Steel Structures CE406

(Tension)
By: Engr. Muhammad Noman
DCE, IIU Islamabad
Email: muhammad.noman@iiu.edu.pk
Introduction

• Tension members are structural elements that are subjected

to axial tensile forces.
• Examples of tension members are bracing for buildings and
bridges, truss members, and cables in suspended roof systems
• These members tend to elongate on the application of load.
Introduction (Cont’d)
• Typical examples are main members of trusses subjected to
tension.
• However, secondary members like tie rods and certain braces
may also be subjected to tensile loads.
Fundamental Mechanism
• If we have a member subjected to tension, then the stress on
that member is calculated as:
F=P/A
Where
P = Applied Load
A = Area of Cross-Section

• The presence of holes in a member will influence the stress at

a cross section through the hole or holes
Fundamental mechanism
(Cont’d)
• Typical Tensile strength test
Limit States
• A limit state is a condition of a structure beyond which it no
longer fulfills the relevant design criteria.
• Limit States are conditions of potential failure. Failure being
defined as any state that makes the design to be infeasible
(i.e., it will not work for its intended purpose).
• Structural limit states tend to fall into two major categories:
i) Strength Limit State
ii) Serviceability Limit State
Limit States (Strength)
• Strength based limit states are potential modes of structural
failure.
• For steel members, the failure may be either yielding
(permanent deformation) or rupture (actual fracture).
• The strength-based limit state can be written in the general
form:
Required Strength < Nominal Strength

• Typically, the structural design specifications use the following

variables to denote the different strengths:
P = Axial Force
M = Bending Moment
V = Shear Force
R = Reaction Force
Limit States (Serviceability)
• Serviceability limit states are those conditions that are not
strength based but still may make the structure unsuitable for
its intended use.
• The most common serviceability limit states in structural
design are deflection, vibration, slenderness, and clearance.
• Serviceability limit states can be written in the general form:
Actual Behavior < Allowable Behavior

• Variables to denote the different serviceability's:

Deformation: excessive load, deflection, cracking
Fastener Slip, yielding and plastic deformations
Motion: Human discomfort and perception
Tension members
• These are found predominantly as members of plane or space
trusses (2D & 3D), as members in transmission towers and as
wind bracing (single or double) for single story or high rise
steel structures.
• The strength of a tension member is controlled by the lowest
of the following limiting states:

• Yielding of Net Area

• Yielding of Gross Area
• Block Shear Failure
Gross Section
• It is the total area of cross-section present throughout the
length of the member.
• The elements, which are discontinued lengthwise, are not
included.
• For example, area of lacing elements and spacer plates is not
included in gross area.
• The gross area for rolled steel shapes is directly available in
the properties tables.
Gross Section (Cont’d)

Video: A test for yield strength of a steel member at 8X Speed

Gross Section (Cont’d)
• If we refer to Steel Construction Manual

Yielding of Gross Section Area (Ag):

Pn = Fy Ag
(ɸt = 0.9)

• Pn = nominal capacity (kip)

• Fy = Yield Stress (ksi)
• Ag = gross cross-sectional area (in2)
• ɸt = resistance factor
• ɸt Pn = design capacity (kips)
Net Section
• When tension members have holes punched in them for rivets
or bolts, the minimum reduced area after the holes are taken
out is called the net area.
• Failure of a tension member always occurs at the weakest
section where area of cross-section is minimum.
• According to AISC – D3.2, the net area of a member is the sum
of the products of the thickness and the net width of each
element.
Net Section (Cont’d)

Video: A test for Fracture of a steel member at 4X Speed

Net Area (Cont’d)
• If we refer to Steel Construction Manual:
Net-Section Fracture
P n = F u Ae
( ɸt= 0.75)

• Pn = nominal Capacity (kip)

• Fu = tensile stress (ksi)
• Ae = effective net area (in2)
• ɸt = resistance factor
• ɸt Pn = design capacity (kip)
Block Shear Rupture
• Block Shear is a limit state of:
❑Tension along one path
❑Shear yielding or shear failure along another path
Gross Area & Net Area
• In general, for bolted connections:
An = Ag- (Area lost due to bolt holes)

