Arbaminch Poly Techinic and Satellite Institute

Prepared by:- Girma Ketala Kalsa/M.A/In Curriculum and Quality Assurance/.

2016 E.C
Arbaminch
Educational Measurement and Evaluation of Learning Reading
Material

MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION

 Test and testing
A test is a measuring tool or instrument in education. More
specifically, a test is considered to be a kind or class of measurement
device typically used to find out something about a person. Most of
the times, when you finish a lesson or lessons in a week, your teacher
gives you a test.
Testing on the other hand is the process of administering the test on the
pupils. In other words, the process of making you or letting you take the
test in order to obtain a quantitative representation of the cognitive or
non-cognitive traits you possess is called testing. So, the instrument or
tool is the test and the process of administering the test is testing.
 Cont.…

Assessment
Assessment is a systematic basis for making
inference about the learning and development of
students… the process of defining, selecting,
designing, collecting, analysing, interpreting and
using information to increase students’ learning and
development.
 Cont..…
Measurement
Measurement is a systematic process of obtaining the
quantified degree to which a trait or an attribute is
present in an individual or object. In other words, it is a
systematic assignment of numerical values or figures to a
trait or an attribute in a person or object. Measurement
uses a variety of ways to obtain information in a
quantitative form. Measurement can use paper and
pencil test, rating scales, and observations to assign a
number value to a given trait or behaviour.
 Cont..…
Evaluation

Evaluation is formative when conducted over small bodies of

content to provide feedback in directing further instruction and
student learning. Formative evaluation refers to an ongoing
process which is done before instruction, during instruction,
and at the end of term or unit. Summative evaluation on the
other hand, is an evaluation conducted over a larger outcome
of an extended instructional sequence, over an entire course of
a large or part of it.
 Cont..…
Summative evaluation may serve for reporting a
student’s overall achievement, licensing and
certifying, predicting success in related courses,
assigning marks, and reporting overall achievement
of a class. Evaluation in the classroom context is
directed to the improvement of student learning by
supporting the instructional process.
 Cont.…

Types of evaluation

1. Placement evaluation.
2. Formative evaluation.
3. Diagnostic evaluation.
4. Summative evaluations.
 Cont.…

Placement Evaluation
This is a type of evaluations carried out in order to
fix the students in the appropriate group or class. In
some schools for instance, students are assigned to
classes according to their subject combinations, such
as science, Technical, arts, Commercial etc. before
this is done an examination will be carried out.
 Cont.…

Formative Evaluation
This is a type of evaluation designed to help both the
student and teacher to pinpoint areas where the
student has failed to learn so that this failure may be
rectified. It provides feedback to the teacher and the
student and thus estimating teaching success e.g.,
weekly tests, terminal examinations etc.
 Cont.…

Diagnostic Evaluation
This type of evaluation is carried out most of the time as a follow up
evaluation to formative evaluation. As a teacher, you have used
formative evaluation to identify some weaknesses in your students.
You have also applied some corrective measures which have not
showed success. What you will now do is to design a type of
diagnostic test, which is applied during instruction to find out the
underlying cause of students persistent learning difficulties. These
diagnostic tests can be in the form of achievement tests, performance
test, self-rating, interviews, observations, etc.
 Cont.…

Summative evaluation:
It is called a summarizing evaluation because it looks
at the entire course of instruction or program and can
pass judgment on the teacher and students, the
curriculum and the entire system. It is used for
certification. Think of the educational certificates you
have acquired from examination bodies. This is an
example of summative evaluation.
 Cont.…

Norm-Referenced
These are tests used to compare the performance of an
individual with those of other individuals of comparable
background. Individual in a norm-referenced testing has
meaning only when it is viewed in relation to the scores of
other individuals on the test. The success or failure of an
individual on this kind of test is, therefore, determined on
the basis of how he/she performs in relation to his/her
colleagues’ performance on the test.
 Cont.…

Criterion-referenced tests
In contrast to norm-referenced tests criterion-referenced
tests are tests when the score of an individual on a given
test is related to a specific performance standard for
interpretation purposes. is equal to or greater than a
specified standard (i.e., the criterion) the examinee is said
to have passed; otherwise, she/he is deemed to have failed
the test or examination.
 UNIT TWO
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
Benjamin Bloom and a group of people involved in education
came up with a list of levels of difficulty in what you can do
with what you know. This group of different levels of describing
how you approach a problem is called taxonomy/classification:
1. Cognitive,
2. Affective, and
3. Psychomotor domains.
 Cont.…

