Development of foetus and placenta

Introduction

 The study of developmental events that occur

during the prenatal stage
 From fertilisation of ovum to development of
embryo
 Fetal membranes and placental development
Fertilisation
 Is the process of fusion of the spermatozoa and
the ovum
 Occurs in the ampullary region of Fallopian tube
 Directional movement of cilia and tubal peristalsis
moves the ovum within the tubal lumen.
 Fertilization takes place in the lumen within a
few hours, and no more than a day after
ovulation.
 Fusion of the two nuclei and intermingling of
maternal and paternal chromosomes creates the
zygote.
DECIDUA

 Thisis a specialized, highly modified

endometrium of pregnancy. It is essential for
hemochorial placentation, that is, one in which
maternal blood contacts trophoblast.
 The decidua produces factors that regulate
endometrial receptivity and that modulate
immune and vascular cell functions within the
maternal–fetal microenvironment.
Blastocyst formation
 TROPHOBLAST FORMATION
 Asearly as 4 to 5 days after fertilization, the 58-cell
blastocyst differentiates into five embryo-producing cells—
the inner cell mass
 Theremaining 53 outer cells, called the trophectoderm, are
destined to form trophoblasts
 Bythe eighth day postfertilization, after initial implantation,
the trophoblast has differentiated into an outer
multinucleated syncytium—the primitive
syncytiotrophoblast, and an inner layer of primitive
mononuclear cells—cytotrophoblasts.
Implantation

 The blastocyst implants into the uterine wall 6 or 7 days

after fertilization. This process can be divided into
three phases:
 (1) apposition—initial contact of the blastocyst to the
uterine wall
 (2) adhesion—increased physical contact between the
blastocyst and decidua; and
 (3) invasion— penetration and invasion of
syncytiotrophoblast and cytotrophoblasts into the
decidua, inner third of the myometrium, and uterine
vasculature.
Formation of yolk sac in the embryo
 The products of conception after development of chorionic
villi is referred to as embryo
 The inner cell mas differentiate into two hollow vesicles
 Thevesicle in close contact with the trophoblast is
amnioembryonic vesicle the one which is placed centrally is
referred to as yolk sac
 Embryonic period lasts from 5 to 10 weeks of pregnancy
 Embryonic Period
 The embryonic period, during which time organogenesis takes place,
lasts 6 weeks.
 It begins the third week from the LMP and continues through the
eighth week.
 The embryonic disc is well defined, and most pregnancy tests that
measure human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) become positive by this
time.
 During the third week, fetal blood vessels in the chorionic villi appear
 Fourth week, a cardiovascular system has formed
 Also in the fourth week, the neural plate forms, and it subsequently
folds to form the neural tube.
 Early human embryos.

Early human
embryos.
 Thecranial end of the neural tube closes by 38
days from the LMP, and the caudal end closes by
40 days
 Bythe end of the eighth week, the crown-rump
length approximates 22 mm. Fingers and toes are
present, and the arms bend at the elbows. The
upper lip is complete, and the external ears form
definitive elevations on either side of the head
Three- to four-week-old embryos
Embryo photographs
Foetal development

 Thetransition from embryonic to fetal periods

occurs at 7 weeks after fertilization,
corresponding to 9 weeks after the LMP
 Thefetus approximates 24 mm in length, most
organ systems have developed, and the fetus
enters a period of growth and maturation.
 12 Gestational Weeks
 Fetal growth is rapid, and the fetal crown-rump length
is 5 to 6 cm
 Centers of ossification have appeared in most fetal
bones, and the fingers and toes have become
differentiated.
 Skinand nails develop, and scattered rudiments of hair
appear.
 The external genitalia are beginning to show definitive
signs of male or female gender.
 The fetus begins to make spontaneous movements
 16 Gestational Weeks
 The crown-rump length is 12 cm, and the fetal weight approximates 150
g.
 Clinically, the sonographic crown-rump length is not measured beyond 13
weeks, which corresponds to approximately 8.4 cm.
 BPD head circumference, abdominal circumference, and femur length
are measured.
 Fetal weight in the second and third trimesters is estimated from a
combination of these measurements
 Eye movements begin at 16 to 18 weeks, coinciding with midbrain
maturation.
 18 weeks in the female fetus, the uterus is formed and vaginal
canalization begins. By 20 weeks in the male, testicles start to descend.
 20 Gestational Weeks
 Thefetus now weighs somewhat more than 300 g, and
weight increases substantially in a linear manner
 Brown fat forms, and the fetal skin becomes less
transparent. Downy lanugo covers its entire body, and
some scalp hair can be seen.
 Cochlearfunction develops between 22 and 25 weeks, and
this maturation continues for 6 months after delivery. 24
Gestational Weeks
 24 Gestational Weeks
 Theskin is characteristically wrinkled, and fat deposition
begins. The head is still comparatively large, and eyebrows
and eyelashes are usually recognizable
 24weeks, the secretory type II pneumocytes have initiated
surfactant secretion
 26weeks, the eyes open. Nociceptors are present over all
the body, and the neural pain system is developed
28 Gestational Weeks