Also, a note on terminology:

• A line of bolts run parallel to stress
• This section has two lines of bolts per flange
Gross Area & Net Area (Cont’d)
• A hole is drilled (or punched) by 1/16 inch greater than the normal
diameter of the fastener (rivet or bolt). (Ref: Table J3.3, and
B3.13.b)
• Hole punching causes some damage to the edges of the hole to the
amount of 1/32 inch from each side.
• Thus, the nominal hole diameter
1 1 1
= bolt diameter + + +
16 32 32
1
= bolt dia. + inch.
8
• The diameter of standard sized hole is taken as 1/8” larger than the
diameter of the bolt
dh = db + 1/8in
• Alternatively, dh = db + 2 mm (for standard bolts)
• dh = db + 3 mm (for rivets)
Example 1:
• What is the net area An for the tension member as shown in
the figure?

1
Plate  4 (inches) Standard Hole for a 3 -in. diam bolt.
4 4

T T
Example 2
• Determine the net area of a 10 x 200 mm plate joined with
two 6 x 200 mm plates as shown in Figure. The plates are
connected to each other with two lines of 20 mm rivets.
Example 3:
• Calculate the net area of the plate shown. ¾ in diameter bolts
are used
Example 4:
Compute the net area of a rolled shape:
• W10x49
• ¾ inch diameter bolts are used
Staggered Bolt Arrangement
• What if, instead, we have a bolt arrangement like this?
• This is known as a staggered bolt arrangement.
• The main reason for doing this is to increase the net area.
• One of the added
complications of staggered
bolt arrangements is the
possibility of multiple
failure paths.
• All possible failure paths on
the lead line of bolts must
be investigated.
Staggered Bolt Arrangement
(Cont’d)
• Possible Failure paths
 Staggered Bolt Arrangement
(Cont’d)
• To handle staggered bolt paths, we make use of a stagger
factors:
s2t/4g

EFFECT OF STAGGERED HOLES ON NET AREA :- A

p p
A
Paths of failure
on net section
T T T g T

B p s
• S= longitudinal spacing (pitch) parallel to applied load C B
• G = transverse spacing (gage) perpendicular to applied load
• T = thickness
Staggered Bolt Arrangement
(Cont’d)
• Our final expression for net areas of bolted connections is now as
follows:

• Stagger factor are added to account for increased area along

diagonal failure path.
Example 5:
• Calculate the net area of the plate shown. ¾” diameter bolts
are used:
Example 6:
• Determine the minimum net area of plate shown in the figure
where the location of 20 mm diameter fastener is also
indicated.
Class Activity (Example 7)
• Find the Net Area of a staggered connection along an angle:
• L7x4x5/8
• ¾” diameter bolts are used.
Example 8
• Determine the net area for the angle given if 18 mm diameter
fasteners are used.
Shear Lag Factor
• Typically, when we connect tension members, we don’t
connect all the components.
• In this W-shape, only the flanges are connected.
• Ultimately this affects the performance of a connection.
• Shear lag factors can be found in Chapter D of the
specifications.
Shear Lag Factor (Cont’d)
• This creates a non-uniform stress
distribution around the connection
region.
• The stress trajectory around the
connection causes the efficiency of the
connection area to be reduced.
• This phenomenon is referred to as
shear lag.
• Shear Lag is a complex phenomenon
that requires either long calculations or
computer modelling to capture its
effect.
Shear Lag Factor (Cont’d)
Shear Lag Factor (Cont’d)
Shear Lag Factor (Cont’d)
• Examples of connection eccentricity:
Shear Lag Factor (Cont’d)
• The effect of connection length can be shown as follows:
• As the connection gets longer, the stress has more room to
propagate the cross section
• For bolted connections, connection length is taken as the out-
to-out distance between bolt holes:
Shear Lag Factor (Cont’d)
• For Welded connections, Connection length is taken as the
average welded length:
Slenderness Limitations
• In addition, we need to discuss service limit for tension
members.
• There is no maximum slender limit for members in tension (D1
Slenderness limitations)
• Note: for members designed on the basis of tension, the
slenderness ratio L/r preferably should not exceed 300. This
suggestion does not apply to rods in tension.
• These slenderness limitations are in place to prevent:
❑Excessive sag
❑Excessive vibrations
❑Damage during shipping
❑Damages during erection
❑Excessive deflection under members' own weight
Slenderness Limitations
• The recommended slenderness limit is therefore:

