UNIT 6 –Batteries-Lecture 3

Dr. Leena G.
Prof. Electrical & Electronics Engg. dept., Faculty of Engineering
and Technology, Manav Rachna International Institute of Research
and Dr.
Studies, Faridabad.
Leena G Unit 6- Batteries 1
 Contents
• Battery
• Electric Cell, Types
• Lead Acid battery
• Construction
• Working Principle
• Nickel Cadmium Battery

Dr. Leena G Unit 6- Batteries 2

 Batteries
Current not only flows through metallic
conductors but also flows through some liquids
called electrolytes.
These liquids provide oppositely charged ions,
and the conduction is due to movement of these
ions.
The flow of current through electrolyte leads to
chemical changes. Therefore in this process,
electrical energy is converted into chemical
energy and the converse of this is also true.
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 Batteries
The chemical effect of electric current has many
applications for example,
• extraction of pure metals from ores,
• electroplating,
• production of oxygen,
• storage batteries and so on.

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 Storage battery
• Battery is the only device in which electrical
energy can be stored in the form of chemical
energy.
• Application of batteries are
• In automobiles
• Used for lighting purposes in trains
• To operate protective devices at substations
• At telephone exchanges
• Used in emergency lights at hospitals, theatres
and other places.Dr. Leena G Unit 6- Batteries 5
 Electric Cell
• An electric device, such as battery, that
converts chemical energy into electrical
energy is known as electric cell.
• It essentially consists of the following:
1.two metal plates (electrodes) of different
materials so that different potentials are built-
up when chemical action take place on them
2.A suitable solution (electrolyte) such as acid,
alkali , or salt solution- the solution must be
capable to react chemically with two electrodes.
Dr. Leena G Unit 6- Batteries 6
 Types of Cells
1) Primary Cells
2) Secondary Cells

• Primary Cells- The cells where

chemical action is not reversible for
example voltaic cell, Leclanche cell,
dry cell etc. These cells cannot be
charged once it is discharged.

Dr. Leena G Unit 6- Batteries 7

 Types of Cells- Secondary Cell
Secondary Cells- The cells where chemical
action is reversible for example lead acid
cell, nickel cadmium alkaline cell, nickel
iron cell etc. The chemical composition of
the plates are changed. When flow of
current is reversed (charging) the plates
and electrolyte regain their original
composition. These cells are used in
commercial applications.
Dr. Leena G Unit 6- Batteries 8
Lead Acid Battery-Construction
• Container
• Plates- Lead Peroxide and Spongy lead
• Separator
• Electrolyte-Dilute Sulphuric Acid
• Battery Cover
• Vent Caps
• Intercell Connector
• Cell Terminal
Dr. Leena G Unit 6- Batteries 9
 Lead Acid Battery-Construction
• Container- It is the outer body of the
battery. It is made of hard rubber or
plastic material and is sealed at the top to
prevent spilling of electrolyte. A large
space is left at the bottom of the
container so that sediments that drop
from the plates are collected here and
may not short circuit the positive and
negative plates
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 Lead Acid Battery-Construction
• Plates- Alloy of lead antimony sheets covered with
lead peroxide and spongy lead form the positive
and negative plates respectively and used as
electrodes. To increase the capacity of the battery,
we use a large number of plates in each cell
instead of 2 plates. The number of positive or
negative plates of each cell are alternatively
placed and sandwiched with an insulator called
separator. One group of positive and negative
plates forms a cell which develops an emf of 2.0 V.

Dr. Leena G Unit 6- Batteries 11

Lead Acid Battery-Construction
• Separator- To reduce the internal
resistance of the cell and to save space,
the plates are placed very close to each
other. To prevent the plates touching
each other, they are separated by a
rubber sheet (non conducting material)
having large number of small holes called
separator

Dr. Leena G Unit 6- Batteries 12

Lead Acid Battery -Construction

Figure from http://www.tpub.com/neets/book1/chapter2/1e.htm

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 Lead Acid Battery-Construction
• Electrolyte- Dilute Sulphuric acid is used as
electrolyte in lead acid battery. Water is added to
sulphuric acid in such a proportion that with a fully
charged battery, its specific gravity is about 1.28 to
1.29.
• Vent caps- The vent cap has a vent hole that allows
free exit of gases formed in the cell during charging.
The vent caps can be easily removed to add water.
The nozzle of hydrometer can be inserted in the
vent cap for checking the specific gravity.

