SOCIOLOGICAL

PERSPECTIVE OF
SOCIETY
Module 6
Introduction to Sociological Perspective
■ Sociology serves as a critical lens through
which we examine the intricate fabric of society,
analyzing various groups, interactions, and
social structures. At the core of sociological
exploration lie fundamental groups within
society and the application of different
theoretical perspectives to interpret and
understand complex social phenomena.
Structural-Functionalism
■ Structural-functionalism, also referred to as
structural-functional theory, provides a framework
for viewing society as a dynamic system composed
of interconnected parts, each serving specific
functions to maintain societal equilibrium. This
perspective traces its roots back to Herbert Spencer,
who analogized society to a biological organism
where different organs collaborate for the organism's
overall functioning. Spencer's analogy underscored
the interdependence and functional significance of
social institutions in societal stability.
■ Emile Durkheim further elaborated on
structural-functionalism, emphasizing the role
of social institutions in sustaining societal
cohesion through shared values, norms, and
collective beliefs. Durkheim's concept of social
solidarity highlighted how individuals, despite
their differences, are bound together by a
common social fabric, contributing to the
stability and continuity of society.
■ Within structural-functionalism, Robert Merton
introduced the distinction between manifest and
latent functions. Manifest functions are the intended
outcomes of social processes, explicitly recognized
and sought after. In contrast, latent functions are
unintended consequences, often unrecognized but
influential in shaping social dynamics. Merton's
contribution shed light on the multifaceted nature of
social processes, where actions and institutions serve
both explicit and implicit purposes.
Conflict Theory
■ Conflict theory presents an alternative perspective,
viewing society as a battleground marked by power
struggles, inequalities, and competing interests. Karl
Marx's analysis of capitalism and class struggle
forms the foundational basis of conflict theory,
highlighting the inherent conflict between the
bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat
(working class) over resources, wealth, and power.
■ False consciousness, a concept by Marx, refers
to the lack of awareness among the working
class about their true position in the social
hierarchy. This unawareness is influenced by
the bourgeoisie's control over media, which
shapes and normalizes information. These
structural constraints hinder workers from
developing class consciousness, which is a
shared identity as oppressed workers and
potential agents of change.
■ Marx emphasized the exploitative nature of
capitalist systems, where the bourgeoisie,
owning the means of production, perpetuate
inequalities and exploit the labor of the
proletariat for profit. This unequal distribution
of resources and opportunities leads to social
stratification and class divisions, fueling
ongoing conflicts and resistance movements.
■ Max Weber expanded on Marx's ideas,
acknowledging not only economic inequalities
but also the role of political power and social
status in shaping societal dynamics. Weber's
concept of social stratification encompassed
multiple dimensions, including class, status, and
party, highlighting the complex interplay of
factors contributing to social inequality and
conflict.
■ The application of conflict theory involves
examining economic disparities, power
dynamics within social institutions, and the
impact of social movements in challenging
existing power structures. Scholars like Ida B.
Wells and W.E.B. DuBois applied conflict
theory to analyze racial inequalities, social
mobility, and power struggles within society,
contributing to a deeper understanding of
societal complexities and injustices.
Symbolic Interactionism
■ Symbolic interactionism shifts the focus to the micro-
level dynamics of human interaction, emphasizing the
meanings attributed to symbols, gestures, and
communication in shaping social realities. Charles
Horton Cooley introduced the concept of the looking-
glass self, illustrating how individuals develop their self-
concept through interactions with others. Cooley's theory
posited that our self-image is shaped by how we believe
others perceive and evaluate us, creating a continuous
process of self-reflection and identity formation.
■ George Herbert Mead further expanded on
symbolic interactionism, emphasizing the role
of symbols and meanings in shaping social
interactions and identities. Mead's concept of
the "generalized other" highlighted how
individuals internalize societal norms, values,
and expectations, influencing their behaviors
and self-perceptions in various social contexts.
■ Herbert Blumer, a student of Mead, coined the
term symbolic interactionism and outlined key
premises of this perspective. Blumer emphasized
that meaning arises from social interactions, and
individuals interpret and ascribe meanings to
symbols based on their interactions and
experiences. Symbolic interactionists study
patterns of interaction between individuals,
exploring how symbols and meanings are
created, negotiated, and shared in everyday
interactions.
■ Symbolic interactionism also encompasses concepts
like dramaturgical analysis, introduced by Erving
Goffman. Goffman's dramaturgical perspective
views social interaction as akin to a theatrical
performance, where individuals play different roles
and engage in impression management to navigate
social situations. This perspective highlights the
fluidity and complexity of social interactions,
emphasizing the role of context, social scripts, and
symbolic gestures in shaping human behavior and
social realities.
UNDERSTANDING
SOCIAL GROUPS
Module 6, Part 2
Forms of Social Groups
■ Groups are formed as an assemblage of people
who often interact with each other based on a
common outlook concerning behavior and a
sense of common identity. A social group may
consist of two or more individuals who do
things together with a common goal and
interest.
Group
■ A group, according to Kornblum (2003), is any
collection of people who interact on the basis of
shared expectations regarding one another’s
behavior. Hughes and Kroeler (2009) define a group
as consisting of two or more people bound together
in relatively stable patterns of social interaction who
share a feeling of unity.
■ Additionally, a group is comprised of two or more
persons who are in social interaction, guided by
similar norms, values, and expectations, maintaining
a stable pattern of relationship over time. It is a
specified number of individuals where each
recognizes members from non-members and is
characterized by communication, recognition, and
specialized roles.
Three Essential Requirements
■ 1) there must be two or more people