• Where:
❑L = member length (inches)
❑rmin = minimum radius of gyration
❑Use minimum of rx and ry for symmetric shapes (W shapes)
❑Use minimum r with respect to principal axes of
unsymmetrical shapes (angles)
(Ref: D1)
Summary of Equations
Yielding of Gross Section Area (Ag):
P n = F y Ag
(ɸt = 0.9)
ɸt Pn = 0.9 Fy Ag

Net-Section Fracture
P n = F u Ae
( ɸt= 0.75)
ɸt Pn = 0.75 Fu An U

Net Area of Bolted Connections:

Summary of Equations
Shear lag Factor

Slenderness Limit
Example 9:
• Determine the axial capacity of the following tension member.
Also determine if the member meets recommended
slenderness limits.
• 40ft long W8X24 (A992 Steel)
• ¾ inch diameter bolts
Tension Member Design
• Now that we’ve discussed how to analyze a tension member.
(determining the member’s axial capacity)
• We can begin to discuss how to design a tension member
(selection of members that are both safe and economical)
(selection of lightest section available to meet load demands)

• Review the requirements for tension members:

Yielding in gross section
Fracture in the net section
Slenderness limitations
Tension member Design
(Cont’d)
• Yielding of Gross section

• Slenderness Limits
Tension Member Design
(Cont’d)
• Fracture in net section:

Therefore, to select a member,

“U” must be assumed
Thickness of bolts must be assumed
Tension Member Design
(Cont’d)
• To keep this simple, we’ll make the following assumption for
design:

• Therefore, solving for the cross-sectional area:

Tension Member Design
(Cont’d)
• Therefore, we can select members based on the following
assumptions:

• The minimum denominator results in bigger complications

and worst-case scenario

• Note that the above gross area requirement is based on an

assumed effective net area, Ae
• Therefore, once we select a member, we always need to
analyze that member and verify its capacity
Tension Member Design
(Cont’d)
• Another relevant discussion is in terms of economy.
• In other words, is our design member an efficient one.

• A simplified measure of efficiency is as follows:

• A good thumb rule is that if this measure is 90% or greater, the

member is most likely the most economical selection
Example 10
• Design Example:
• Member is 30 ft long.
• Service Loads:
• PD = 130 kip
• PL = 110 kip

• Let’s select a W12 section for this member:

• Assume A992 steel
• 7/8” diameter bolts used
Practice Problem 1
• Find the available strength of the S-shape shown in Figure
3.20. The holes are for 3⁄4-inch-diameter bolts. Use A36 steel.
Practice Problem 2
• A tension member with a length of 5 feet 9 inches must resist
a service dead load of 18 kips and a service live load of 52
kips. Select a member with a rectangular cross section. Use
A36 steel and assume a connection with one line of 7⁄8-inch-
diameter bolts.
Practice Problem 3
• Select an unequal-leg angle tension member 15 feet long to
resist a service dead load of 35 kips and a service live load of
70 kips. Use A36 steel. The connection is shown in Figure.
Practice Problem 4
• Select a single-angle tension member of A36 steel to resist the
following service loads: dead load = 50 kips, live load = 100
kips, and wind load = 45 kips. The member will be connected
through one leg with 1-inch diameter bolts in two lines. There
will be four bolts in each line. The member length is 20 feet.
Practice Problem 5
• Select an ST shape to be used as a 20-ft-long tension member
to resist the following service loads: dead load = 38 kips, live
load = 115 kips, and snow load = 75 kips. The connection is
through the flange with three 3⁄4-inch diameter bolts in each
line. Use A572 Grade 50 steel.
Thank you