URBAN

ENVIRONMENTS
I.G.C.S.E – GEOGRAPHY

Tutor: Mr. Dalmas

COURSE OUTLINE
• Meaning of terms
• Nature of urbanization
• Urbanization Pathways and Processes
• The emergence of mega-cities
• Problems of rapid urbanization
• Urban Land Use Patterns
• Urban challenges in developed and developing countries
• Development on the urban fringe
• Making urban living more sustainable
• Managing urban challenges
1. Meaning of terms
• Urbanization – It’s the increase in proportion of people living in towns
and cities/It’s the growth in the percentage of population living and
working in urban areas.
• Counter urbanization – It is the movement of people and
employment from major cities to small cities and towns as well as to
rural areas.
• Suburbanization – It is the outwards spread of urban areas often at
low densities compared with the older parts of a town or a city.
• Mega-city – It is a city with a population larger than 10 million people.
2. Nature of urbanisation
• An increasing percentage of the country’s population living in urban
settlements leads to the growth in cities and towns. Urban settlements
(towns and cities) differ from rural settlements (villages) in terms of:
• Their economies – Residents make a living from manufacturing and
services rather than agriculture.
• Their size – they are larger in population and extent.
• Their densities of people and buildings – Which is generally high.
• Their way of life
• The level of urbanization varies across the globe. The HICs and MICs
show the highest levels of urbanization. However, the rate of city growth
is mostly higher in LICs
…cont
The high rates of urbanization are occurring in LICs because:

• Most new economic developments in these countries are

concentrated in the big cities.
• Push and pull factors are leading to high rates of rural-to-urban
migration.
• Cities are experiencing high rates of natural increase in population.
3. Urbanisation pathways and processes
Urbanization pathways
• Urbanization pathways show how the levels of urbanization changes
over time. For example, countries become more urbanized as they
develop economically and move from LICs towards becoming HICs.
• Urbanization pathways undergo four main stages:
Stage 1: (early urbanization) – a country starts at a very low level
of economic development and it is common in LICs
Stage 2: (acceleration in urbanization) – there is a gradual
increase in economic development and the level of urbanization.
It is common in MICs.
…cont
• Stage 3: (Mature urbanization) - the pace of economic development
slows down, so does the urbanization rate. It is common in HICs
• Stage 4: (Counter urbanization) – the level of urbanization begins to
flatten out and the pathway forms an S-Shaped curve. Counter
Urbanization is common in this stage due to urban push factor. (traffic,
congestion, environmental pollution, high crime rate, e.t.c
The diagram below shows urbanization pathways
Urbanisation processes
• Urbanization processes are changes that convert rural areas, regions
and countries into urban areas. The change involves a number of
processes that affect built up areas of towns and cities as they grow.
The diagram below shows urban process timeline
…cont
• Agglomeration – it is the concentration of people and economic
activities at favorable locations such as river-crossing points, estuary
mouths or close to a mineral resource (coal, iron or oil)
• Suburbanization – it is the outward spread of urban areas often at
low densities compared with older parts of a town or city. The
creation of these new suburbs made up of houses, places of
employment and services is encouraged by:
…cont
i. Improvement of transport that allow people to move easily between the
new suburbs and the town centers.
ii. Overcrowding, congestion and rising land rates in the older parts of the
town
iii. A general decline in the quality of the residential environment near the
center
iv. The arrival of more people (mainly from rural areas) and new
businesses.
N/B – As a result of these two processes (agglomeration and
suburbanization), some towns grow into cities. Towns and cities located
close to each other sometimes join together into one vast continuous built-
up area known as conurbation
…cont
• Commuting – People who settle around rural areas, continue to have links
with towns/cities they have left because they commute to the same place
of work and continue to make use of urban services such as shops, colleges
and hospitals
N/B : People start to move out of towns and cities and live in smaller rural
settlements around towns and cities. These are often known as dormitory
settlements
• Counter urbanization – It is the movement of people and employment
from major cities to small cities and towns, as well as rural areas. It is
caused by:
i. Urban push factors – it can be due to congestion, high crime rates, high
cost of housing, environmental pollution and high land rates
…cont
ii) Rural pull factors – due to less traffic congestion, low crime rate, low
costs of housing, no environmental pollution and low land rates
• Urban regeneration – this involves re-using areas in the old parts of
cities abandoned as people and businesses have moved to the suburbs
or beyond/ the investments of capital in the revival of old, urban areas
by either improving what is there or clearing it away and rebuilding.
• This process has allowed the re-imaging or re-branding of urban areas
1. Re-imaging – is the changing of the reputation/image of an urban area
and the way people view it.
2. Urban re-branding – is the regeneration and re-imaging of old urban
areas, often involving an economic revival based on leisure and
recreation
…cont
A well-known example of this is the regeneration of the deserted
docklands and warehouses of London into upmarket offices and
residential apartments.
• Urbanization of suburbs – suburbs are typically areas of low density
developments. Most governments are keen that more use is made of
suburban areas. For example, vacant building plots and open spaces
should be developed, large detached houses should be replaced by
flats and maisonettes. Shops and other services should be located in
the suburbs.
4. The Emergence of Megacities
Meaning of terms
• Megacities – are cities or urban areas with a population of more than
10 million people. E.g. New York, Tokyo, e.t.c
• Millionaire cities – is a city with a population of more than 1 million
people. E.g. London, Paris, e.t.c., they existed in the early nineteenth
century
Factors encouraging the growth of
megacities
The following factors/reasons have led to the growth of megacities:
• Economic development – this is the driver of all economic growth
and urbanization. Megacities are produced by a fast and sustained
rate of economic growth.
• Population growth – economic growth needs an increasing supply of
labour. The demand for more workers can be met in two ways; by
either natural increase in urban population (high birth rate) or rural-
to-urban migration.
…cont
• Economies of scale – they are advantages that big cities gain from
compared to smaller cities. Since distances within a megacity are less
than between smaller cities, there are financial savings (economies of
scale) to be made in terms of transport. Communication between
people and businesses will also be easier.
• Multiplier effect – with cities, success leads to more success. Once a
large city is prospering, it gathers a momentum which will carry it
forward. So, it will lead to more prosperity and growth. There are
more jobs, so more people move to the city, which means there are
more people who need goods and services, which creates more jobs
and so the cycle goes on.
5. Problems of Rapid Urbanisation
The world is rapidly becoming urbanized and the pace of urbanization is
greatest in emerging countries. This is due to the following factors:
• Natural increase in population (birthrate)
• Migration of people from rural and urban areas (pull and push
factors)
• New developments are concentrated in urban areas (economic
development)
…cont
In developing countries, the rapid and unplanned urban growth has created
a range of problems.
1. Housing – the problem of housing has been caused by migration of people
from rural to urban areas. This has led to development of shanty towns or
squatter settlements. In most cases, demand for houses exceed supply.
2. Traffic congestion – the transport system in the cities are overloaded and
overcrowded due to high number of vehicles and narrow roads. This has led
to high level of atmospheric pollution in cities, many of which suffer from
smog (mixture of smoke and fog)
3. Social problems – overcrowding of people and poor living conditions in
cities has led to high crime rate, drug-trafficking and theft. The poorest areas
are often inhabited by violent street gangs.
…cont
4. Environmental issues (pollution) – most cities produce large
quantity of waste and due to poor waste disposal, it has led to
environmental pollution. Traffic congestion in most cities has led to
atmospheric pollution/sound pollution and this has affected the
environment.
5. Unemployment – many people are unable to get proper jobs due to
lack of skills and knowledge, therefore, they are either unemployed or
become part of massive informal sectors. E.g. street vendors, shoe
shiners, jua kali
…cont
5. Education – rapid population growth in urban areas has overstretched the
available schools. While most cities can provide some primary education, not all
children go to high school due to high cost and many of them have to work to
support their families.
6. Health – there are not enough doctors, clinics or hospitals to deal with the
rapid increase in population. With large parts of the mushrooming city having
little or no access to clean water or sanitation, diseases and infections such as
cholera and typhoid, spread quickly.
7. Access to water and electricity – it is commonly the case that, the provision
of basic services does not keep up with the growth of population. As a
consequence, not all parts of the built-up area are provided with running water,
sanitation and electricity. Many people have no option but to rely on fires for
cooking and lighting, and on polluted streams for water and sewage disposal.
6. Urban Land Use Patterns
(Segregation of urban land use)
Meaning of terms
• Land segregation – it shows different patterns of land use in cities,
mainly in HICs
• The main cause of land segregation is urban land market, e.g. land
value varies within the urban areas and decline outwards from the
CBD towards the urban fringe. However, high land values are also
found along major roads due to accessibility
• Similar activity of land use come together because of the following
reasons:
1. They have same locational needs; this may be large amount of space
or being accessible to customers and employees.
…cont
2. They can afford the same general levels of land values.