■ 2) there must be interaction among the members

■ 3) the members must be physically together

Factors
■ Motivational base shared by individuals (based on
needs, interests, desires, noble activities, insecurities,
or problems)
■ The size of the group
■ The type of group goals
■ The kind of group cohesion/unity (the capability to
function and interact collectively towards their
goals).
General Characteristics of a Group
■ Identity recognizable by both members and outsiders

■ Social structure where each member has a position

related to others

■ Roles for each member to play

■ There is a Mutual reciprocity among members.

A Group is Distinguished from other
Collections of People like:
■ Aggregates, which are simple collections of people
in the same place at the same time without
interacting
■ Categories, which are collections of people sharing
distinctive characteristics
■ Collectivities, which are temporary groups in a
given place and time.
Importance of a Group
■ Has a major source of solidarity and cohesion

■ Reinforcing integration into society

■ Sharing survival and problem-solving techniques

■ Providing meaning and support to individuals.

How Groups are Formed
■ The desire to achieve objectives

■ To meet individual needs

■ Being treated alike by others.

Classification of
Groups
Groups can be classified into:
■ Primary groups characterized by personal and
intimate relationships, face-to-face communication,
small size, and a strong sense of loyalty.

■ Secondary groups characterized by large size,

impersonal relationships, indirect communication,
and rational decision-making.
Group Boundaries
■ In-groups (where individuals identify and feel a
sense of belonging)

■ Out-groups (viewed as outsiders)

■ Reference groups (significant models even if not

part of the group)
Types of Group Boundaries
■ Formal group boundaries have clearly defined
duties and privileges with prescribed expectations

■ informal group boundaries arise spontaneously

without explicit rules for membership, focusing on
intimacy and belongingness among members
Consequence of Group Boundaries
■ It contribute to people gaining a clearer sense of their
diversity

■ Leads to the growth of ethnocentrism

■ Serious personal and social problems may arise

Functions of Social Groups
■ Social groups serve various functions that impact
individuals and society as a whole.
■ Primary groups, for instance, play a crucial role in the
socialization process, shaping individuals' culture,
personality, and social ideals by teaching social norms,
beliefs, morals, and values. In contrast,
■ Secondary groups primarily fulfill practical needs, with
members relating to others in specific roles. These groups
also contribute to social awareness and change, as well as
catering to special interests such as sports, dance, and
music.
■ Within secondary groups, in-groups may form among
workmates, group mates, or assemblies, fostering
connections based on shared identity and belongingness,
while out-groups often serve as competitors or rivals.
■ Reference groups, meanwhile, provide a standard for
measurement and influence how individuals think and act,
guiding behavior and adherence to social norms.
■ Social networks, including online platforms, act as
influential tools for building relationships, sharing
opinions, and highlighting societal issues or trends.
END