Dr. Leena G Unit 6- Batteries 14

 Lead Acid Battery-Construction
• Battery Cover- Each cell compartment is
usually covered with a moulded hard rubber
and the joints between covers and container
are sealed with an acid resistant material.
In each cell cover, three openings are provided-

two for positive and negative terminals, and

third for a vent. The whole container is fitted
with a leak proof cover

Dr. Leena G Unit 6- Batteries 15

 Lead Acid Battery

Figure from https://www.infinitumstore.com/articles/archives/01-2008

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Lead Acid Battery-Construction
• Inter cell connector- The cells placed in
the same container are connected in series
with a lead alloy link called inter cell
connector
• Cell terminals- Each cell has two terminals
that are generally made of lead as it does
not corrode due to the electrolyte. The
positive terminal of the battery is marked
with red colour by a large positive symbol

Dr. Leena G Unit 6- Batteries 17

Lead Acid Battery –Working Principle
• Its positive plate is made of lead peroxide (PbO2)
chocolate brown in colour and the negative plate is
of spongy lead (Pb) grey in colour.
• Both the plates are immersed in dilute sulphuric acid
of specific gravity of about 1.28. when load is
connected across the terminals of the cell, it starts
delivering current to the load and the process is
called discharging of cell.
• In this process the chemical energy stored in the cell
is converted into electrical energy which is delivered
to the load
Dr. Leena G Unit 6- Batteries 18
Lead Acid Battery-Discharging

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 Lead Acid Battery –Discharging
• The sulphuric acid dissolved in water, are
dissociated into hydrogen ions and sulphate
ions which move freely (at random) in the
electrolyte.
• When the load resistor is connected across
the terminals as shown, the sulphate ions
move towards cathode and hydrogen ions
move towards anode.

Dr. Leena G Unit 6- Batteries 20

 Discharging
At cathode-
(radical)
These electrons will travel through load resistor and
reach the anode. The sulphate radical chemically
reacts with the electrode (Pb) and forms PbSO4.

At anode-
Each hydrogen ion on reaching anode plate takes
one electron (the same electron given up by sulphate
ion at cathode which reached the anode through
external load) from it to become hydrogen gas
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 Discharging
The hydrogen gas liberated acts chemically with
electrode (PbO2)and reduces it to PbO which
further reacts with H2SO4 forming PbSO4

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 Discharging
• Both plates are converted to lead sulphate
(PbSO4) which is whitish in colour
• Sulphuric acid is consumed and water is formed
which reduces the specific gravity of H2SO4 from
1.28 to 1.15
• Terminal voltage per cell falls to 1.8V from 2.0 V
• Chemical energy is converted into electrical
energy which is delivered to the load

Dr. Leena G Unit 6- Batteries 23

Lead Acid Battery -Charging

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 Lead Acid Battery-Charging
• For charging anode is connected to positive
terminal of the source and cathode to the
negative terminal.
• During charging hydrogen ions move towards
the cathode and sulphate ions towards
anode.

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 Charging
At anode- (radical)

The oxygen in atomic state reacts chemically with this

positive plate material (PbSO4).

At cathode- Each hydrogen ion on reaching negative

plate takes one electron (the same electron given up by
sulphate ion at anode which reached the cathode
through external circuit or source) from it to become
hydrogen gas

Dr. Leena G Unit 6- Batteries 26

 Charging
The hydrogen gas liberated at cathode
acts chemically with electrode
(PbSO )and reduces it to PbO which
4

further reacts with H SO forming PbSO

2 4 4

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 Charging
• Both the plates regain their original composition,
ie. Anode converted back to Pb O 2 chocolate brown
in colour and cathode to Lead (Pb) which is grey in
colour
• Water is consumed and H2SO4 is formed which
improves the specific gravity of H2SO4 from 1.15 to
1.28
• Terminal voltage increases from 1.8V from 2.2/2.5 V
• Electrical energy is converted into chemical energy
which is stored in the cell

Dr. Leena G Unit 6- Batteries 28

 Capacity of battery
• The quantity of electricity that a battery can
deliver during single discharge until its
terminal voltage falls to 1.8 V/cell is called the
capacity of a battery.
• The capacity of a battery or cell is
commercially expressed in ampere hour and is
generally denoted by A-H.
• Capacity of a battery or cell = IdTd A-H
Id-discharging current in amperes
Td – discharging time of battery in hours
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 Efficiency of a battery
• Quantity or AH efficiency-The ratio of output
ampere hour during discharging to the input
ampere hour during charging of the battery is
called quantity or ampere hour efficiency of
the battery.

Id-discharging current in amperes

Td – discharging time of battery in hours
Ic - Charging current in amperes
Tc – Charging time of battery in hour
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 Efficiency of a battery
• Energy or WH efficiency-The ratio of output watt
hour during discharging to the input watt hour
during charging of the battery is called energy or
watt hour efficiency of the battery.

