How Air Conditioners Work:

 Air conditioning operates based on the principles of phase conversion, which is the
transformation of a material from one state (or phase) of matter to another, such as
when a material changes from a liquid to a gas. When a liquid to gas change occurs, the
material absorbs heat. Conversely, when the material changes from gas to liquid, it
releases heat. An air conditioner is basically a machine that forces phase conversion and
uses the resulting heat transfer principles to cool buildings.

 Air conditioners are comprised of many components, the primary ones being a fluid
compressor, a condenser and an evaporator coil. We will pick a point in the air
conditioning cycle and describe how the movement of the refrigerant through the system
works to cool a building. Since the compressor is one of the most vital pieces of
equipment in an air-conditioning system, let’s start there.
Nuclear power plant:
Nuclear reactor:
Pressurized water reactor:
Gas cooled reactor:
TRANSMISSION OF POWER: belt, rope, chain and gear drives

BELT DRIVES: TYPES OF BELTS:

MATERIALS: The material used for belts and ropes should be strong, flexible and
durable. It must have a high coefficient of friction. Belt materials generally used
are leather, cotton and rubber.
Flat belts are used to transmit a moderate amount of power from one
shaft to another, when the distance between the two pulleys is not more
than 15 m.

V-belts are used to transmit a large amount of power from one shaft to
another when the two pulleys are very close to each other.

Ropes are used to transmit a great amount of power when the distance
between the shafts is large (more than 10 m)
TYPES OF FLATT BELT DRIVES

1. Open Belt Drive

2. Crossed Belt Drive
3. Stepped or Cone Pulley Drive
ROPE DRIVES:
The rope drives are widely used to transmit large amount of power from one pulley to another, over
a long distance. Ropes are made of cotton, hemp, manila or steel wire. The frictional grip in the case
of rope drive is more than the belt drive. One of the main advantages of rope drive is that a number
of drives can be taken from one driving pulley. For example, in many spinning mills, the line shaft on
each floor is driven by ropes passing directly from the main engine pulley on the ground floor. For a
rope drive, the groove angle of the pulley is normally 45°, as shown in Fig. 5 .2.(c)

Steel wire rope

This is used to transmit larger power over longer distances, compared to cotton rope or hemp rope.
Wire ropes are used for cranes, elevators etc., unlike fiber ropes which are wedged between the
sides of the grooves, steel ropes rest at the bottom of the grooves in the pulley. Following are the
advantages of wire ropes : 1. It can withstand heavy load and shock load 2. It can also withstand
fatigue 3. It is more durable 4. It is highly reliable.
Gears
A gear is a toothed wheel attached to a rotating shaft. There are many types of
gears like spur gear, helical gear, bevel gear etc., as given in Fig. 5.5

Spur Gears: This is the simplest types of gear. It has teeth parallel to the axis of
rotation and is used to transmit rotation from one shaft to another parallel shaft.

Helical Gear
This gear has its teeth inclined to the axis of rotation. Helical gears are also used
for the some application as spur gears. One major advantage of helical gears is its
silent operation. The noise level is much less. In addition, helical gears have the
ability to transmit heavy loads at high speeds.

Bevel Gears
These gears have their teeth formed on conical surfaces and are used for
transmitting motion between two shafts at 90°.
Application of gears
1. To increase or decrease the speed of rotation.
2. To reverse the direction of rotation
3. To change the axis of rotation
CHAIN DRIVES
In order to avoid slipping as in belt drives; steel chains are used. The chains are made up of
number of rigid links which are hinged together by pin joints in order to provide the necessary
flexibility for wrapping round the driving and driven wheels (sprockets). These sprockets have
projecting teeth of special profile and fit into the corresponding recesses in the links of the chain
as shown in Figure1.
Advantages:

1. As no slip takes place during chain drive, hence perfect velocity ratio is
obtained.
2. Since the chains are made of metal, therefore they occupy less space in
width than a belt or rope drive.
3. It may be used for both long as well as short distances.
4. It gives a high transmission efficiency (upto 98 percent).
5. It gives less load on the shafts.
6. It has the ability to transmit motion to several shafts by one chain only.
7. It transmits more power than belts.
8. It permits high speed ratio of 8 to 10 in one step.
9. It can be operated under adverse temperature and atmospheric conditions.
Disadvantages:

1. The production cost of chains is relatively high.

2. The chain drive needs accurate mounting and careful maintenance, particularly
lubrication and slack adjustment.
3. The chain drive has velocity fluctuations especially when unduly stretched.
ROBOT ANATOMY AND RELATED ATTRIBUTES