 Thecrown-rump length approximates 25 cm, and

the fetus weighs about 1100g. The thin skin is red
and covered with vernix caseosa
 Thepupillary membrane has just disappeared
from the eyes. Isolated eye blinking peaks at 28
weeks.
32 and 36 Gestational Weeks

 At32 weeks, the fetus has attained a crown-rump

length approximating 28 cm and a weight of about
1800 g
 Theskin surface is still red and wrinkled. In
contrast, by 36 weeks, the fetal crown-rump
length averages about 32 cm, and the weight
approximates 2800g
40 Gestational Weeks

 Thisis considered term, and the fetus is

fully developed. The average crown-rump
length measures about 36 cm, and the
average weight approximates 3500 g.
DECIDUA
 This is a specialized, highly modified endometrium
of pregnancy. It is essential for hemochorial
placentation
 Decidualizationtransforms proliferating
endometrial stromal cells into specialized secretory
cells
 The decidua produces factors that regulate
endometrial receptivity and that modulate immune
and vascular cell functions within the maternal–
fetal microenvironment.
 Decidual Structure
 Thedecidua is classified into three parts based on
anatomical location. Decidua directly beneath the
implanted blastocyst is modified by trophoblast invasion
and becomes the decidua basalis
 Thedecidua capsularis overlies the enlarging blastocyst
and initially separates the conceptus from the rest of
the uterine cavity
 Theother side of the capsularis contacts the avascular,
extraembryonic fetal membrane—the chorion laeve
 Theremainder of the uterus is lined by decidua
parietalis.
Trophoblast Development
 Human placental formation begins with the
trophectoderm, which gives rise to a trophoblast cell
layer encircling the blastocyst.
 Bythe eighth day postfertilization, after initial
implantation, the trophoblast has differentiated into an
outer multinucleated syncytium—the primitive
syncytiotrophoblast, and an inner layer of primitive
mononuclear cells—cytotrophoblasts
 Following implantation, trophoblasts differentiate along two main
pathways that give rise to either villous or extravillous trophoblasts

 Villous trophoblasts generate chorionic villi, which primarily transport

oxygen, nutrients, and other compounds between the fetus and
mother.
 Extravillous trophoblasts migrate into the decidua and myometrium
 Extravillous trophoblasts are further classified as interstitial
trophoblasts and endovascular trophoblasts.
 The interstitial trophoblasts invade the decidua and eventually
penetrate the myometrium to form placental-bed giant cells.
 The endovascular trophoblasts penetrate the spiral artery lumens
 After gentle erosion between epithelial cells of the surface endometrium,
invading trophoblasts burrow deeper.
 At 9 days of development, the blastocyst wall facing the uterine lumen is a
single layer of flattened cells.
 By the 10th day, the blastocyst becomes totally encased within the
endometrium
 The blastocyst wall opposite the uterine lumen is thicker and comprises two
zones—the trophoblasts and the embryo-forming inner cell mass.
 the inner cell mass orembryonic disc differentiates into a thick plate of
primitive ectoderm and an underlying layer of endoderm.
 Small cells appear between the embryonic disc and the trophoblasts and
enclose a space that will become the amnionic cavity.
 Extraembryonic mesenchyme first appears as groups of isolated
cells within the blastocyst cavity, and later this mesoderm
completely lines the cavity.
 Within this mesoderm, spaces form and then fuse to form the
chorionic cavity, that is, the extraembryonic coelom.
 The chorion is composed of trophoblasts and mesenchyme.
 Some mesenchymal cells eventually will condense to form the
body stalk.
 This stalk joins the embryo to the nutrient chorion and later
develops into the umbilical cord.
 The body stalk can be recognized at an early stage at the
caudal end of the embryonic disc