Teaching Reading

with an Attitude:
What Teachers Can Do to Foster
Lifelong Readers

George Graham Lecture, 2008

Michael C. McKenna
University of Virginia
 Is lifelong reading really a
worthwhile instructional goal?
Arguments against a nation
of lifelong readers
 High literacy rates are a very recent phenomenon.
Historically, reading has been reserved for the very
few. (See Caleb Crain, “Twilight of the Books,” The
New Yorker, December 24, 2007, for a discussion.)
 Digital technology is changing what counts as
literacy. In fact, we now speak in the plural, of the
new “literacies” (e.g. Don Leu, 2000, Handbook of
Reading Research, Volume 3).
 Not everyone may be cut out to read extensively and
well. This may be the natural order of humanity. (See
Ursula K. LeGuin, Harpers Magazine, February,
2008.)
I … want to question the assumption … that
books are on the way out. I think they’re here
to stay. It’s just that not that many people ever
did read them. Why should we think everybody
ought to now?
Ursula K. LeGuin
“Staying Awake: Notes on the Alleged Decline of Reading”
Harpers Magazine
February, 2008
Two kinds of trends:
1. Developmental trends within an
individual
2. Historical trends across years
 A Few Unpleasantries
 Nearly half of all Americans ages 18 to 24 read no books
for pleasure.
 The percentage of 18-to-44-year-olds who read a book fell 7
points from 1992 to 2002.
 Less than one-third of 13-year-olds are daily readers.
 The percentage of 17-year-olds who read nothing at all for
pleasure has doubled over a 20-year period.
 Voluntary reading rates diminish from childhood to late
adolescence.
 The percentage of college graduates who report reading
literature fell from 82% in 1982 to 67% in 2002.

– To Read or Not to Read

National
 A Few Unpleasantries
 Nearly half of all Americans ages 18 to 24 read no books
for pleasure.
 The percentage of 18-to-44-year-olds who read a book in the
past year fell 7 points from 1992 to 2002.
 Less than one-third of 13-year-olds are daily readers.
 The percentage of 17-year-olds who read nothing at all for
pleasure has doubled over a 20-year period.
 Voluntary reading rates diminish from childhood to late
adolescence.
 The percentage of college graduates who report reading
literature fell from 82% in 1982 to 67% in 2002.

– To Read or Not to Read

National
 A Few Unpleasantries
 Nearly half of all Americans ages 18 to 24 read no books
for pleasure.
 The percentage of 18-to-44-year-olds who read a book in the
past year fell 7 points from 1992 to 2002.
 Less than one-third of 13-year-olds are daily readers.
 The percentage of 17-year-olds who read nothing at all for
pleasure has doubled over a 20-year period.
 Voluntary reading rates diminish from childhood to late
adolescence.
 The percentage of college graduates who report reading
literature fell from 82% in 1982 to 67% in 2002.

– To Read or Not to Read

National
 A Few Unpleasantries
 Nearly half of all Americans ages 18 to 24 read no books
for pleasure.
 The percentage of 18-to-44-year-olds who read a book in the
past year fell 7 points from 1992 to 2002.
 Less than one-third of 13-year-olds are daily readers.
 The percentage of 17-year-olds who read nothing at all for
pleasure has doubled over a 20-year period.
 Voluntary reading rates diminish from childhood to late
adolescence.
 The percentage of college graduates who report reading
literature fell from 82% in 1982 to 67% in 2002.

– To Read or Not to Read

National
 A Few Unpleasantries
 Nearly half of all Americans ages 18 to 24 read no books
for pleasure.
 The percentage of 18-to-44-year-olds who read a book in the
past year fell 7 points from 1992 to 2002.
 Less than one-third of 13-year-olds are daily readers.
 The percentage of 17-year-olds who read nothing at all for
pleasure has doubled over a 20-year period.
 Voluntary reading rates diminish from childhood to late
adolescence.
 The percentage of college graduates who report reading
literature fell from 82% in 1982 to 67% in 2002.

