MEMORY AND

FORGETTING
Shripa Pradhan
7 t h March 2024
Introduce yourself and your favorite memory

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Table of Content
◦ Memory – What it is?
◦ How do we remember things?
◦ Forgetting
◦ Improving Memory – Techniques
◦ Neuroscience of Memory
◦ **Embodied Experience of Memory

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MEMORY – WHAT IS IT?

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Memory – What is it?
◦ memory refers to the brain's ability to encode, store and retrieve
information from past experiences, knowledge, or events.
◦ Encode: initial process of recording memory
◦ Storage: saving information for future use
◦ Retrieval: bringing stored information to awareness

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Three Stages of Memory
Sensory Memory

Short Term Memory

Long Term Memory

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F N
T L
Y Y
C W
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Sensory Memory
◦ Initial momentary storage of memory
◦ Information gathered by senses (visual, auditory, touch, etc.)
◦ Several types of sensory memory exists that is related to different source of
sensory memory – iconic memory (visual), echoic memory (auditory)
◦ Very short time
◦ Doesn’t pass into short term memory
◦ A snapshot, that is immediately destroyed and replaced with new one.

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Short-Term Memory
◦ Information has meanings! (although, short lived)
◦ Holding information for 15-25 seconds
◦ To hold the memory in the short term, chunks can be really helpful
◦ Chunks are grouping of information that is stored

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Short-Term Memory  Working
Memory
◦ Short term memory is much more active
◦ It is information processing
◦ Also known as working memory
◦ Working memory is an active “workspace: in which information is retrieved and manipulated and in which
information is held through rehearsal
◦ Consists of
◦ Central executive processor: reasoning and decision making
◦ Visual store: visual and spatial material
◦ Verbal store: materials relating to speech, words and numbers
◦ Episodic buffer: information about episodes and events
◦ Uses a lot of cognitive resources
◦ Can cause us to be less aware of our surrounding

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 Rehearsal
Could be elaborative (where
the information is organized
in a specific way) or repetitive

Short term Long term

memory memory

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Long Term Memory
◦ Memory that stories information in permanent basis
◦ Can be difficult to retrieve
◦ Have different components called memory modules
◦ Declarative Memory: factual information (dates, faces, facts), the what
◦ Semantic Memory: general knowledge and facts about the world + logic
◦ Episodic Memory: events occurring in particular time or place or context
◦ Procedural Memory: skills and habits, the how

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 HOW DO WE
REMEMBER THINGS?
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Recalling Long-Term Memories
◦ Semantic Network
◦ Retrieval Cues
◦ Levels of Processing
◦ Explicit and Implicit Memory
◦ Flashbulb Memories
◦ Constructive Process

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Semantic Networks
◦ Organizational tool that helps us to recall
detailed information
◦ Mental representation of clusters of
interconnected information
◦ Making associations and connections between
different information
◦ RED > YELLOW > ORANGE > BLUE
◦ RED > APPLE > BANANA > MANGO
◦ APPLE > IPHONE > STEVE JOBS
◦ JOBS > OH NO UNEMPLOYMENT

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Retrieval Cues
◦ Retrieval cue is a stimulus that allows us to recall information
◦ They are important to recall (actually remember) and recognize (choose which they have previously
been exposed to)

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Levels of Processing
◦ If a new memory has gone through a rigorous processing, then it is easier to remember
◦ Paying close attention to details, then easier to remember
◦ Information analyzed in terms of its meanings are easier to recall

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Explicit and Implicit Memory
◦ Explicit: intentional or conscious recollection of information
◦ Implicit: Not consciously aware but can affect our behavior and performance.
◦ Can be related to discrimination and prejudice

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Flashbulb Memories
◦ Memories of specific, important or surprising emotionally significant event that are recalled easily and
with vivid imagery
◦ Example: accidents, traumatic events, etc.
◦ Can be mostly inaccurate, specially when it’s highly emotional

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Constructive Process
◦ Constructive processes are processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to the
events. Eg. February and break ups
◦ Not just by prior experiences, but also our guesses and inferences
◦ Suggested by Frederic Bartlett, who introduced the ideas of information saving through schemas
(organized memory that impacts how we interpret and store new information)
◦ Sometimes false memories are important – to feel good about ourselves and others.
◦ Sometimes false memories are harmful – in court rooms and malleable memory of children.

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**some specific + additional context
◦ Repressed Memories or False Memories
◦ Repressed memories – according to Freud
◦ So shocking that our mind represses them as a defense mechanism
◦ Always hidden, until made conscious

◦ Another idea – False memory

◦ Unable to recall the source
◦ Unable to say if it was real or imagined

◦ Autographical Memory
◦ Our own life experiences
◦ Some are easily remembered, whereas others aren’t.

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FORGETTING
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Forgetting
◦ Can be annoying, hurtful, embarrassing but it is important
◦ Ability to forget inconsequential details about experiences, people and objects help us to feel less
burdened and overwhelmed
◦ Helps to keep unwanted and unnecessary information from interfering with retrieving information that is
actually necessary
◦ Help us to form general impressions and recollections.

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Why do we forget?
◦ Failure of encoding – not paying attention
◦ Trace decay – loss of information when there is no use of the information. Can also happen when there
is physical changes. Memory fades over time.
◦ Interference – information stored disrupts recall of other information store
◦ Proactive interference: old information disrupts recall of new materials
◦ Retroactive interference: new information disrupts recall of old materials
◦ Cue-dependent forgetting – insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information in the memory

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Why do we forget?
◦ Motivated Forgetting – people purposefully forget or suppress certain memories or information because
it is emotionally distressing, threatening to self-esteem, or conflicts with their beliefs or desires.
◦ Repression: unconscious suppression of memories
◦ Suppression: conscious effort to block out unwanted memories or information

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Memory Dysfunctions
◦ Alzheimer’s Disease – progressive brain disorder that affects memory and cognition
◦ Amnesia – memory loss without other mental difficulties
◦ Retrograde amnesia: memory loss prior to certain event
◦ Anterograde amnesia: loss of memory after an injury
◦ Korsakoff’s syndrome: memory loss caused by long term alcoholism
◦ Huntington’s Disease – progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects movement, cognition and
behavior.

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 TECHNIQUES OF
IMPROVING MEMORY
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Techniques of improving memory
◦ Keyword Technique
◦ Organizational Cues
◦ Effective notetaking
◦ Practice and rehearse
◦ Talk to yourself
◦ No drugs, kids

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NEUROSCIENCE OF
MEMORY
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Biology behind memory
◦ Hippocampus: coordination of memories, encoding of information and organization
◦ Cerebral cortex: storage of memory
◦ Amygdala: memories involving emotion

◦ Neurons:
◦ New information excites neural pathways
◦ Number of synapses increases
◦ In long term memory, the places are fixed

◦ Different sensory aspects and areas of brain is working together

◦ Memory is like a team work, located in various areas of brain and body

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Embodied Experiences of Memory
◦ Body stores memory
◦ Embodiment refers to the idea that our bodies are not just vessels for our minds, but they actively
participate in shaping our experiences, emotions, and memories.
◦ Somatic memory refers to the storage of memories in the body's sensations, movements, and
physiological responses. These somatic memories can manifest as physical sensations, such as muscle
tension, rapid heartbeat, or sweating, when triggered by similar situations or stimuli.

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