Id-discharging current in amperes

Td – discharging time of battery in hours
Ic - Charging current in amperes
Tc – Charging time of battery in hours
Vd- Average terminal voltage during discharging
Vc – Average terminalDr.voltage during charging
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Characteristics-Lead Acid Battery
• Ampere hour efficiency -85 to 90 %
• Watt hour efficiency-70 to 80%
• Life -2 to 4 years
• Initial cost–low, maintenance cost- high
• Mechanical strength -low
• Internal resistance –low about 0.1 
• Discharging period – smaller

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Applications of Lead Acid Battery
• Used in automobiles for starting and lighting
• For lighting on steam or diesel trains
• Used in generating station for operation of
protective devices
• Used in telephone exchanges
• Used for emergency lighting at important
places, including hospitals, theatres, banks
etc.
• Used for lighting purpose in remote areas
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 Nickel Cadmium Alkaline Cell
• Construction –
It contains two plates.
Cathode is Ni(OH)4 Nickel oxide hydroxide
Anode is Cadmium (Cd).
The two plates are immersed in the electrolyte,
a solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) of
specific gravity 1.2.

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 Nickel Cadmium Alkaline Cell
Construction –
NiCd batteries usually have a metal case with a
sealing plate equipped with a self-sealing safety
valve. The positive and negative electrode plates,
isolated from each other by the separator, are
rolled in a spiral shape inside the case. This is
known as the jelly-roll design and allows a Ni–Cd
cell to deliver a much higher maximum current.

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 Chemical action-NiCd
Discharging –
At anode-
At cathode-
No change in specific gravity of electrolyte
Charging –
At cathode-
At anode-
The two electrodes regain their original chemical
composition
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 Characteristics
• Emf –fully charged cell-1.4 V which decreases
to 1.3 V rapidly. Average value 1.2 V which
decreases to 1.0 V when fully discharged
• Internal resistance –very low, less than even
lead acid cell
• Ampere hour efficiency-about 80%
• Watt hour efficiency- about 65%

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Advantages and Disadvantages of NiCd
Advantages-
• Very long active life nearly 20 years
• Can be stored in any condition, as there is no
change in the specific gravity of the electrolyte
• These cells can be charged in a short period
Disadvantages-
• Very costly
• Low average emf and more cells are required
for a particular voltage
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 Power factor Improvement
Power factor is the
cosine of the phase
difference between the
source voltage and
current. It refers to the
fraction of total power
(apparent power) which 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
is utilized to do the cos ∅ =
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
useful work called active
power Dr. Leena G Unit 6- Batteries 39
Need for Power factor Improvement
• Real power given by VI cos . The current is
inversely proportional to cos  for transferring a
given amount of power at a certain voltage.
Hence higher the pf lower will be the current
flowing. A small current flow requires a less
cross sectional area of conductors, and thus it
saves conductors and money
• Poor power factor increases the current flowing
in a conductor and thus copper loss increases.
Further large voltage drop occurs in alterator,
transformers, transmission and distribution lines
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 Need for Power factor Improvement

which give very poor voltage regulation.

• Further the KVA rating of machines is also
reduced by having high power factor as .
Hence the size and cost of the machine also is
reduced. So power factor should be
maintained close to unity

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Methods of Power factor Improvement
• Capacitors- Improving power factor means
reducing the phase difference between
voltage and current. Since majority of loads
are inductive in nature, they require some
amount of reactive power for them to
function. The capacitor or bank of capacitors
installed parallel to the load provides this
reactive power. They act as a source of
reactive power, and thus less reactive power
flows through the line.
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 Methods of Power factor Improvement
• Synchronous Condenser: They are 3 phase
synchronous motor with no load attached to its
shaft. The synchronous motor has the
characteristics of operating under any power factor
leading, lagging or unity depending upon the
excitation. For inductive loads, a synchronous
condenser is connected towards load side and it is
overexcited. Synchronous condenser behave like a
capacitor. It draws the leading current from the
supply or supplies the reactive power.
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 Methods of Power factor Improvement
• Phase Advancer: This is an ac exciter mainly
used to improve power factor of induction
motor. They are mounted on the shaft of the
motor and connected to the rotor circuit of
the motor. It improves the power factor by
providing the exciting ampere turns to
produce required flux at slip frequency.
Further, if ampere-turns increase, it can be
made to operate at leading power factor.
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 Battery Back up
• A battery backup, or uninterruptible power supply
(UPS), is primarily used to provide a backup power
source.
• In most cases, the power back up is given to important
computer and hardware components. Hardware
include the main computer and the monitor, but other
devices can be plugged into a UPS for backup power as
well, depending on the size of the UPS.
• In addition to acting as a backup when the power goes
out, most battery backup devices also act as power
"conditioners" by ensuring that the electricity flowing
to devices is free from drops or surges.
Dr. Leena G Unit 6- Batteries 45
Thank you

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