 Cognitive Domain is concerned with knowledge

outcomes and intellectual abilities and skills.
 Affective Domain is concerned with the attitudes,
interests, appreciation, and modes of adjustment.
 Psychomotor Domain is concerned with motor
skills
 Cont.…

Steps for Stating Instructional Objectives

The list of objectives for a course, or unit should
include all important learning outcomes (cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor outcomes) and should be
stated in a manner that clearly conveys what students
are like at the end of the learning process. The
following summary of steps provides guidelines for
obtaining a clear statement of instructional objectives.
 Cont.…
Stating general instructional objectives
 State each general objective as an intended learning outcome; in terms of
students’ terminal performance
 Begin each general objective with a verb; like knows, applies, interprets
 State each general objective to include only one general learning outcome, that
is, objectives should be unitary; not knows and understands
 State each general objective at the proper level of generality; it should
encompass a readily definable domain of response.
 Cont.…
Stating specific learning outcomes
 List beneath each general instructional objective a representative
sample of specific learning outcomes that describes the terminal
performance students are expected to demonstrate
 Begin each specific learning outcome with an action verb that
specifies observable performance like identifies, describes
 Make sure that each specific learning outcome is relevant to the
general objective it describes
 Cont.…

I: Choose the best answer from the alternatives given for each item

1. Which one of the following action verbs can be used in synthesis level of cognitive domain?
A. Write B. Transfer C. Distinguish D. Interpret

2. Which one of the following action verbs does not indicate learning outcome at the
evaluation level?
B. Decide B. Conclude C. Validate D. Discriminate
3. Which one of the following affective domains does the learner expected to develop
a consistent philosophy of life?
C. Organization B. Characterization C. Valuing D. Responding
4. Which one of the following action verbs can be used in synthesis level of
cognitive domain?
A. Write B. Transfer C. Distinguish D. Interpret
 UNIT THREE
CLASS ROOM ACHIEVEMENT TESTS AND ASSESSMENTS

TYPES OF TESTS USED IN THE CLASSROOM

There are different types of test forms used in the classroom. These
can be;-
1. Essay test,
2. Objectives test,
3. Norm-referenced test or criterion referenced test. But we are
going to concentrate on the essay test and objectives test. These
are the most common tests which you can easily construct for
your purpose in the class.
 Types of objective tests
The objective test can be;- free-response type, examinee
to select the answer from a given number of alternatives
(fixed response type). The free-response type consists
of the short answer and completion items while the
fixed response type is commonly further divided into
true-false or alternative response matching items and
multiple-choice items.
 True/False or two option items
The true-false type of test is representative of a
somewhat larger group called alternate-response
items such as, yes-no, correct-incorrect, agree-
disagree, right-wrong, etc... This group consists of
any question in which the student is confronted with
two possible answers.
 Advantages of true/false items
 It is commonly used to measure the ability to identify the
correctness of statements of fact, definitions of terms,
statements of principles and other relatively simple learning
outcomes to which a declarative statement might be used with
any of the several methods of responding.
 It is also used to measure examinee ability to distinguish fact
from opinion; superstition from scientific belief.
 It is used to measure the ability to recognize cause – and –
effect relationships.
 It is best used in situations in which there are only two possible
alternatives such as right or wrong, more or less, and so on.
 It is easy to construct alternative response item but the validity and
reliability of such item depend on the skill of the item constructor.
 To construct unambiguous alternative response item, which
measures significant learning outcomes, requires much skill.
 A large number of alternative response items covering a wide area
of sampled course material can be obtained and the examinees can
respond to them in a short period of time.
 Disadvantages of true/false items
 It requires course material that can be phrased so that
the statement is true or false without qualification or
exception as in the Social Sciences.
 It is limited to learning outcomes in the knowledge area
except for distinguishing between facts and opinion or
identifying cause – and – effect relationships.
It is susceptible to guessing with a fifty-fifty chance of
the examinee selecting the correct answer on chance
alone.
 Guidelines for preparing true false items

 Keep language as simple and clear as possible.