• The anatomy of industrial robots deals with the assembling of outer components of
a robot such as wrist, arm and body.
• Before jumping into robot configurations, here are some of the key facts about
robot anatomy.
(a)Joints and Links
(b)Common Robot Configurations
JOINTS AND LINKS
• The manipulator of an industrial robot consists of a series of joints and links.
• Robot anatomy deals with the study of different joints and links and other aspects of the
manipulator's physical construction.
• A robotic joint provides relative motion between two links of the robot.
• Each joint, or axis, provides a certain degree-of-freedom (dof) of motion.
• In most of the cases, only one degree-of-freedom is associated with each joint.
• Robot's complexity can be classified according to the total number of degrees -of-freedom they
possess.
• Each joint is connected to two links, an input link and an output link.
• A Joint provides controlled relative movement between the input link and output link. A robotic link is
the rigid component of the robot manipulator.
• Most of the robots are mounted upon a stationary base, such as the floor. From this base, a joint-link
numbering scheme may be recognized as shown in Figure.
• The robotic base and its connection to the
first joint are termed as link-0.
• The first joint in the sequence is joint-1 .
• Link-0 is the input link for joint-1, while the
output link from joint-1 is link-1 which leads to
joint-2 .
• Link 1 is the output link for joint-1 and the
input link for joint-2.
• This joint-link-numbering scheme is further
followed for all joints and links in the robotic
systems.
• Nearly all industrial robots have mechanical joints that can be classified into following five types.
a) Linear joint (type L joint)
• The relative movement between the input link and the output link is a translational sliding motion,
with the axes of the two links being parallel.
b) Orthogonal joint (type O joint)
• This also has a translational sliding motion, but the input and output links are perpendicular to each
other during the move.
c) Rotational joint (type R joint)
• This type provides rotational relative motion, with the axis of rotation perpendicular to the axes of the
input and output links.
d) Twisting joint (type T joint)
• This joint also involves rotary motion, but the axis or rotation is parallel to the axes of the two links.
e) Revolving joint (type V-joint, V from the “v” in revolving)
• In this type, axis of input link is parallel to the axis of rotation of the joint. Axis of the output link is
perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
• Basically the robot manipulator has two parts viz.
• A body-and-arm assembly with three degrees-of-freedom and A wrist assembly with two or three degrees-of-freedom.
• For body-and-arm configurations, different combinations of joint types are possible for a three-degree-of-freedom
robot manipulator.
• Five common body-and-arm configurations are outlined below.
(i) Polar configuration • It consists of a sliding arm L-joint, actuated relative to the body, which rotates around both a
vertical axis (T-joint)and horizontal axis (R-joint).
(ii) Cylindrical configuration • It consists of a vertical column. An arm assembly is moved up or down relative to the
vertical column. • Arm can be moved in and out relative to the axis of the column. Common configuration is to use
a T-joint to rotate the column about its axis. • An L-joint is used to move the arm assembly vertically along the
column, while an O-joint is used to achieve radial movement of the arm
(iii) Cartesian co-ordinate robot • It is also known as rectilinear robot and x-y-z robot. It consists of three sliding joints,
two of which are orthogonal O-joints.
(iv) Jointed-arm robot • It is similar to the configuration of a human arm. • It consists of a vertical column that swivels
about the base using a T-joint. Shoulder joint (R-joint) is located at the top of the column. • The output link is an
elbow joint (another R joint).
(v) SCARA • Its full form is ‘Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm'. • It is similar in construction to the jointer-
arm robot, except the shoulder and elbow rotational axes are vertical. • The arm is very rigid in the vertical
direction, but compliant in the horizontal direction. Robot wrist assemblies consist of either two or three degrees-
of freedom.
INDUSTRIAL ROBOT APPLICATIONS
• Industrial Robot Applications can be divided into:
(i) Material-handling applications
(1) Part Placement (2) Palletizing or depalletizing (3) Machine loading or unloading
(4) Stacking and insertion operations
(ii) Processing Operations
(1) Spot welding (2) Continuous arc welding (3) Spray painting (4) Metal cutting and deburring operations
(5) Various machining operations like drilling, grinding, laser and waterjet cutting and riveting.
(6) Rotating and spindle operations (7) Adhesives and sealant dispensing
(iii) Assembly Applications
(iv) The medical applications of the robot
• Routine examinations • Surgical procedures
(v) Underwater applications
(vi) • Involves prospecting for minerals on the floor of the ocean. • Salvaging of sunken vessels, repair the ship either
at sea or in dry dock. • Mobile firefighters to be used by air force and navy.
(vi) Surveillance and Guard duty
• Used in military • Used in power generating plants, oil refineries and other civilian facilities that are potential
targets of terrorist groups.
Air Conditioning Cycle:

Diagram of How Air Conditioners Work

1. Indoor Unit
A. Evaporator coil:
B. Blower
C. Air filter
D. Front panel
i. Return air grill
Ii. Supply grill
E. Drain Tray
F. Control panel

2. Outdoor Unit
A. Compressor
B. Condenser
C. Propeller Fan
D. Expansion device
Diesel power plant:
The layout of a diesel power plant is given in Fig. 2.6. Normally, multicylinder 2-
stroke turbocharged diesel engines are used in power plants.

In a turbocharged engine, the atmospheric air is compressed by a compressor run by

an exhaust-driven gas turbine and the compressed air is taken inside the cylinder.

Due to this, mass of air intake and amount of fuel burnt will be considerably
increased giving rise to increased output power and higher thermal efficiency.

Due to turbocharging, the operating temperature of the engine is increased. So, the
lubricating oil coming out of the engine should be cooled in an oil cooler.

The cooling water from the engines is normally cooled in a spray tank and
recirculated. Due to high capacity, the engine is started by using compressed air.
Layout of diesel engine power plant
Hydroelectric power plant:

In a hydroelectric power plant, the potential

energy of water stored in a dam is made use of
in running a water turbine coupled to an
electrical generator. It is estimated that about
23 per cent of the total electric power in the
world comes from hydro power. In Tamil Nadu,
the total generation of power from
hydroelectric plants amounts to 1950 MW and
in an all-India level, it amounts to about 18000
MW.