– To Read or Not to Read

National
 A Few Unpleasantries
 Nearly half of all Americans ages 18 to 24 read no books
for pleasure.
 The percentage of 18-to-44-year-olds who read a book in the
past year fell 7 points from 1992 to 2002.
 Less than one-third of 13-year-olds are daily readers.
 The percentage of 17-year-olds who read nothing at all for
pleasure has doubled over a 20-year period.
 Voluntary reading rates diminish from childhood to late
adolescence.
 The percentage of college graduates who report reading
literature fell from 82% in 1982 to 67% in 2002.

– To Read or Not to Read

National
http://www.ccsu.edu/AMLC07
 Five Year Trends, 2003-07
 Fifty-seven out of 60 cities reported fewer
retail booksellers in 2007 than in 2003.
 Per capita circulation of magazines in the
United States increased in 87 percent of the
cities studied.
 All but one city declined in Sunday
newspaper circulation.
 Almost all the cities have more free Internet
access points. More people are reading
newspapers online and buying books online
than in previous years.
 2007
How often do you read for fun, on your own time?

Grade 4 Grade 8
 2007
How often do you read for fun, on your own time?

Grade 4 Grade 8
 2007
How often do you read for fun, on your own time?

Grade 4 Grade 8
 Attitude Trends, Grades 1-6

1. Attitudes toward reading

tend to worsen with age.

McKenna, M. C., Kear, D. J., & Ellsworth, R. A. (1995). Children’s attitudes toward
reading: A national survey. Reading Research Quarterly, 30, 934-956.
 Attitude Trends, Grades 1-6

2. Attitudes worsen most for

the worst readers.

McKenna, M. C., Kear, D. J., & Ellsworth, R. A. (1995). Children’s attitudes toward
reading: A national survey. Reading Research Quarterly, 30, 934-956.
“Matthew Effect”
 Attitude Trends, Grades 1-6

3. Girls have more positive

reading attitudes than boys.

McKenna, M. C., Kear, D. J., & Ellsworth, R. A. (1995). Children’s attitudes toward
reading: A national survey. Reading Research Quarterly, 30, 934-956.
 Attitude Trends, Grades 1-6

4. Ethnicity is not, in itself,

related to reading attitudes.

McKenna, M. C., Kear, D. J., & Ellsworth, R. A. (1995). Children’s attitudes toward
reading: A national survey. Reading Research Quarterly, 30, 934-956.
If we hope to foster positive
reading attitudes, we must
first consider how attitudes
are acquired.
 A Definition of Attitude
A learned predisposition to respond in a
consistently favorable or unfavorable manner
with respect to a given object.

– Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975, p. 6, original emphasis

Martin Fishbein Icek Ajzen

Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Think of attitudes on a scale from
negative to positive …

– +
 Definition of Interest
This term “is usually associated with a topic, such
as dinosaurs or Civil War history.”

– Guthrie and Wigfield, 2000, p. 405

John Guthrie Allan Wigfield

Guthrie, J. T., & Wigfield, A. (2000). Engagement and motivation in reading. In M.

L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.). Handbook of
reading research (Vol. 3, pp. 403-422). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
General Attitude toward Reading

Attitude toward Reading

Science Fiction

Attitude toward Reading

Specific Ray Bradbury
General Attitude toward Reading

Attitude toward Reading

Science Fiction

Attitude toward Reading

Ray Bradbury

Attitude toward Reading

Specific The Martian Chronicles
 An interest is actually a micro-attitude
– an attitude toward a concept smaller
than reading.
 We can use our knowledge of a
student’s interests to motivate the
student to read.
 Positive experiences may also be
expected to have a trickle-up effect on
general attitude toward reading.
A Model of Reading Attitude
Acquisition
 Social Structure and Environment

Beliefs about Beliefs about

others’ the
expectations outcomes of
reading
Subjective Norms
Intention to ReadReading Attitude
contingent on: contingent on: contingent on:
• identity of others
• availability of help • strength of attitude
• conflicting expectations
• availability of materials
• personal purposes
• specific expectations
• interest in topic • importance ascribed to
• externally imposed
• time constraints specific reading activity
purposes for reading
• physical environment being considered
• competing options
• physiological state
• nature of specific text