 Avoid using universal descriptors such as “never”, “none”,
“always”, and “all”.
 Use certain key words sparingly since they tip students off to the
correct answer. (The words all, always, never, none, and only
usually indicate a false statement, whereas the words generally,
sometimes, usually, maybe, and often are frequently used in true
statements.)
 Do not include two ideas in one statement unless you are
evaluating students understanding of cause-and-effect relationships.
 Matching items
The matching test items usually consist of two
parallel columns. One column contains a list of
word, number, symbol or other stimuli (premises) to
be matched to a word, sentence, phrase or other
possible answer from the other column (responses)
lists. Usually, the two lists have some sort of
relationship.
 Advantages of matching items
 It is used whenever learning outcomes emphasize the ability
to identify the relationship between things and a sufficient
number of homogenous premises and responses can be
obtained.
 Essentially used to relate two things that have some logical
basis for association.
 It is adequate for measuring factual knowledge like testing
the knowledge of terms, definitions, dates, events, references
to maps and diagrams.
 The major advantage of matching exercise is that one matching
item consists of many problems. This compact form makes it
possible to measure a large amount of related factual material in
a relatively short time.
 It enables the sampling of larger content, which results in
relatively higher content validity.
 The guess factor can be controlled by skilfully constructing the
items such that the correct response for each premise must also
serve as a plausible response for the other premises.
 The scoring is simple and objective and can be done by machine.
 Disadvantages of matching items
 It is restricted to the measurement of factual information based on
rote learning because the material tested lend themselves to the
listing of a number of important and related concepts.
 Many topics are unique and cannot be conveniently grouped in
homogenous matching clusters and it is sometimes difficult to get
homogenous materials clusters of premises and responses that can
sufficiently match even for contents that are adaptable for clustering.
 It requires extreme care during construction in order to avoid
encouraging serial memorization rather than association and to avoid
irrelevant clues to the correct answer.
 Guidelines for preparing matching items

 Use only homogeneous material in a set of matching items (i.e., dates and
places should not be in the same set).
 Use the more involved expressions in the stem and keep the responses short
and simple.
 Supply directions that clearly state the basis for the matching, indicating
whether or not a response can be used more than once, and stating where the
answer should be placed.
 Make sure that there are never multiple correct responses for one stem
(although a response may be used as the correct answer for more than one stem).
 Avoid giving inadvertent grammatical clues to the correct response (e.g., using
a/an, singular/ plural verb forms).
 Arrange items in the response column in some logical order
(alphabetical, numerical, and chronological) so that students can
find them easily.
 Avoid breaking a set of items (stems and responses) over two pages.
 Use no more than 15 items in one set.
 Provide more responses than stems to make process-of-elimination
guessing less effective.
 Number each stem for ease in later discussions.
 Use capital letters for the response signs rather than lower-case
letters.
The multiple-choice items (MCQs)
The multiple-choice item consists of two parts – a problem and a list of
suggested solutions. The problem generally referred to as the stem may be
stated as a direct question or an incomplete statement while the suggested
solutions generally referred to as the alternatives, choices or options may
include words, numbers, symbols or phrases. In its standard form, one of
the options of the multiple-choice item is the correct or best answer and the
others are intended to mislead, foil, or distract examinees from the correct
option and are therefore called distracters, foils or decoys. These incorrect
alternatives receive their name from their intended function – to distract the
examinees who are in doubt about the correct answer.
 Advantages of the MCQs
 The multiple-choice item is the most widely used of the types of tests
available. It can be used to measure a variety of learning outcomes from
simple to complex.
 It is adaptable to any subject matter content and educational objective at the
knowledge and understanding levels.
 It can be used to measure knowledge outcomes concerned with vocabulary,
facts, principles, method and procedures and also aspects of understanding
relating to the application and interpretation of facts, principles and
methods.
 Most commercially developed and standardized achievement and aptitude
tests make use of multiple-choice items.
 The main advantage of multiple-choice test is its wide applicability in the
measurement of various phases of achievement.
 It is the desirable of all the test formats being free of many of the
disadvantages of other forms of objective items. For instance, it presents a
more well-defined problem than the short-answer item, avoids the need
for homogenous material necessary for the matching item, reduces the
clues and susceptibility to guessing characteristics of the true-false item
and is relatively free from response sets.
 It is useful in diagnosis and it enables fine discrimination among the
examinees on the basis of the amount of what is being measured
possessed by them.
 It can be scored with a machine.
 Disadvantages/limitations of the MCQs
 It measures problem-solving behaviour at the verbal level only.
 It is inappropriate for measuring learning outcomes requiring the
ability to recall, organize or present ideas because it requires selection
of correct answer.
 It is very difficult and time consuming to construct.
 It requires more response time than any other type of objective item
and may favour the test-wise examinees if not adequately and skilful
constructed.
 Measuring evaluation and synthesis can be difficult.
 Inappropriate for measuring outcomes that require skilled
performance
 Guidelines for preparing multiple-choice items

