Intelligence Testing:

History and Theories

Intelligence
Intelligence is a multifaceted capacity that manifests itself in different ways across the life
span. Intelligence includes the abilities to:
■ acquire and apply knowledge
■ reason logically
■ plan effectively
■ infer perceptively
■ make sound judgments and solve problems
■ grasp and visualize concepts
■ pay attention
■ be intuitive
■ cope with, adjust to, and make the most of new situations
Tests Measuring Traits in Different Areas

• Psychological test have been constructed for measuring traits in

different areas as intelligence, aptitudes, interests, attitudes and
personality etc. On this basis the tests can be classified into three
categories.
• Tests of general intelligence
• Tests of special aptitudes
• Tests for measuring personality
Different types of ability

• APTITUDE: potential for learning or acquiring a specific skill (given a

certain amount of training, education or experience). It predicts
future performance of a person. E.g, NTS, SAT
• assess specific types of mental abilities
• ACHIEVEMENT: refers to current skills set and learning on the basis of
previous learning. E.g., Annual exams, Semester GPA
• gauge a person’s mastery of knowledge on various subjects
• INTELLIGENCE: refers to a person’s general potential to solve
problems, adapt to changing circumstances, think abstractly and
profit from experience
Aptitude
History of Intelligence
Testing
History
• The scientific study of human intelligence dates back well over 100
years. In that time there have been numerous schools of thought about
how to measure intelligence. The core disagreement between
researchers and theorists about intelligence is around whether it’s
genetic or largely influenced by the environment; whether it’s nature
or nurture.
Francis Galton
• In the late 1800s, Englishman Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911) became
one of the first people to study intelligence. He tried to measure
physical characteristics of noblemen and created a laboratory
(anthropometric lab) to measure their reaction time and other physical
and sensory qualities through Galton whistle and bar. Galton
pioneered psychometric and statistical methods.
• Paul Broca (1824-1880) and Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911) were
among the first scientists to think about measuring intelligence. They
thought they could determine intelligence by measuring the size of the
human skull. They assumed that the larger the skull, the smarter the
person.
Wilhelm Wundt
• Around the same time, scientist Wilhelm Wundt (1932-1920) used
introspection - the human ability to reflect on their own thoughts - as
the measure of intelligence. Nowadays their methods and ideas are
considered to be outmoded and are for sure no longer used for IQ
tests, but they form a fundamental part of the history of the IQ test.
Binet and Simon
• The first modern intelligence test in IQ history was developed in 1904,
by Alfred Binet (1857-1911) and Theodore Simon (1873-1961). The
French Ministry of Education asked these researchers to develop a test
that would allow for distinguishing mentally retarded children from
normally intelligent, but lazy children. The result was the Simon-Binet
IQ test. This IQ test consists of several components such as logical
reasoning, finding rhyming words and naming objects.
• The score for the IQ test in combination with a child's age, provides
information on the intellectual development of the child: is the child
ahead of or lagging other children. (mental age/chronological age) X
100. The test came to be a huge success, both in Europe and America.
World War-1
• During Yerkes' tenure as President of the APA, he became involved in
developing the Army's Alpha and Beta Intelligence Tests as part of the
World War I effort. The tests were extensively used during this time
and were taken by millions of U.S. soldiers.
• While Yerkes believed that the tests measured native intelligence, later
findings revealed that education, training, and acculturation played an
important role in performance.
Theories of Intelligence
Testing
Theory of general intelligence (Charles
Spearman)
• General intelligence, also known as g factor, refers to a general mental
ability that, according to Spearman, underlies multiple specific skills,
including verbal, spatial, numerical and mechanical.
• In the case of intelligence, Spearman noticed that those who did well
in one area of intelligence tests (for example, mathematics), also did
well in other areas (such as distinguishing pitch)
• Spearman concluded that there is a single g-factor which represents an
individual’s general intelligence across multiple abilities, and that a
second factor, s, refers to an individual’s specific ability in one
particular area (Spearman, as cited in Thomson, 1947).
• The greater the magnitude of g in a test of intelligence, the better the
test was thought to predict overall intelligence.
Theory of Primary Mental Abilities
(Thurstone)
• Thurstone (1938) developed and published the Primary Mental
Abilities test, which consisted of separate tests, each designed to
measure one PMA: verbal meaning, perceptual speed, reasoning,
number facility, rote memory, word fluency, and spatial relations.
Although the test was not widely used, this early model of multiple
abilities inspired other theorists and test developers to explore various
components of intelligence and ways to measure them.
• Thurstone did not reject Spearman’s idea of general intelligence
altogether, he instead theorized that intelligence consists of both
general ability and a number of specific abilities
Word Fluency Ability to use words quickly
and fluency in performing
such tasks as rhyming,
solving anagrams, and doing
crossword puzzles.
Verbal Comprehension Ability to understand the
meaning of words, concepts,
and ideas.
Numerical Ability Ability to use numbers to
quickly computer answers to
problems.
Spatial Visualization Ability to visualize and
manipulate patters and
forms in space.
Perceptual Speed Ability to grasp
perceptual details
quickly and accurately
and to determine
similarities and
differences between
stimuli.
Memory Ability to recall
information such as lists
or words, mathematical
formulas, and
definitions.
Inductive Reasoning Ability to derive general
rules and principles from
presented information.
Theory of Multiple Intelligence (Howard
Gardner)
• He proposed that there is no single intelligence, but rather distinct,
independent multiple intelligences exist, each representing unique
skills and talents relevant to a certain category.
• Gardner (1983, 1987) initially proposed seven multiple intelligence:
linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic,
interpersonal, and intrapersonal, and he has since added naturalist
intelligence.
• Gardner holds that most activities (such as dancing) will involve a
combination of these multiple intelligences (such as spatial and
bodily-kinesthetic intelligences).
• There have been few empirical studies that actually test this theory,
and this theory does not account for other types of intelligence beyond
the ones Gardner lists (Sternberg, 2003).
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Robert
Sternberg)
• Robert Sternberg proposed a three-category theory of intelligence,
integrating components that were lacking in Gardner’s theory. This
theory is based on the definition of intelligence as the ability to
achieve success based on your personal standards and your
sociocultural context.
Fluid VS Crystalized Intelligence
• In recent years, a theory of intelligence first proposed by Raymond B.
Cattell (1941, 1971) and subsequently modified by Horn (Cattell &
Horn, 1978; Horn & Cattell, 1966, 1967) has received increasing
attention from test developers as well as test users.
• The theory postulated the existence of two major types of cognitive
abilities: crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence. The Cattell-
Horn (1966) theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence suggests that
intelligence is composed of a number of different abilities that interact
and work together to produce overall individual intelligence
Fluid Intelligence
• Fluid intelligence is the ability to problem solve in novel situations
without referencing prior knowledge, but rather through the use of
logic and abstract thinking. Fluid intelligence can be applied to any
novel problem because no specific prior knowledge is required
(Cattell, 1963). As you grow older fluid increases and then starts to
decrease in the late 20s.
Crystallized Intelligence
• Crystallized intelligence refers to the use of previously-acquired
knowledge, such as specific facts learned in school or specific motor
skills or muscle memory (Cattell, 1963). As you grow older and
accumulate knowledge, crystallized intelligence increases.
• Retrieval of information and application of general knowledge are
conceived of as elements of crystallized intelligence.
 Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence

• Fluid Intelligence
• The ability to think on the spot and solve novel problems
• The ability to perceive relationships
• The ability to gain new types of knowledge

• Crystallized Intelligence
• Factual knowledge about the world
• The skills already learned and practiced
• Examples
• Arithmetic facts
• Knowledge of the meaning of words
• State capitals
Emotional Intelligence
• Emotional Intelligence is the “ability to monitor one’s own and other
people’s emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and
label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide
thinking and behaviour” (Salovey and Mayer, 1990).
• The four key components of emotional Intelligence are (i) self-
awareness, (ii) self-management, (iii) social awareness, and (iv)
relationship management.
Emotional Intelligence
• Emotional Intelligence- includes four major aspects of interpersonal
and intrapersonal intelligences
• 1. Perceive/Express Emotions Correctly
• 2. Use emotions while thinking
• 3. Understand emotions/use knowledge
• 4. Regulate emotions for personal growth
In other words, if you are high in emotional intelligence,
you can accurately perceive emotions in yourself and
others (such as reading facial expressions)
Intelligence Testing
Binet-Simon Scale
• During the early 1900s, the French government enlisted the help of
psychologist Alfred Binet to understand which children were going to
be slower learners and thus require more assistance in the classroom
(Binet et al., 1912).
• As a result, he and his colleague, Theodore Simon, began to develop a
specific set of questions that focused on areas such as memory and
problem-solving skills.
They tested these questions on groups of students aged
three to twelve to help standardize the measure (Binet et
al., 1912). Binet realized that some children were able to
answer advanced questions that their older peers were
able to answer.
As a result, he created the concept of a mental age, or
how well an individual performs intellectually relative to
the average performance at that age (Cherry, 2020).
Ultimately, Binet finalized the scale, known as the Binet-
Simon scale, that became the basis for the intelligence
tests still used today.
The Binet-Simon scale of 1905 comprised 30 items
designed to measure judgment, comprehension, and
reasoning which Binet deemed the key characteristics of
intelligence.
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
• When the Binet-Simon scale made its way over to the United States,
Stanford psychologist Lewis Terman adapted the test for American
students, and published the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale in 1916.
• The Stanford-Binet Scale is a contemporary assessment which
measures intelligence according to five features of cognitive ability,
including fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-
spatial processing and working memory. Both verbal and nonverbal
responses are measured.
• This test used a single number, referred to as the intelligence quotient
(IQ) to indicate an individual’s score.
 David Wechsler
Wechsler developed the Wechsler
Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and
later the
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children (WISC), an intelligence test
for children.
The Wechsler Preschool and Primary
Scales of Intelligence (WPPSI) for
preschoolers