Towns and cities grow outwards from a historic nucleus (core), they
show concentric zoning, i.e, a series of rings wrapping around the
historic nucleus or core. Urban area are divided into four zones:
a) The core
b) Inner city ring
c) Suburban ring
d) Urban ring
…cont
a) Core/CBD – the oldest part of the city which normally contains the
Central Business District, tall buildings, it is busy and crowded, high
land values, it is a commercial center with offices.
b) Inner city ring – next to the core, where early suburbs were built
and therefore it has old housing (residential and non-residential
land uses). The area has undergone re-imaging.
c) Suburban ring – it has present suburbs with housing as dominant
land use
d) Urban fringe – the outer edge of the built-up area of a town or city.
Country sides are being ‘eroded’ by outwards of the built-up area to
…cont
provide space for housing and some non-residential uses.
- As one moves outwards from the CBD towards the urban fringe, the
following are noticeable:
i. The general age of the built-up area decreases
ii. The style of architecture and urban design change
iii. The overall density of development decreases
N/B – 1) This urban model of four zones applies virtually to all
towns and cities. What varies in different parts of the world is the
character of each zone – namely, what goes on in them in terms of land
use and the type of people living there
…cont
2) People, like land uses, become sorted within the urban area by the
same urban land market/value and the same process of bidding for
sites. People become segregated into groups on the basis of their social
class, type of occupation and ethnicity.
People prefer to live close to those whom they think are of the same
status.
7. URBAN CHALLENGES IN DEVELOPED
AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.
a) Developed countries
Many cities in developed countries face challenges which threaten both
their general prosperity and quality of urban living. These challenges
fall under three broad headings:
i. Economic challenges – De-industrialisation (closure of industries),
Globalisation, food supply, transport and traffic, energy supply
problems, service provision.
ii. Social challenges – social services and housing, poverty and
deprivation, ethnic segregation, quality of life, ageing population,
terrorism and crime.
…cont
iii) Environmental – ecological footprint, pollution and waste disposal,
resources, hazard risk.