 Use the stem to present the problem or question as clearly as

possible; eliminate excessive wordiness and irrelevant information.
 Use direct questions rather than incomplete statements for the stem.
 Include as much of the item as possible in the stem so that
alternatives can be kept brief. Include in the stem words that would
otherwise be repeated in each option.
 In testing for definitions, include the term in the stem rather than as
one of the alternatives.
 List alternatives on separate lines rather than including them as part
of the stem so that they can be clearly distinguished.
 Keep all alternatives in a similar format (e. g. All phrases, all sentences, etc.).
 Make sure that all options are plausible responses to the stem. (Poor alternatives should not be
included just for the sake of having more options.)
 Check to see that all choices are grammatically consistent with the stem.
 Try to make alternatives for an item approximately the same length. (Making the correct
response consistently longer is a common error.)
 Use misconceptions which students have indicated in class or errors commonly made by
students in the class as the basis for incorrect alternatives.
 Use “all of the above” and “none of the above” sparingly since these alternatives are often
chosen on the basis of incomplete knowledge. Words such as “all,” “always,” and “never” are
likely to signal incorrect options.
 Use capital letters (A, C, D, and E) on tests as responses rather than lower-case letters (“a” gets
confused with “d” and “c” with “e” if the type or duplication is poor). Instruct students to use
capital letters when answering (for the same reason), or have them circle the letter or the whole
correct answer, or use scan able answer sheets.
 Try to write items with equal numbers of alternatives in order to avoid asking
students to continually adjust to a new pattern caused by different numbers.
 Put the incomplete part of the sentence at the end rather than the beginning
of the stem. Phrase the item as a statement rather than a direct question.
 Use negatively stated items sparingly. (When they are used, it helps to
underline or otherwise visually emphasize the negative work.)
 Make sure that there is only one best or correct response to the stem. If there
are multiple correct responses, instruct students to “choose the best
response.”
 Limit the number of alternatives to five or less. (The more alternatives used,
the lower the probability of getting the correct answer by guessing. Beyond
five alternatives, however, confusion and poor alternatives are likely.)
Supply type items

This is the type of test item, which requires the test to give very brief
answers to the questions. These answers may be a word, a phrase, a
number, a symbol or symbols etc. Supply test items can be in the form of
short answer or completion form. Both are supply-type test items
consisting of direct questions which require a short answer (short-answer
type) or an incomplete statement or question to which a response must
be supplied by an examinee (completion type). The answers to such
questions could be a word, phrase, number or symbol. It is easy to
develop and if well developed, the answers are definite and specific and
can be scored quickly and accurately.
 Advantages of supply type items

 Suitable for measuring simple learning outcomes.

 Measure the ability to interpret diagrams, charts, graphs and

pictorial data.

 Most effective for measuring a specific learning outcome such

as computational learning outcomes in mathematics and sciences

 It measures simple learning outcomes, which makes it easier to

construct.
 It minimizes guessing.
 Disadvantages of supply type items
 It is not suitable for measuring complex learning outcomes. It tends to measure
only factual knowledge and not the ability to apply such knowledge and it
encourages memorization if excessively used.
 It cannot be scored by a machine because the test item can, if not properly
worded, elicit more than one correct answer. Hence the scorer must make
decision about the corrections of various responses. For example, a question such
as “Where did Menellik II born?” could be answered by name of the town, state,
country or even continent. Apart from the multiple correct answers to this
question, there is also the possibility of spelling mistakes associated with free-
response questions that the scorer has to contend with.
Essay type items

Essay test items are of two types:

 Extended/Unrestricted/Open-ended/free response
 Restricted/Closed-ended

Extended response items

 No restrictions on response

 No restrictions on No of pages

 Originality required

 No bound on the depth, breadth and the organization of the response

 Expose individual differences in attitudes, values and creative ability.

 Applicable in measuring higher level learning outcomes of the cognitive level such
as analysis, synthesis & evaluation level
Limitations/disadvantages of extended response essay items
o Scoring is difficult and unreliable (scorer unreliability)

o Insufficient for measuring knowledge of facts

Examples-extended responses type:

 Describe the sampling techniques used in research studies.

 Explain the various ways of preventing accident in a school workshop or laboratory.

 Describe the processes of producing or cutting screw threads in the school technical workshop.

 Describe the processes involved in cement production.

 Why should the classroom teacher state his instructional objectives to cover the three domains
of educational objectives?

 Open and Distance Learning is a viable option for the eradication of illiteracy in Ethiopia.
Discuss

 Which of the following alternatives would you favor & why?

 Explain why you agree or disagree with the following statement:

Restricted essay types

 Such items are directional questions and aimed at the desired responses.

