Professional Documents
Culture Documents
. SLIDES BY
.
.
.
.
.
. John Loucks
.
. St. Edward’s Univ.
.
.
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
1
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Chapter 6, Part A
Time Series Analysis and Forecasting
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
2
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Forecasting Methods
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
3
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Forecasting Methods
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
4
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Quantitative Forecasting Methods
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
5
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Time Series Methods
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
6
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Forecasting Methods
Forecasting
Methods
Quantitative Qualitative
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
7
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Time Series Patterns
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
8
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Time Series Plot
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
9
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Time Series Plot
Example
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
10
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Time Series Patterns
Horizontal
Trend
Seasonal
Cyclical
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
11
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Time Series Patterns
Horizontal Pattern
• A horizontal pattern exists when the data
fluctuate around a constant mean.
• Changes in business conditions can often result in
a time series that has a horizontal pattern shifting
to a new level.
• A change in the level of the time series makes it
more difficult to choose an appropriate forecasting
method.
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
12
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Time Series Patterns
Trend Pattern
• A time series may show gradual shifts or
movements to relatively higher or lower values
over a longer period of time.
• Trend is usually the result of long-term factors
such as changes in the population, demographics,
technology, or consumer preferences.
• A systematic increase or decrease might be linear
or nonlinear.
• A trend pattern can be identified by analyzing
multiyear movements in historical data.
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
13
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Time Series Patterns
Seasonal Pattern
• Seasonal patterns are recognized by seeing the
same repeating pattern of highs and lows over
successive periods of time within a year.
• A seasonal pattern might occur within a day, week,
month, quarter, year, or some other interval no
greater than a year.
• A seasonal pattern does not necessarily refer to the
four seasons of the year (spring, summer, fall, and
winter).
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
14
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Time Series Patterns
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
15
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Time Series Patterns
Cyclical Pattern
• A cyclical pattern exists if the time series plot shows
an alternating sequence of points below and above
the trend line lasting more than one year.
• Often, the cyclical component of a time series is due
to multiyear business cycles.
• Business cycles are extremely difficult, if not
impossible, to forecast.
• In this chapter we do not deal with cyclical effects
that may be present in the time series.
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
16
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Selecting a Forecasting Method
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
17
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Forecast Accuracy
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
18
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Forecast Accuracy
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
19
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Forecast Accuracy
Mean Error
A simple measure of forecast accuracy is the mean
or average of the forecast errors. Because positive and
negative forecast errors tend to offset one another, the
mean error is likely to be small. Thus, the mean error
is not a very useful measure.
Mean Absolute Error (MAE)
This measure avoids the problem of positive and
negative errors offsetting one another. It is the mean
of the absolute values of the forecast errors.
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
20
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Forecast Accuracy
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
21
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Forecast Accuracy
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
22
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Forecast Accuracy
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
23
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Forecast Accuracy
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
24
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Forecast Accuracy
80
MAE 8.89
9
850
MSE 94.44
9
65.35
MAPE 7.26%
9
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
25
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Moving Averages and Exponential Smoothing
Exponential Smoothing
They are called smoothing methods because their
objective is to smooth out the random fluctuations
in the time series.
They are most appropriate for short-range
forecasts.
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
26
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Moving Averages
Ft 1
(most recent k data values) Y Y
t t 1 Yt k 1
k k
where:
Ft+1= forecast of the time series for period t + 1
Each observation in the moving average calculation
receives the same weight.
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
27
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Moving Averages
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
28
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Moving Averages
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
29
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example: Moving Average
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
30
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example: Moving Average
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
31
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example: Moving Average
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
32
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example: Moving Average
53.3
MAE 7.61
7
489.45
MSE 69.92
7
44.22
MAPE 6.32%
7
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
33
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Weighted Moving Averages
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
34
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Weighted Moving Averages
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
35
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example: Weighted Moving Average
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
36
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example: Weighted Moving Average
53.5
MAE 7.64
7
547.25
MSE 78.18
7
44.15
MAPE 6.31%
7
The 3-WMA approach (with weights of .2, .3, and .5)
provided accuracy very close to that of the 3-MA
approach for this data.
