Sheet Metal Forming:

Formability & Forming Limits

• Sheet metal forming:
- Deformation of sheet metal to achieve
the desired shape

• Parameters:
Process : Clamping force (BHF)
Friction/lubrication (µ)
Material : Sheet metal quality (n, m, r)
Tool geometry & forming equipment
Modes of deformation
Deep drawing

Stretching

Bending

Combination of above
modes
• Deep drawing

- Flat blank is constrained while the

central portion of the sheet is
pressed into a die opening to draw
the metal into the desired shape
without folding of the corners
Deep drawn cups
- Cooking pans, box shapes or shell
like containers, automobile panels

- Positive major strain and negative

minor strain in the flange during
deformation leading to thickening
Stresses and deformation in a section
from a drawn cup
• Bending
- Process in which a straight length
is transformed into a curved
length
- Common forming process for
changing sheet and plate into
channel, drums, tanks etc
Bending of sheet metal
• Fibers on the outer surface is
subjected to tensile stress and the
lower surface is subjected to
compressive stresses

• Neutral axis is shifted towards

compression side
• Spring back

- Dimensional change of the formed

part after the pressure of the
forming tool has been released

- Results from the changes in strain

produced by elastic recovery
Spring back in bending
• Spring back will be greater

- higher the yield stress

- lower the elastic modulus
- greater the plastic strain
• Stretching
- Process of forming by the
application of primarily tensile forces
in the plane of the sheet in such a
way as to stretch the material over a
tool or form block
- To produce automobile and aircraft
parts
Schematic of stretching operation
using LDH tooling
Stretch Forming machine

Fig: Stretch Forming with ……………. Tool

• Balanced biaxial stretching:
- occurs when the perpendicular
forces are equal

• Plane strain stretching:

- elongation occurs in one direction
with no dimensional change in the
perpendicular direction
• Most materials fracture at a lower
level of strain in plane strain
condition
• Nearly 80% of the industrial parts
fail at plane strain condition
• During stretching, both major and
minor strains are positive in
nature
• Combined modes of deformation

- Industrial forming operations involve

combinations of various deformation
modes
- Variation with position
- Variation with stroke
 Combinations of deformation modes
a – Bend; b – Bend and straightening;
c - Cup drawing; d - dome or biaxial stretching;
p - Plane strain stretching
 Formability

Ability of a sheet metal to be

stamped or formed successfully into
useful components without
developing any failures
Formability: System parameter

Depends on
- Sheet material properties-n,m,r
- Process Conditions - µ, BHF
- Sheet Metal Component Shape
- Machine tool and equipments
Classification of formability
tests

* Bending Tests
* Drawing Tests
* Stretching Tests
* Combined Mode Tests
Forming Limit Diagram (FLD) –
Concept, Measurement &
Applications
 What is limit strain ?
• Strain above which useful shape
change is not Possible

• Necking – Localized straining

• Necking strain is limit strain

 Deformation under tensile conditions

Engg. stress
Uniform elongation: 30 %

Tensile strength
Engg strain = 0.3
True strain = 0.26
Yield strength Necking strain = 0.26
Limit strain = 0.26

Engg. strain
% Uniform elongation
(30%)
 ti

w0 wf

t0
lf
l0
 w = ln ( wf / w0 )
t = ln ( tf / t0 )
l = ln ( lf / l0)
w +  t + l = 0
Assuming isotropy,  w =  t
2w + l = 0
 w = - l / 2
Limit strain representation

EXAMPLE – TENSILE

(-0.13 , 0.26)
 Major Strain

(-0.13, 0.26 )

Minor Strain
 Strain ratio
• Minor Strain 
Major Strain

-1/2 < 

ρ for the above tensile deformation = - ½
ρ depends on sheet metal, tooling and
processing conditions
 Effect of strain ratio on necking

• Sheet metal formed under different strain

ratios neck at different strain levels
• Locus of surface strains at onset of
necking under various strain ratios define
FLD
 Major strain

Drawing stretching

Biaxial
stretching

Minor strain
 FLD / FLC

Major Strain

 


Minor Strain
Schematic of FLD
Major Strain

Marginal
Fail

Safe

Minor Strain
 Methodologies to determine
the Forming Limit Diagrams

• Out – of – plane stretching

• In - plane stretching
Out – of – plane stretching tooling
 Blank dimensions
•203.2 mm X 203.2 mm
•203.2 mm X 177.8 mm
•203.2 mm X 152.4 mm
•203.2 mm X 127 mm
•203.2 mm X 101.6 mm
•203.2 mm X 76.2 mm
•203.2 mm X 50.8 mm
•203.2 mm X 25.4 mm
Deformed samples of test
Fractured sample

Fracture
In-plane stretching tooling
Sheet samples for In-plane stretching
Construction of FLD
 Factors influencing FLD
• Sheet thickness

• Strain path

• Material properties (n, m, r)

Effect of t, n, m
Major strain

Increase ‘n’

Increase ‘m’

Increase
Thickness

Minor strain
 Definition of strain paths
Major Strain

Deep
drawing

Stretching
Plane strain

Minor Strain
• Use of Forming Limit Diagrams :

• Produce a satisfactory part without

failure or evidence of necking
• Used extensively during die design
& tryout
• Use the cheapest grade of sheet,
which will consistently press form
without developing failures
 Major strain

FLC

Strain path

Minor strain