Thermodynamics 2 (TRDMIA2)

Lecture 2
2024
Introduction(2)
Laws of Thermodynamics
Work

• Work is the energy transfer associated with a force

acting through a distance

W = F x d [N*m = J]

• If the energy crossing the boundary of a closed

system is not heat, it must be work.

• Sign convention for work:

Figure 1. Sign convention for heat
- Work done by the system(work out) – positive work and work

- Work done on the system (work in) – negative work

1. https://www.livescience.com/44186-who-invented-the-steam-engine.html 4
Work

• Work done per unit time is called power,

denoted by P or , units [J/s],

• 1 J/s = 1 W

• Work is a path function (inexact differential)

• The total work done during process 1-2 is:

Figure 2. Work as a path function

5
Similarities between heat and work

• The only two energy interactions associated with a closed system are
heat and work
• Both are transitional energies that are recognized as they cross the
boundary of a system
• Both are path functions – dependent on the process path and not on
the initial and final state points
• Both are inexact differentials

6
Zeroth law of thermodynamics

The Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in

thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium
with each other

Figure 3. Zeroth law of thermodynamics diagram

This law forms the basis for temperature measurement

7
 First law of thermodynamics

• The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be neither created nor
destroyed during a process; it can only change forms.

• The first law is viewed as a statement of the conservation of energy principle

The total energy of the system is: dEsystem = (E-extensive property)

During a process 1-2: ΔE = E2 –E1 = Q1-2 –W1-2 or,

for a unit mass, e2 –e1 = q1-2 –w1-2

8
First law of thermodynamics
As, ΔE = ΔU + ΔKE + ΔPE where,
ΔU = m(u2 –u1)
ΔKE = ½ m(v22 –v12)
ΔPE = mg(z2 –z1)

Then, Q1-2 –W1-2 = ΔE1-2 = m(u2 –u1)+½ m(v22 –v12)+mg(z2 –z1)

• When there are no changes in kinetic and potential energy of a system,

(same elevation, ΔPE=0, and non-flow process, v=0 - system is closed,
i.e. or, ΔKE=0)
then,
Q1-2 –W1-2 = U2 –U1 = ΔU1-2 Non-flow energy equation
applicable to closed
system!
9
First law of thermodynamics
• Some processes involves heat transfer but no work interaction thus, the energy
change of the system is equal to the net heat transfer ΔE=Qnet, Fig.4
• For an adiabatic system ( isolated system with no heat transfer), the work done on
the system equals to the increase of the energy of the system, ΔE=Wnet, Fig.5

Figure 4. No work interaction Figure 5. Work on an adiabatic system

10
 First law of thermodynamics

When a closed system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle, i.e. initial and

final states are identical,
then, Qnet –Wnet = ΔEcycle =0

thus, the net heat transfer equals the net work transfer:

Qnet = Wnet for a cycle

“The heat and mechanical work are mutually convertible”

Y.A. Cengel, M.A .Boles, Thermodynamics an Engineering Approach, 8th Ed, McGraw Hill 2015 11
Limitations of the First law of thermodynamics
• “When a closed system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle, the net heat
transfer equals the net work transfer”
• The first law of thermodynamics does not provide indication of the heat and
work flow direction
• Hot cup of coffee scenario – presume that the coffee gets hotter in a cooler
room as a result of heat transfer from the room air. This will not happen
however, this will not be in violation of the first law as long as the amount of
energy gained by the coffee is equal to that lost by the air

12
Limitations of the First law of thermodynamics
• “The heat and mechanical work are mutually convertible”
• The statement implies that the mechanical work can be fully converted into
heat energy
• However, only part on heat energy can be converted into mechanical work
hence heat and work are not fully mutually convertible
• The statement does not specify the extent of convertibility

13
Limitations of the First law of thermodynamics
Perpetual motion machine of the first kind PMM1

• The machine or device that violates the first law

of thermodynamics is called PMM1
• Such machine will give continuous work without
receiving energy from other system
• Thus, such machine will create energy which is Figure 6. Perpetual motion machine of the first
kind PPM1
in violation of the first law
• Such machine is impossible to obtain in actual
practice

14
Second law of thermodynamics
The First law –can be satisfied on either direction of a process occurring as it does
not identify whether a process can actually occur or not in a certain direction.
• Processes, in practice, take place in a certain direction

The Second law: Figure 7. Heat flow

• is introduced such that, a process satisfied both the first and the second law of
thermodynamics
• and provides means to determine the quality as well as the degree of convertibility of
energy during a process
• is used to determine the theoretical limits of engineering systems (i.e. heat engines,
refrigerators, etc.)
15
Second law of thermodynamics
Thermal energy reservoirs
• A body that can supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without undergoing any change in
temperature are called thermal energy reservoirs (or heat reservoirs)

• Examples of thermal energy reservoirs are atmospheric air or large bodies of water such as
oceans, lakes and rivers.