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
37
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Exponential Smoothing
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
38
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Exponential Smoothing
where:
Ft+1 = forecast of the time series for period t + 1
Yt = actual value of the time series in period t
Ft = forecast of the time series for period t
a = smoothing constant (0 < a < 1)
and let:
F2 = Y1 (to initiate the computations)
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
39
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Exponential Smoothing
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
40
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Exponential Smoothing
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
41
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example: Exponential Smoothing
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
42
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example: Exponential Smoothing
F2 = Y1 = 110
F3 = .1Y2 + .9F2 = .1(115) + .9(110) = 110.50
F4 = .1Y3 + .9F3 = .1(125) + .9(110.5) = 111.95
F5 = .1Y4 + .9F4 = .1(120) + .9(111.95) = 112.76
F6 = .1Y5 + .9F5 = .1(125) + .9(112.76) = 113.98
F7 = .1Y6 + .9F6 = .1(120) + .9(113.98) = 114.58
F8 = .1Y7 + .9F7 = .1(130) + .9(114.58) = 116.12
F9 = .1Y8 + .9F8 = .1(115) + .9(116.12) = 116.01
F10= .1Y9 + .9F9 = .1(110) + .9(116.01) = 115.41
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
43
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example: Exponential Smoothing
F2 = = 110
F3 = .8(115) + .2(110) = 114.00
F4 = .8(125) + .2(114) = 122.80
F5 = .8(120) + .2(122.80) = 120.56
F6 = .8(125) + .2(120.56) = 124.11
F7 = .8(120) + .2(124.11) = 120.82
F8 = .8(130) + .2(120.82) = 128.16
F9 = .8(115) + .2(128.16) = 117.63
F10= .8(110) + .2(117.63) = 111.53
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
44
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example: Exponential Smoothing (a = .1)
a = .1
Forecast Absolute Squared Abs.%
Week Sales Forecast Error Error Error Error
1 110
2 115 110.00 5.00 5.00 25.00 4.35
3 125 110.50 14.50 14.50 210.25 11.60
4 120 111.95 8.05 8.05 64.80 6.71
5 125 112.76 12.24 12.24 149.94 9.79
6 120 113.98 6.02 6.02 36.25 5.02
7 130 114.58 15.42 15.42 237.73 11.86
8 115 116.12 -1.12 1.12 1.26 0.97
9 110 116.01 -6.01 6.01 36.12 5.46
10 130 115.41 14.59 14.59 212.87 11.22
Total 82.95 974.22 66.98
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
45
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example: Exponential Smoothing (a = .1)
Forecast Accuracy
82.95
MAE 9.22
9
974.22
MSE 108.25
9
66.98
MAPE 7.44%
9
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
46
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example: Exponential Smoothing (a = .8)
a = .8
Forecast Absolute Squared Abs.%
Week Sales Forecast Error Error Error Error
1 110
2 115 110.00 5.00 5.00 25.00 4.35
3 125 114.00 11.00 11.00 121.00 8.80
4 120 122.80 -2.20 2.20 7.84 1.83
5 125 120.56 4.44 4.44 19.71 3.55
6 120 124.11 -4.11 4.11 16.91 3.43
7 130 120.82 9.18 9.18 84.23 7.06
8 115 128.16 -13.16 13.16 173.30 11.44
9 110 117.63 -7.63 7.63 58.26 6.94
10 130 111.53 18.47 18.47 341.27 14.21
Total 75.19 847.52 61.61
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
47
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example: Exponential Smoothing (a = .8)
Forecast Accuracy
75.19
MAE 8.35
9
847.52
MSE 94.17
9
61.61
MAPE 6.85%
9
Exponential smoothing (with a = .8) provided
more accurate forecasts than ES with a = .1, but
less accurate than the 3-MA.
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
48
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Optimal Smoothing Constant Value
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
49
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Optimal Smoothing Constant Value
General Formulation
n
min t t
(Y
t 2
F ) 2
s.t.
Ft = + a Yt-1 + (1 – a) Ft-1 t = 2, 3, … n
F1 = Y1
0<a<1
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
50
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example: Optimal Smoothing Constant Value
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
51
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example: Optimal Smoothing Constant Value
Objective Function
The objective function minimizes the sum of the
squared error.
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
52
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example: Optimal Smoothing Constant Value
Constraints
The following constraints define the forecasts as a
function of observed and forecasted values.
F1 = 110 F6 = + a 125 + (1 – a) F5
F2 = + a 110 + (1 – a) F1 F7 = + a 120 + (1 – a) F6
F3 = + a 115 + (1 – a) F2 F8 = + a 130 + (1 – a) F7
F4 = + a 125 + (1 – a) F3 F9 = + a 115 + (1 – a) F8
F5 = + a 120 + (1 – a) F4 F10 = + a 110 + (1 – a) F9
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
53
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example: Optimal Smoothing Constant Value
Optimal Solution
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
54
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example: Optimal Smoothing Constant Value
Forecast Accuracy
71.53
MAE 7.95
9
721.48
MSE 80.16
9
58.78
MAPE 6.53%
9
Exponential smoothing (with a = .381) provided
more accurate forecasts than ES with a = .1, but
slightly less accurate than the 3-MA.
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
55
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
End of Chapter 6, Part A
© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied
Slide
56
or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.