electrical Discharge
12.Cavitation Damage
Lecture 6
Mild Adhesion:
• Generally, removal of surface film material due to
adhesion and subsequent loosening during
relative motion. Mild Adhesion transfer and
loosening of surface films only.

Lecture 6
Mild Adhesion:
Other names Susceptible Machine Parts
Normal/Common All
Mild Adhesion - How to detect it:

Unaided Eye Microscopically
Smooth micro plateaus among

Low rates of wear
original grinding marks
No damage Slight coloration due to films
Deeper original grinding

Slight coloration due to films
marks still visible

Lecture 6
Mild Adhesions Solutions:
■Prevention
Mechanical None
LUBRICANT None

Lecture 6
Severe Adhesion:
• Cold welding of metal surfaces due to intimate
metal to metal contact.
Mechanism:
• when two surfaces are brought together under
load, asperities of the two surfaces adhere to
each other. The conditions at the interface of
these junctions are j similar to those of a cold
weld. A strong bond is formed but without much
interdiffusion of atoms and recrystallization as
would occur in a hot weld.

Lecture 6
Lecture 6
Detection:
Severe Adhesion - How to detect it:
Rough, torn, melted or plastically

Rough, irregular surface
deformed metal, bands or streaks
Metal from other surface adhering

High temperature oxidation to other surface by spot tests or
microprobe analysis
High friction, high rates of wear

Lecture 6
Conditions Promoting Wear:
Conditions:
1. High loads, speeds and/or temperatures
2. Use of stainless steels or aluminum
3. Insufficient lubricant
4. Lack of anti-scuff additives
5. No break in
6. Abrasive wear interrupting film allowing
adhesion
Lecture 6
Severe Adhesion Solutions:
1. Reduce load, speed and temperature
2. Improve oil cooling
3. Use compatible metals
4. Apply surface coatings such as phosphating
5. Modify surface
LUBRICANT:
1. Use more viscous oil to separate surfaces
2. Use "extreme pressure" (anti-scuff) additives
such as a sulfur-phosphorous or borate
compounds.
Lecture 6
Abrasion:
• Abrasion is the wearing of surfaces by rubbing,
grinding, or other types of friction.
• It usually occurs due to metal-to metal contact. It
is a scraping, grinding wear that rubs away metal
surfaces and can be caused by the scouring
action of sand, gravel, slag, earth, and other gritty
material.

Lecture 6
Marine Diesel Engine Piston Ring
Rolling Tracks and Abrasive Spheres
• rvwvi i o « •»
Magnification 400x Magnification 600x

Lecture 6
Detection
Abrasion - How to detect it:
Scratches or parallel furrows in the

direction of motion, similar to Clean furrows, burrs, chips
"sanding"
High rates of wear Embedded abrasive particles
In sliding bearings with soft overlay

embedded particles

Lecture 6
Conditions Promoting Wear:
Conditions:
1. Hard particles contaminating oil
2. Insufficient metal hardness
3. Hard metal with rough surface against soft
metal

Lecture 6
Prevention:
MECHANICAL
1. Remove abrasive by improved air and oil
filtering, clean oil handling practices, improved
seals, flushing and frequent oil changes
2. Minimize shot peening, beading, or sand
blasting of surfaces because abrasives cannot
be completely removed
3. Increase hardness of metal surfaces
LUBRICANT
1. Use oil free of abrasive particles
2. Use more viscous oil
Lecture 6
Erosion:
• Definition:
Cutting of materials by hard particles in a high
velocity fluid impinging on a surface
Occurrence:
This type of wear results from sharp particles
impinging on a surface such as the cutting of
materials by hard particles in a high velocity fluid
impinging on a surface. This action is very much
like that of sandblasting.