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Verbal Intelligence test
• Information : A persons level of general knowledge
• Comprehension : How well you can understand questions and grasp
concepts.
• Arithmetic : A persons mathematical abilities.
• Similarities : Measures abstract thought.
• Digit Span : Measures attention span.
• Vocabulary : How many word meanings you know.
Performance Intelligence Test
• Digit Symbol : Mental flexibility with random symbols.
• Picture Completion : Ability to notice differences between two similar
pictures.
• Block Design : Mentally construct printed designs in your head.
• Picture Arrangement : Arrange pictures in a logical order.
• Object Assembly : Place the correct part in relationship to a whole.
 The Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
• Terman: IQ = mental age ÷ chronological age x 100
• Wechsler (1939): deviation IQ = expression of IQ relative to same aged
peers (eliminated age effects with Stern’s formula)
• Average IQ = 100, the standard deviation is 15. 68% of the population is
between 85 - 115

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

 Controversies over IQ Testing
• Nature versus Nurture Heritability – the
degree to which a characteristic is related to
inherited genetic factors
• Cultural Bias – an aspect of an intelligence test
in which the wording used in questions may be
more familiar to people of one social group
than to another group
 Genius and
Exceptional Intelligence
• Lewis Terman (1959) studied 1,500 students with IQs of about 135 or
higher
• Findings from the “Termites” disputed many popular stereotypes of
the highly intelligent:
• Most had above average health, and were taller and heavier than
the general population
• They were highly successful in adulthood
• They had lower rates of mental illness
• The best predictor of exceptional career success in musicians is the
amount of practice
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
 Genetic Influences on IQ

• Family Studies
• Correlations between siblings are approximately 0.5 and cousins are about 0.15
• Twin Studies
• MZ twins correlate approximately 0.7-0.8 whereas DZ correlation is approximately
0.3 to 0.4
• Support an estimate of heritability from 40 to 70%
• Adoption Studies
• IQs of adopted children tend to be similar to the IQs of their biological parents, and
this effect tends to increase with age

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

 Environmental Influences on IQ
• Birth Order
• Robert Zajonc (1976) - IQ decreases with increasing birth order (later studies
suggested this was due to families with low IQs tending to have more children)
• Schooling
• Number of school years correlates with IQ (0.5 - 0.6)
• Students who drop out of school end up with lower IQs than those who stay in,
even when starting out with the same IQ
• Early Intervention
• Head Start program produces changes in IQ that last a few years

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

 Environmental Influences on IQ
• Expectancy Effects
• Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson gave fake data to teachers
suggesting some students would experience large increases in IQ
• These randomly selected students experienced an IQ gain of around 4
points
• Poverty
• Arthur Jensen (1977) studied poor families in Georgia and found that
children experienced a 1.5 IQ point drop per year
• Poverty could be associated with malnutrition, exposure to lead, and less
breast-feeding

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

 Gender Differences in Specific Mental
Abilities
• Differences tend to be small:
• Women do better on some verbal tasks, including spelling and writing
• Women talk more than men
(F = 20,000 words per day; M = 7,000)
• Men tend to do better on spatial tasks, especially mental rotation
• Gender differences could be due to environment

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

 Gender Similarities and Differences
There are seven ways in which males and females differ in various
abilities.
1. Girls are better spellers

2. Girls are verbally fluent and have large vocabularies

3. Girls are better at locating objects

4. Girls are more sensitive to touch, taste, and color

5. Boys outnumber girls in counts of underachievement

6. Boys outperform girls at math problem solving, but under perform at math
computation

7. Women detect emotions more easily than men do 49

 Other Dimensions of Intellect
• Creativity
• Divergent thinking: the capacity to generate many solutions to problems
• Convergent thinking: the capacity to find the single best solution to a given
problem
• Creativity and intelligence are related, but not all intelligent people are creative

• Personality
• IQ is associated with openness to experience: curiosity for exploring new things

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

The Flynn Effect
• It is important to regularly standardize an intelligence test because the
overall level of intelligence in a population may change over time.
• This phenomenon is known as the Flynn effect (named after its
discoverer, New Zealand researcher James Flynn) which refers to the
observation that scores on intelligence tests worldwide increase from
decade to decade (Flynn, 1984).
 Flynn Effect

In the past 60 years, intelligence scores have risen steadily by an

average of 27 points. Tests must be re-standardized over time

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Flynn effect- several theories to explain, may be due to:
• Better nutrition
• Better education
• More stimulating environments
• More parental investment
• Better genes