William Stallings

Computer Organization
and Architecture

Chapter 2
Computer Evolution and
Performance
2.1 A Brief History of Computer

ENIAC

The first Generation:

Vacuum Tubes
1. ENIAC - background

• Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer

• Eckert and Mauchly
• University of Pennsylvania
• Trajectory tables for weapons
• Started 1943
• Finished 1946
o Too late for war effort
ENIAC - details

• Decimal (not binary)

• 20 accumulators of 10 digits
• Programmed manually by switches
• 18,000 vacuum tubes
• 30 tons
• 170 square meters
• 140 kW power consumption
• 5,000 additions or 400 multiplications per second
ENIAC - photo
2. von Neumann/Turing

• Stored Program concept

• Main memory storing programs and data
• ALU operating on binary data
• Control unit interpreting instructions from memory and
executing
• Input and output equipment operated by control unit
von Neumann/Turing

IAS
Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies
Started 1946
Completed 1952

Prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computers

Structure of IAS

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Arithmetic and
Logic Unit

Main I/O
Memory Equipment

Program
Control
Unit
IAS - details
• 1000 x 40 bit words
o Binary number
o 2 x 20 bit instructions
• Set of registers (storage in CPU)
o Memory Buffer Register(MBR)
o Memory Address Register(MAR)
o Instruction Register(IR)
o Instruction Buffer Register(IBR)
o Program Counter(PC)
o Accumulator(AC)
o Multiplier Quotient(MQ)
Structure of IAS - detail

Arithmetic and Logic Unit

AC MQ

Arithmetic & Logic Circuits

Input Main
Output MBR
Equipment Instructions Memory
& Data

IBR PC
MAR
IR Control … Control
Circuits signals
Address
Program Control Unit
3. Transistors

• Smaller
• Cheaper
• Less heat dissipation
• Solid State device

• Made from Silicon (Sand?)

• Invented 1947 at Bell Labs
• Replaced vacuum tubes
Transistor Based Computers

• Second generation computer

• NCR & RCA produced small transistor machines

• IBM 7000
• DEC - 1957
o Produced PDP-1
4. Generations of Computer
• Vacuum tube - 1946-1957
• Transistor - 1958-1964
• Small scale integration - 1965 on
o Up to 100 devices on a chip
• Medium scale integration - to 1971
o 100-3,000 devices on a chip
• Large scale integration （ LSI ） - 1971-1977
o 3,000 - 100,000 devices on a chip
• Very large scale integration(VLSI) - 1978-1991
o 100,000 - 100,000,000 devices on a chip
• Ultra large scale integration -1991 on
o Over 100,000,000 devices on a chip
5. Semiconductor Memory

• 1970
• Fairchild
• Size of a single core
o i.e. 1 bit of magnetic core storage
• Holds 256 bits
• Non-destructive read
• Much faster than core
• Capacity approximately doubles each year
6. Microprocessors

• 1971 – Intel 4004

o First microprocessor
o All CPU components on a single chip
o 4 bit
* Intel 4004

• 1971 年第一個微处理器： Intel 4004

o 108 kHz, 0.06 MIPS
o 2300 transistors
(10 microns)
o Bus width: 4 bits
o Memory: 640 bytes
* Intel

• Followed in 1972 by 8008

o 8 bit
o Both designed for specific applications
• 1974 - 8080
o Intel’s first general purpose microprocessor
* Microcomputer
• 1977 年 Apple II
* IBM PC
 1981 年 IBM PC: Intel 8088, 4.77MHz

MS DOS
2.2 Design for Performance

• Processor speed increased

• Memory capacity increased
• Memory speed lags behind processor speed
* DRAM and Processor Characteristics
Solutions

• Increase number of bits retrieved at one time

o Make DRAM “wider” rather than “deeper”
• Change DRAM interface
o Cache
• Reduce frequency of memory access
o More complex cache and cache on chip
• Increase interconnection bandwidth
o High speed buses
o Hierarchy of buses
Chapter 2 Homework

2.1 Describe the Structure of von Neumann machine and

explain the function of every basic component.
2.2 Describe the Stored Program concept.
2.3 Explain the purposes of these registers.
MBR 、 MAR 、 IR 、 PC
2.4 Even with a fast CPU and a large amount of memory, the
computer's performance is still poor. Explain it according to what we
learned in this chapter.