Decision to Read
 Social Structure and Environment

Beliefs about Beliefs about

others’ the
expectations outcomes of
reading
Subjective Norms
Intention to ReadReading Attitude
contingent on: contingent on: contingent on:
• identity of others
• availability of help • strength of attitude
• conflicting expectations
• availability of materials
• personal purposes
• specific expectations
• interest in topic • importance ascribed to
• externally imposed
• time constraints specific reading activity
purposes for reading
• physical environment being considered
• competing options
• physiological state
• nature of specific text

Decision to Read
To read or not to read –
That is the question.
 Social Structure and Environment

Beliefs about Beliefs about

others’ the
expectations outcomes of
reading
Subjective Norms
Intention to ReadReading Attitude
contingent on: contingent on: contingent on:
• identity of others
• availability of help • strength of attitude
• conflicting expectations
• availability of materials
• personal purposes
• specific expectations
• interest in topic • importance ascribed to
• externally imposed
• time constraints specific reading activity
purposes for reading
• physical environment being considered
• competing options
• physiological state
• nature of specific text

Decision to Read
 Beliefs about the
Expectations of Others
 Who has expectations about a child’s
reading?
 To what extent is the child inclined to
meet those expectations?
 Social Structure and Environment

Beliefs about Beliefs about

others’ the
expectations outcomes of
reading
Subjective Norms
Intention to ReadReading Attitude
contingent on: contingent on: contingent on:
• identity of others
• availability of help • strength of attitude
• conflicting expectations
• availability of materials
• personal purposes
• specific expectations
• interest in topic • importance ascribed to
• externally imposed
• time constraints specific reading activity
purposes for reading
• physical environment being considered
• competing options
• physiological state
• nature of specific text

Decision to Read
 Beliefs about the
Outcomes of Reading
 Is reading likely to be pleasurable or
useful?
 Or is reading likely to be boring,
frustrating, even humiliating?
Finding ways to alter a child’s
belief structure is a key
challenge in fostering more
positive attitudes.
 Social Structure and Environment

Beliefs about Beliefs about

others’ the
expectations outcomes of
reading
Subjective Norms
Intention to ReadReading Attitude
contingent on: contingent on: contingent on:
• identity of others
• availability of help • strength of attitude
• conflicting expectations
• availability of materials
• personal purposes
• specific expectations
• interest in topic • importance ascribed to
• externally imposed
• time constraints specific reading activity
purposes for reading
• physical environment being considered
• competing options
• physiological state
• nature of specific text

Decision to Read
 Social Structure and Environment

Beliefs about Beliefs about

others’ the
expectations outcomes of
reading
Subjective Norms
Intention to ReadReading Attitude
contingent on: contingent on: contingent on:
• identity of others
• availability of help • strength of attitude
• conflicting expectations
• availability of materials
• personal purposes
• specific expectations
• interest in topic • importance ascribed to
• externally imposed
• time constraints specific reading activity
purposes for reading
• physical environment being considered
• competing options
• physiological state
• nature of specific text

Decision to Read
Instruction that fosters positive
attitudes should …
 Instruction that fosters positive
attitudes should …

 Provide successful and engaging

experiences with reading
 Instruction that fosters positive
attitudes should …

 Provide successful and engaging

experiences with reading
 Strengthen beliefs that reading
will be pleasant
 Instruction that fosters positive
attitudes should …

 Provide successful and engaging

experiences with reading
 Strengthen beliefs that reading
will be pleasant
 Challenge beliefs about peer
expectations concerning reading
The Economics
of Reading
Attitude

What if reading
were a product to
be sold?
Reading Must Compete for “Shelf Space”
Reading Must Compete for “Shelf Space”
Reading Must Compete for “Shelf Space”
 Hi Positive