CASE STUDY – HONG KONG, CHINA

i) Introduction
Hong Kong has a land area of over 1000 KM2 and a population of over 7
million people. It is both a ‘country’ and a world city. Although it has
been a apart of China since 1997, it is an autonomous territory. This
means that it has some political independence. Given its status as one
of the world’s top financial and business centres, it is not just a global
city but a ‘developed country’.
…cont
N/B – Global cities/World Cities – are cities with a population of more
than 1 million people and they are financial centres/business centres of
the global economy from which they derive their power and influence.
Examples; Hong Kong, New York, Mexico city, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo,
Nairobi.
ii) Urban challenges.
1. Economic:
a. Globalisation – Hong Kong has benefited from globalization with its
economic development based on trade and financial services,
manufacturing has never been a major part of the economy. For this
reason, it has not been much affected by de-industrialization.
…cont
Hong Kong is the world’s eleventh largest trading ‘country’. It is the
world’s largest re-export centre. These re-exports are products made
outside the territory, especially in mainland China. Hong Kong has a few
natural resources.
b) Food – the territory of Hong Kong has little arable land, so
agriculture is a relatively unimportant part of the economy and
contributes only 0.1 % of its GDP. It has to import most of its food. Most
food comes from outside China.
c) Energy – All cities need a cheap and reliable source supply of energy.
The energy supply in Hong Kong is mainly in the form of electricity. 75%
of this is generated y the burning of fossil fuels. ¼ of the electricity is
generated by nuclear power and it is imported from mainland China
…cont
d) Transport – Traffic congestion in many cities is a major problem.
Hong Kong has a well-developed transport network and movement
around this densely populated territory is relatively easy. Most of the
public uses public transport. Public transport is provided by an
integrated network of railways, buses and ferries.
2. Social:
a) Social services and housing – Hong Kong has become a vertical city.
½ of Hong Kong’s residents live in public housing which is rented
from the government. They are usually in high rise apartment
blocks. Hong Kong is ranked the third most expensive city in the
world because of private housing. The effect of this is to reduce
social mobility. It has become extremely difficult for people to move
from the public to the private sector.
…cont
This also underlines another feature of Hong Kong’s population – its
social polarization. Extreme wealth, as well as poverty and deprivation
are found in the urban area.
b) Ethnic segregation – is a factor contributing to social polarization.
About 94% of Hong Kong’s population is of Chinese descent. The
remaining 6% is made up mainly of people from the Philippines,
Indonesia, Nepal and India. Most of them are employed by the wealthy
as domestic servants. There are Britons, Americans, Canadians,
Japanese and Koreans living in Hong Kong. They work in the city’s
commercial and financial sector and live in the wealthier districts.
c) Poverty and deprivation – despite its overall prosperity, Hong Kong
contains pockets of poverty and deprivation. The most obvious
symptoms are the slums. In 1990s the slums were cleared away and
…cont
today they are found on rooftops. They are known as ‘penthouse
slums’ or the rooftop shanty towns’. They are illegal and are known to
be unique in Hong Kong.
3) environmental:
a) Ecological footprint – the main contributors of the ecological
footprint are:
i) The burning of fossil fuel
ii) The need to reclaim a large amount of land from the sea to create
space for urban growth
iii) The smog that drifts across the territory from industrial
developments on the other side of the Pearl River delta.
iv) Disposal of waste
…cont
b) Water supply – Because of few rivers and lakes, it has been difficult
to supply water for Hong Kong. Ground water sources are difficult to
access. The large population and seasonal variations in rainfall means
that Hong Kong has to import 70%of water from Dongxiang River in
mainland China.
c) Waste disposal – Hong Kong’s 11 million residents produce an
estimated 6.4 million tonnes of waste in a year. Until recently, this was
dumped in landfills and land reclamation sites. Attempts are being
made to increase the recycling of waste, as well as converting waste
into energy.
d)Resources – Due to the size of Hong Kong, it is a concentrated
consumer of resources. These resources range from land and water to
…cont
energy and recreational space. All these add to the deepness of Hong
Kong’s ecological footprint, so Hong Kong is far from being sustainable.