Lecture 6
Mechanism:
58

Lecture 6
Erosion - How to detect it:
Smooth, broad grooves in direction Short V-shaped furrows by

of fluid flow scanning electron microscopy
Matte texture, clean metal Embedded hard particles
Similar to sandblasting

Lecture 6
Erosive Wear of Steel by Sand Blasting
Sand Particles
Magnification 60x
Eroded Steel
Magnification 2000x

Lecture 6
Erosion – Solutions:
Prevention:
MECHANICAL:
1. Remove abrasive by improved air and oil filtering,
clean oil handling practices, improved seals,
flushing and frequent oil changes
2. Increase hardness of metal surfaces
3. Reduce impact angle to less than 15 degrees
LUBRICANT:
1. Use oil free of abrasive particles
2. Use U more viscous oil.
Lecture 6
Contact Fatigue:
Definition:
Metal removed by cracking and pitting, due to
cyclic elastic stress during rolling and sliding
sliding.
Occurrence:
This type of wear is produced when repeated
sliding or rolling occurs over a track. The most
common example is the action of a ball or roller
bearing race. As the rolling element passes over a
given spot on the raceway it is stressed as the
raceway, load is applied and released.
Lecture 6
Contact Fatigue - How to detect it:
Combination of cracks and pits

Cracks, pits and spalls
with sharp edges
Subsurface cracks by
metallographic cross-section.
Numerous metal inclusions

Lecture 6
FATIGUE WEAR
Subsurface Cracks in Diesel Engine Lifter
Magnification 500x
S u rf ace

Lecture 6
Prevention:
MECHANICAL:
1. Reduce contact pressures and frequency of cyclic
stress
2. Use high quality vacuum melted steels
3. Use less abusive surface finish
LUBRICANT:
1. Use clean, dry oil clean
2. Use more viscous oil
3. Use oil with higher pressure viscosity coefficient.

Lecture 6

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Design Process

• Make design changes; modify or rebuild

• Most final designs are communicated

Modes of fracture DUCTILE BRITTLE

Depending on the ability of material to undergo plastic deformation before the

• Very little or no plastic deformation,

(Cup-and-cone fracture in Al) Brittle fracture in a mild steel

%AR or %EL Large Moderate Small

• Ductile fracture is Ductile: Brittle:

Critical stress for crack propagation

γs = specific surface energy

𝐸 = 69 𝐺𝑃𝑎 𝛾𝑠 =0.3 J/m2

Rearranging the equation

2𝐸𝛾 𝑎 = 8.2 * 10-6 m

Figure: Specimen used for charpy and izod impact test

§ The stress intensity factor K, is used in fracture mechanics to

• The stress-distribution at the crack tip

K= stress intensity factor

The three modes of crack surface displcement.

(a) : surface crack (b) embedded crack

Example 2 The critical stress intensity for a material for a component of a

Ans: (a) 0.072in (b) 0.163in

§ Two terms that help explain some of the aspects of

2. Plane Stress – a condition of a body

• The higher the yield of the material, the closer to

• As strain rates increase

Lect. Dr. Hind B. Al-Attraqchi

subjected to a cyclic load.

 This type of structural damage occurs even when the experienced

stress range is far below the static material strength.

 Fatigue is the most common source behind failures of mechanical

Design of Materials Engineering- Lecture 3

metal. It is the failure of a material by fracture when

 Fatigue is distinguished by three main features.

 ii) Loss of ductility

 iii) Increased uncertainty in strength and service life.

Design of Materials Engineering- Lecture 3

1. During a large number of cycles, the damage develops on the

2. The macroscopic crack grows for each cycle until it reaches a

3. The cracked component breaks because it can no longer sustain

Design of Materials Engineering- Lecture 3

 To avoid stress concentrations, rough surfaces and tensile residual stresses,

Design of Materials Engineering- Lecture 3

1. the Stress Range

2. The number of load cycles.

Design of Materials Engineering- Lecture 3

 Nucleation - formation of macroscopic cracks and

 Crack growth- The propagation of microscopic cracks.

Design of Materials Engineering- Lecture 3

 The “S-N” means stress verse cycles to

 An important characteristic to this plot

Design of Materials Engineering- Lecture 3

 Other important terms are fatigue strength and fatigue life.

Design of Materials Engineering- Lecture 3

Common variables used for fatigue prediction.

Design of Materials Engineering- Lecture 3

axial (tension – compression)

Note: By convention, tensile stresses are positive and compression

Design of Materials Engineering- Lecture 3

Design of Materials Engineering- Lecture 3

for the material to withstand the applied stress.

 This condition is summarized by the Goodman relationship:

Design of Materials Engineering- Lecture 3

a) shows the stress in