Number of Attitude
Competing toward
Choices Reading
Lo Negative
 Hi Positive

Number of Attitude
Competing toward
Choices Reading
Lo Negative
 Reading Teachers as a
Sales Force
Testimonial
Transfer
Bandwagon
Glittering Generality
Name Calling
Plain Folks
Card Stacking
 Reading Teachers as a
Sales Force
Testimonial
Transfer
Bandwagon
Glittering Generality
Name Calling
Plain Folks
Card Stacking
 Reading Teachers as a
Sales Force
Testimonial
Transfer
Bandwagon
Glittering Generality
Name Calling
Plain Folks
Card Stacking
 Reading Teachers as a
Sales Force
Testimonial
Transfer
Bandwagon
Glittering Generality
Name Calling
Plain Folks
Card Stacking
 Reading Teachers as a
Sales Force
Testimonial
Transfer
Bandwagon
Glittering Generality
Name Calling
Plain Folks
Card Stacking
 Reading Teachers as a
Sales Force
Testimonial
Transfer
Bandwagon
Glittering Generality
Name Calling
Plain Folks
Card Stacking
 Reading Teachers as a
Sales Force
Testimonial
Transfer
Bandwagon
Glittering Generality
Name Calling
Plain Folks The more that you read,
Card Stacking the more things you will know.
The more that you learn,
the more places you’ll go.
 Reading Teachers as a
Sales Force
Testimonial
Transfer
Bandwagon
Glittering Generality
Name Calling

Plain Folks
Card Stacking
 Reading Teachers as a
Sales Force
Testimonial
Transfer
Bandwagon
Glittering Generality
Name Calling
Plain Folks
Card Stacking
 Reading Teachers as a
Sales Force
Testimonial
Transfer
Bandwagon
Glittering Generality
Name Calling
Plain Folks
Card Stacking
Just as in making a purchase,
a child will weigh the benefits
of reading against the costs.
 Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading

Cost of Reading in
Effort and Frustration
Lo Hi

Hi
Benefits of Reading in
Pleasure or Utility
Lo
 Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading

Cost of Reading in
Effort and Frustration
Lo Hi

Hi
Benefits of Reading in
Pleasure or Utility
Lo
 Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading

I’m a good reader

and I love reading.
Cost of Reading in
Effort and Frustration
Lo Hi

Hi
Benefits of Reading in
Pleasure or Utility
Lo
 Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading

Cost of Reading in
Effort and Frustration
Lo Hi

Hi
Benefits of Reading in
Pleasure or Utility
Lo
 Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading

I’m a good reader but I’d

rather do something else.
Cost of Reading in
Effort and Frustration
Lo Hi

Hi
Benefits of Reading in
Pleasure or Utility
Lo
 Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading

Cost of Reading in
Effort and Frustration
Lo Hi

Hi
Benefits of Reading in
Pleasure or Utility
Lo
 Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading

I’m not a very good reader,

but I’d sure like to be.
Cost of Reading in
Effort and Frustration
Lo Hi

Hi
Benefits of Reading in
Pleasure or Utility
Lo
 Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading

Cost of Reading in
Effort and Frustration
Lo Hi

Hi
Benefits of Reading in
Pleasure or Utility
Lo
 Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading

I’m not a very good reader,

but then, who cares?

Cost of Reading in
Effort and Frustration
Lo Hi

Hi
Benefits of Reading in
Pleasure or Utility
Lo
 Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading

Cost of Reading in
Effort and Frustration
Lo Hi

Hi
Benefits of Reading in
Pleasure or Utility
Lo
 Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading

Cost of Reading in
Effort and Frustration
Lo Hi

Hi
Benefits of Reading in
Pleasure or Utility
Lo
 Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading

Cost of Reading in
Effort and Frustration
Lo Hi

Hi
Benefits of Reading in
Pleasure or Utility
Lo
How can we move children
into the high-benefit,
low-cost quadrant?
 Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading

Build proficiency
Include shorter choices
Cost of Reading in
Conduct read-alouds Effort and Frustration
Lo Hi

Hi
Benefits of Reading in
Pleasure or Utility
Lo
Avid readers appear to share only one
characteristic:

Victor Nell

Nell, V. (1988). Lost in a book: The psychology of reading for pleasure.

New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Avid readers appear to share only one
characteristic: Proficiency.

Victor Nell

Nell, V. (1988). Lost in a book: The psychology of reading for pleasure.