b. Developing and emerging world

Different types of challenges are faced by developing countries (Kenya)
and emerging countries (Mexico). This challenges fall under 4 broad
headings:
i) Squatter settlements (Slums/shanty towns)- They are areas of slum
housing built of salvaged materials and located in areas of no economic
values, on the edge of towns, along main roads or on steep slopes.
…cont
Many of the areas where shanty towns are built are unsafe. The may be
prone to flooding and landslides or heavily polluted locations. Other
hazards include fire, crime and the spread of diseases which are often
linked to overcrowding.
Shanty towns are know by different names around the world:-
 Favelas (Brazil)
 Barriadas (Latin America)
 Bidonville (North Africa)
 Bustees (Indian subcontinent)
Features:-
Built of salvaged/scrap materials, built on areas of no economic value,
built on areas that are unsafe/insecure, occupied by people who work
…cont
…in the informal sector.
ii) Informal economy – it is self-employment work that is irregular and
has little or no job security e.g. Jua Kali, brickmaking, hawking, etc.
The type is work is illegal and is taken up by working for themselves on
the streets, particularly rural-to-urban migrants. This is particularly the
case in cities such as Mexico and Nairobi cities, where there is both
unemployment and underemployment.
iii) Urban pollution – it is a problem in squatter settlements. They lack
piped water, proper sanitation and waste disposal. The burning of fuel
wood pollutes the air, traffic congestion also causes air pollution. Visual
pollution is caused by garbage on the streets, graphite and unsightly
buildings
…cont
iv) Low quality of life – deprivation is a term widely used to describe
low quality of life in squatter settlements. Deprivation is when the
standard of living and quality of life fall below a minimum level. It
involves all those hardships that are experienced by people who live in
squatter settlement, e.g. lack of access to social services, pollution,
traffic congestion and employment, e.t.c.
The quality of life index (QLI) take into account different life indicators
to compare the quality of life between different places.
Income level, employment level, health standards, education level,
access to housing and services, crime levels and living environment.
8. DEVELOPMENT ON THE URBAN
FRINGE
a) Meaning of terms
i) Rural urban fringe/urban fringe – it is an area where city and
countryside meet, or, areas around the edge of the city.
ii) Greenfield sites – are open land around the edge of the city that
has not previously been built upon, or, areas around the edge of
the city that does not allow development.
iii) Brownfield sites – are lands that have been previously used,
abandoned, and now awaits new use.
One reason for urban growth and change on the urban fringe is a
feeling of dissatisfaction within the city due to push factors:
…cont
- Traffic congestion, high cost of housing, environmental pollution and
high land prices

There are also pull factors on the urban fringe:

- Low land prices, availability of space for factory expansion, less
environmental pollution, easy access to motorways, personal mobility
allowed by car drivers.
Business development
There are various business development taking place on the edge of
urban fringe in HIC’s cities. They include:
…cont
• Science parks
• Business parks
• Retail parks
• Industrial estates

The greenfield and brownfield debate

Many people/environmentalists believe that new developments should
be built on brownfield sites because the land is in built-up areas that
have been abandoned and is now lying idle. The following are
arguments for and against the choice for each side of development:
A. Brownfield sites:
Advantages
i. Helps revive old and disused urban areas
ii. Is located near to main areas of employment therefore, therefore,
commuting is reduced
iii. Reduces the loss of countryside and land that might be put to
agricultural or recreational use
iv. Services are already in place such as water, electricity, gas and
sewage
Disadvantages
v. Higher levels of pollution, therefore, less healthy.
vi. May not have good access to modern roads.
…cont
iii. It is expensive to build on because old buildings have to be cleared
and land made free of pollution
iv. It is not appealing to wealthy people as a residential location
because it is surrounded by rundown areas.

B. Greenfield sites
Advantages
v. Healthy environment
vi. It is cheap and the rate of house building is faster
vii. The layout is not hampered by previous development, so, can easily
be made efficient and pleasant
…cont
iv. Proximity of countryside, leisure and recreation