Figure 8. Thermal energy reservoirs

• Any physical body whose thermal energy capacity is large relative to the amount of energy it
supplies or absorbs can be considered a reservoir (example: the air in a room compared with the
heat dissipation from a TV set)

16
Second law of thermodynamics
Thermal energy reservoirs

 A heat reservoir is called a source if it is supplying energy and a sink if it is

absorbing energy

Figure 9. Types of heat reservoirs

17
Second law of thermodynamics
Heat engines
Heat engines are devices that convert heat into work

Common characteristics of heat engines are:

• Heat is received from high temperature source
• Part of this heat is converted into work (usually rotating the shaft)
• Remaining of heat is rejected to the sink
• They operate on a cycle
• They require an working fluid to and from which heat is transfer
during the cycle
Figure 10. Heat engine

18
Second law of thermodynamics
Kelvin-Plank statement
• “It is impossible to construct an engine working on a cyclic
process, whose sole purpose is to convert heat energy from a
single thermal heat reservoir into an equivalent amount of work”

• In other words, it is impossible for any device that operates on a

cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a net
amount of work.

Figure 11. Heat engine that violates

the Kelvin-Plank statement

19
Second law of thermodynamics
Thermal efficiency

• Thermal efficiency for a heat engine

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑄1 − 𝑄2 𝑄2
𝜂= = =1−
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑄1 𝑄1
• For a reversible engine,

𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄2 𝑇2
= so =
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑄1 𝑇1 a) b)
Figure 12. a)Heat engine that violates the
• Thus,
𝑇2 Kelvin-Plank statement-PMM2; b) Actual heat
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 =1− engine
𝑇1
20
Second law of thermodynamics
Clausius statement
• “It is impossible for a self acting machine, working in a cyclic process, to transfer heat from a body at
a lower temperature to a body at a higher temperature without the aid of an external agency”

Figure 13. a )Machine that violates the Clausius statement-

a) b) c) PMM2; b) Refrigerator; c) Heat pump

21
Second law of thermodynamics

• Kelvin-Plank statement is related to heat engines while Clausius statement is

related to refrigerators and heat pumps
• Both statements are equivalent in their consequences: any device that violates
Kelvin Plank statement also violates the Clausius statement and vice versa.
• A device that violates the second law of thermodynamics is called a
perpetual-motion machine of the second kind (PMM2).
• No such machine as a perpetual-motion-machine is known to work

22
Second law of thermodynamics
Refrigerators and Heat pumps

• Both work on the same cyclic principle but

have to achieve different purpose
Q2 • Refrigerator – to maintain the cold body at a
temperature lower than the surroundings
• Heat pump- to maintain the hot body at a
temperature higher than the surroundings
• Their performance are measured by a
coefficient of performance (COP)

Figure 14. Refrigerator and heat pump

23
 Second law of thermodynamics
Refrigerators and Heat pumps For heat pump
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑄1 𝑄1 𝑇1 𝑇2
𝐶𝑂𝑃 =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝐻𝑃 = = = = + 1 = 𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑅 + 1
𝑊𝐻𝑃 𝑄1 − 𝑄2 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
For refrigerator

𝑄2 𝑄2 𝑇2
𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑅 = = =
𝑊𝑅 𝑄1 − 𝑄2 𝑇1 − 𝑇2

24
Heat engine, refrigerator and heat pump

25
 Worked example 1
• What is the maximum possible efficiency of an engine that receives heat at 220 °C and
exhaust heat at 60 °C?

26
Worked example 2
• A hypothetical heat engine operates between temperature limits of 260 °C and 30 °C. It is desired
to increase the thermal efficiency by 20%. Assuming that the minimum temperature remains
constant, what should the new maximum temperature be?

27
Worked example 1.6
A reversible engine is supplied with heat from two constant temperature sources at 900 K and 600 K and
rejects heat to a constant temperature sink at 300 K. The engine develops work equivalent to 90 kJ/s and
rejects heat at a rate of 56 kJ/s. Estimate: a) heat supplied by each source and b) Thermal efficiency of the
engine.

28
29
Worked example 1.7
• A cold storage is to be maintained at -5 °C while the surroundings are at 35 °C. The heat leakage from the
surroundings into the cold storage (i.e. heat extracted from the cold storage) is estimated to be 29 kW. The
actual COP of the refrigeration plant is actually one third of an ideal plant working between the same
temperatures. Find the power required to drive the plant.

30