New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
But proficiency is not enough.

aliteracy n.
the tendency of proficient
readers not to read
 Cost-Benefit Ratio in Reading

Build on interests
Include variety and choice
Conduct read-alouds Cost of Reading in
Effort and Frustration
Lo Hi

Hi
Benefits of Reading in
Pleasure or Utility
Lo
Teacher Awareness of
Student Attitudes
Two Ways to Learn about
Your Students’ Attitudes

1. Ask them.
2. Watch them.
Some Ways to Ask about
Attitudes
Journals
Conferences
Open-Ended Questions
Interest Inventories
Attitude Surveys
Some Ways to Ask about
Attitudes
Journals
Conferences
Open-Ended Questions
Interest Inventories
Attitude Surveys
Some Ways to Ask about
Attitudes
Journals
Conferences
Open-Ended Questions
Interest Inventories
Attitude Surveys
Some Ways to Ask about
Attitudes
Journals
Conferences
Open-Ended Questions
Interest Inventories
Attitude Surveys
I like to read about __________
 a page
I like to read about __________
Some Ways to Ask about
Attitudes
Journals
Conferences
Open-Ended Questions
Interest Inventories
Attitude Surveys
Three Universal Interests
(regardless of age or gender)

1. Animals
2. Humor
3. The Weird
Some Ways to Ask about
Attitudes
Journals
Conferences
Open-Ended Questions
Interest Inventories
Attitude Surveys
A Tale of Cats and Dogs
12. How do you think your friends feel when you read aloud?
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9
10
Agree Tend Tend
Disagree
to
to
Agree Disagree
| |
| |
 Suggestions for Teachers
 Assess attitudes and interests.
 Focus on proficiency.
 “Sell” reading.
 Build an engaging classroom.
 Build an engaging classroom library.
 Use research-based techniques.
 Some Effective Techniques
 Avoiding denigrating group placement
 Using high-quality literature
 Reading aloud to children
 Activating prior knowledge
 Stressing links between literature and students’ lives
 Teaching comprehension strategies
 Cross-age interactions
 Facilitating literature discussion groups
 Providing older models with positive attitudes
 Some Effective Techniques
 Collaborative activities
 Challenging materials
 Projects that entail several class periods
 Techniques that facilitate comprehension
 Bibliotherapy
What about rewards?
 Definition of Motivation

the relationship between any factor,

intrinsic or extrinsic, that causes an
individual to act in a specific way

(This is my definition.)
 Intrinsic Decision to Read
Motivation Because of Positive
Attitude

Extrinsic Decision to Read

Motivation Despite Negative
Attitude
 Intrinsic Decision to Read
Motivation Because of Positive
Attitude

Extrinsic Decision to Read

Motivation Despite Negative
Attitude
 Intrinsic Decision to Read
Motivation Because of Positive
Attitude

Extrinsic Decision to Read

Motivation Despite Negative
Attitude
 Rationale for Extrinsic Motivation

 Reading practice will lead, over time, to improved

proficiency.
 Exposure to a variety of texts may result in a
“connection” that will dispel negative beliefs about the
outcomes of reading.
 but
 Rewards may foster a habit of reading only for rewards
 Rewards may foster a belief that reading is inherently
unmotivating
 Rationale for Extrinsic Motivation

 Reading practice will lead, over time, to improved

proficiency.
 Exposure to a variety of texts may result in a
“connection” that will dispel negative beliefs about the
outcomes of reading.
but
 Rewards may foster a habit of reading only for rewards
 Rewards may foster a belief that reading is inherently
unmotivating
Incentives can be expected to improve
reading attitudes to the extent that
they . . .

1. improve proficiency
(and therefore self-efficacy);
2. expose children to engaging texts; and
3. do not adversely affect preexisting
positive attitudes.
 Suggestions for Teachers
 Assess attitudes and interests.
 Focus on proficiency.
 “Sell” reading.
 Build an engaging classroom.
 Build an engaging classroom library.
 Use research-based techniques.
 Create novel techniques based on attitude theory.
 Suggestions for Teachers
 Assess attitudes and interests.
 Focus on proficiency.
 “Sell” reading.
 Build an engaging classroom.
 Build an engaging classroom library.
 Use research-based techniques.
 Create novel techniques based on attitude theory.
 Unresolved Questions

 What additional techniques can we identify?

 Will national initiatives have an impact?
 How can gender differences be explained?
 What impact do incentive programs have?
 Will digital technologies lead to better attitudes?
 How can we maximize proficiency?
READ! (or else)
mmckenna@virginia.edu