Disadvantages
v. Valuable farm or recreational space is lost
vi. Attractive scenery is lost
vii. Wildlife and their habitats are lost or disturbed
viii. Development causes noise and light pollution in the surrounding
countryside
ix. Encourages suburban sprawl
N/B: There is no clear winner in this particular debate (brownfield and
greenfield sites), it depends on:
…cont
1. The particular land use. Housing is fairly flexible in terms of where it
might be built, but shops, offices and industries need more space
and locations
2. The circumstances of the particular town or city. Is the green space
really valuable? Are there serious problems and high costs involved
in reusing the brown space.
3. Your own set of values. Do you think that the countryside should be
protected at all costs or do you think that more space should be
released for urban growth?
8. MAKING URBAN LIVING MORE
SUSTAINABLE
Meaning of terms
a) Sustainable – actions that minimize the negative impact on the
environment and promote human well-being
b) Sustainability – the long term maintenance of the well-being of
people and the natural world through the responsible use of natural
resources.
c) Sustainable management – Controlling and planning developments
in such a way as to minimize the use of resources and impacts on
the environment for future generations
d) Ecological footprint – measures of mark people make on the
environment, mainly through resource consumption
…cont
Making urban living more sustainable may be achieved through a range
of different activities:
1. Using renewable rather than non-renewable energy resources
2. Using energy more efficiently. E.g. switch off the lights when not in
use
3. Relying on public transport rather than private transport
4. Improving physical infrastructure in urban areas. e.g. providing
clean water and proper sanitation
5. Improving social services and access to them. E.g. education,
health, etc.
6. Improving the quality of life, particularly in the urban poor.
…cont
N/B – most of these activities add up to a single challenge, i.e., to
reduce ecological footprint of towns and cities in order to reduce social
inequalities.
The table below shows different actions (internal and external) on how
to make cities and urban living more sustainable:
…cont
Case Studies
I. Masdar city, Abu Dhabi
Masdar city claims to be one of the world’s most sustainable city. Building
of this eco-city started in 2008. Now nearing completion, it will house
40,000 people and 5,000 people will commute there everyday either to
work orstudy.
Management of Masdar city in a sustainable way
- The sustainability of the project is based on reducing the consumption of
energy and water and reducing the production of waste.
- All of the energy supply is renewable. Nearly all comes from solar power.
It is generated by rooftop solar panels and is one of the largest
photovoltaic plants in the Middle East. The design of the streets make
good use of the coolness provided by the prevailing winds. The buildings
combine traditional Arabic architecture with modern
…Cont
…technology. The orientation of the buildings and their designs
minimize the need for air conditioning, heating and lighting, so the
city’s carbon print is a small one.
Masdar city has installed smart water consumption systems in all the
city’s buildings. They are designed 54% less than UAE’s average
building. In addition, 75% of hot water is provided via thermal
receptors fixed on top of buildings. Water comes from desalinization
plants using renewable energy.
Waste is reduced as near as possible to zero, through encouraging
changes in behavior (stressing the need for recycling), and controlling
the type of material that can be used within the city (maintaining a
war on plastic and polythene)
…cont
Citizens are required to attend five hours of sustainability education
each year. Much of this education aims to change lifestyles and make
them more environmentally-friendly
Masdar City has become a leader in research and education in
sustainable and clean technologies. This has attracted an increasing
number of businesses keen to market new clean technological
discoveries.
The achievements of Masdar City are impressive. But there are two
limitations:
 The large sums of capital needed to set it up
 It is only suitable for those parts of the world with access to
plentiful supplies of renewable energy.
II. Curitiba, Brazil
• Curitiba in south-west Brazil is now a city with a population of well
over 2 million. It is widely recognized as a good example of urban
planning. The planning started in 1968 when the city’s population was
already 430,000.
• The Curitiba Master Plan was first aimed at improving transport. Five
main roads converging on the city center were converted into dual
carriageways separated by a central two-lane carriageway for
exclusive use by express buses. Triple-articulated buses provide fast,
efficient and cheap transport and this has persuaded people to leave
their cars at home. During the rush hours, buses run every 60
seconds and are always full. The network is now used by 70% of the
city’s inhabitants. One fare allows passengers to travel anywhere on
the network. Buses now use biofuels and this has reduced pollution.
…cont
• But there is more to eco-friendly Curitiba than just its transport network.
• The town is virtually surrounded by parks for public recreation. These
parks also stops favelas (shanty towns) being established on the urban
fringe, although they have not been completely successful in preventing
the growth of the shanty towns. Flooding is a regular hazard in Curitiba.
However, lakes created within the parks are now providing an effective
flood control service. There are also parks within the city. The grass here
is controlled by grazing sheep.
• The city recycles its waste and has done so since 1980. It has set up a
pioneering waste disposal system. Waste is collected through a network
of ‘cambo verde’ sites. Curitiba now recycles over two thirds of its waste.
Poor people from the slums are paid for the garbage they
…cont
…collect. They are paid not in money, but in fruit and vegetables. The
scheme has been very effective in improving conditions in the slums.
More recently, attention has turned to dealing with the slums. Guided
by the city authority, a new self-help suburb is being built to replace
demolished slum dwellings.
• The ‘greening’ of Curitiba was the idea of Jamie Lerner, a former
mayor. It is a model of sustainable urban planning from an emerging
country. But its ideas have been taken up mainly in developed
countries. The ultimate verdict on Curitiba is provided by a recent
survey which found that 99% of Curitiba’s residents are happy with
their city.
III. Urban Gardens, Afghanistan
• The urban areas of Afghanistan often provide a refuge for large
numbers of Afghans forced to leave their homes in mainly rural areas.
They are being driven by armed conflict, natural disasters and a lack
of economic opportunities. But resettling in cities does not bring an
end to their poverty and despair. An added problem is adjusting to an
unfamiliar environment. So, the re is double challenge here: making a
sustainable living for themselves, and ensuring that they do not
reduce still further the sustainability of the towns and cities in which
they set up their new homes.
• Urban gardening is a scheme started in Mazar-i-Sharif city in northern
Afghanistan by the charity People in Need and funded by the EU and
the Czech Development Agency.
Advantages of Urban Gardening Scheme
i. Raising food production from small plots (10 to 50 meters) attached
to most dwellings
ii. Training is given in basic crop growing, rainwater harvesting,
constructing simple greenhouses and storage of harvested
vegetables.
iii. Setting up female self-help groups and training in basic skills as well
as informing them about nutrition and hygiene. examples, are
shops, spinning and making clothes, and rearing poultry. All this
helps to empower women in the society.
9. MANAGING URBAN CHALLENGES
• The groups involved in managing any urban challenge will vary
according to the specific challenge. So, it is dangerous to generalize.
• A common challenge to the three cities – Hong Kong, Mexico City and
Nairobi, is slums
• There are probably five different slum management options:
1. Bulldoze and clear away (Zimbabwe)
2. Clear away but relocate (Brazil)
3. Redevelop (Brazil)
4. Improve by self-help or site-and-service schemes (Philippines)
5. Ignore (India, Bangladesh)
…cont
The groups involved in managing urban challenges are
a. Local
Slum residents – they are likely to support anything that improve
their conditions.
Residents living nearby – they can speak with one voice as well as
organizing protest groups.
Utility suppliers – provide water, waste disposal & electricity for the
improvement in living condition.
Representatives in parliaments or on city councils – they can put
pressure to the national government to deliver.
City councils – they are likely to have most influence in the choice of
option.
…cont
Land owners and property developers – they can identify sites away
from the squatter settlements on which replacement high-density
housing might be built.
Employers – in the event squatters are relocated, thy can keep the
supply of cheap labor where it is
Planners – their vision of the future might be a city without squatter
settlements.

b. National level
The stakeholders at national level are:
Government – they are able to provide financial resources to
support slum management programs
…cont
National charities – they help people living in slums in form of
volunteers and practical help rather than money

c. International level
Stakeholders at international level include:
International charities – they support slum management programs
aimed at particular squatter settlement problems, e.g. water and
sanitation, health and infectious diseases, education, etc.. They
include, Oxfam, CAFOD, Christian Aid, and MSF
Inter-governmental organizations – they sponsor programs aimed at
helping the poor through national governments. They include; the
World Bank, UNESCO and World Health Organizations
Conclusion
The choice of management option will be largely determined by local
stakeholders. National governments may either support or oppose that
choice. International stakeholders become involved once the decision
ahs been taken.
N/B – Various strategies are involved in the improvement of squatter
settlements at various scales
i. Self-help schemes – they are community groups (local level),
formed by people to help in the improvement of housing conditions
by providing basic services such as water and sanitation
ii. Housing improvements – the development of housing is done by
governments and IGOs(national and international) by providing
materials/finance which local people use in building houses
…cont
iii. Micro-lending schemes – it provides funds/finances to the local to
start small businesses and housing improvement by IGOs and
International Charities.
iv. Legal rights of land ownership – the local community have legal
land rights over their homes and lands. Therefore, they are more
secure and can sell and buy property. This stability has also
encouraged further investment in Favelas

END