 Useful for measuring learning outcomes at the lower cognitive levels:

o Knowledge, comprehension, analysis

 More efficient for measuring knowledge of factual information

 More reliability in scoring as compared to extended type

 Reduces scoring difficulty

 Examples:
o Give three advantages and two disadvantages of essay tests.

o State four uses of tests in education.

o Explain five factors which influence the choice of building site.

o Mention five rules for preventing accident in a workshop.

o State 5 technical drawing instruments and their uses.

 Advantages of essay tests

 Find out how ideas are related to each other.

 They increase security.

 Relatively easy to construct when compared to objective items.

 Measure higher level learning outcomes.

 Have influence on student study habits.

 Require the instructor to give critical comments.

 It is easy and economical to administer.

 Promote the development of problem – solving skills.

Disadvantages/limitations
 Scorings time consuming, subjective, & difficult.
 Low content validity: inadequate sampling of
content
 Scorer unreliability/subjectivity in scoring
 Not suitable for item analysis
 Difficulty levels and discrimination powers
 UNIT FOUR
TEST DEVELOPMENT – PLANNING THE
CLASSROOM TEST
 Cont.…

Types of objective tests

the answer from a given number of alternatives
(fixed response type). The free-response type
consists of the short answer and completion items
while the fixed response type is commonly further
divided into true-false or alternative response
matching items and multiple-choice items.
 Cont.…
True/False or two option items
The true-false type of test is alternate-response items such as, yes-
no, correct-incorrect, agree-disagree, right-wrong, etc... This group
consists of any question in which the student is confronted with two
possible answers.
Advantages of true/false items
 only two possible alternatives
 to measure the ability to recognize cause – and – effect relationships.
 A large number of alternative response items covering a wide area of sampled
course material can be obtained and the examinees can respond to them in a
short period of time.
 Guidelines for preparing true false items
 Keep language as simple and clear as possible.
 Avoid using universal descriptors such as “never”,
“none”, “always”, and “all”.
 Use certain key words (The words all, always, never,
none, and only usually indicate a false statement,
whereas the words generally, sometimes, usually,
maybe, and often are frequently used in true
statements.)
 +

Matching items
The matching test items usually consist of two
parallel columns. One column contains a list of
word, number, symbol or other stimuli (premises) to
be matched to a word, sentence, phrase or other
possible answer from the other column (responses)
lists.
The multiple-choice items (MCQs)
The multiple-choice item consists of two parts – a
problem and a list of suggested solutions. The
problem generally referred to as the stem may be
stated as a direct question or an incomplete
statement while the suggested solutions generally
referred to as the alternatives, choices or options
may include words, numbers, symbols or phrases.
 Supply type items
This is the type of test item, which requires the teste to give
very brief answers to the questions. These answers may be a
word, a phrase, a number, a symbol or symbols etc. Supply
test items can be in the form of short answer or completion
form. Bothare supply-type test items consisting of direct
questions which require a short answer (short-answer type)
or an incomplete statement or question to which a response
must be supplied by an examinee (completion type).
Essay type items

Essay test items are of two types:

1.Extended/Unrestricted/Open-ended/free response
2.Restricted/Closed-ended
 Extended response items
 No restrictions on response

 No restrictions on No of pages

 Originality required

 No bound on the depth, breadth and the organization of the response

 Expose individual differences in attitudes, values and creative

ability.

 Applicable in measuring higher level learning outcomes of the

cognitive level such as analysis, synthesis & evaluation level
Limitations/disadvantages of extended response
essay items
o Scoring is difficult and unreliable (scorer unreliability)

o Insufficient for measuring knowledge of facts

Restricted essay types

 Such items are directional questions and aimed at the desired

responses.

 Useful for measuring learning outcomes at the lower cognitive

levels:
o Knowledge, comprehension, analysis

 More efficient for measuring knowledge of factual information

 More reliability in scoring as compared to extended type

 Reduces scoring difficulty

 Examples:

o Give three advantages and two disadvantages of essay tests.

o State four uses of tests in education.

o Explain five factors which influence the choice of building

site.

o Mention five rules for preventing accident in a workshop.

o State 5 technical drawing instruments and their uses.

 Advantages of essay tests

 Find out how ideas are related to each other.

 They increase security.

 Relatively easy to construct when compared to objective items.

 Measure higher level learning outcomes.

 Have influence on student study habits.

 Require the instructor to give critical comments.

 It is easy and economical to administer.

 Promote the development of problem – solving skills.

Disadvantages/limitations
 Scorings time consuming, subjective, & difficult.
 Low content validity: inadequate sampling of
content
 Scorer unreliability/subjectivity in scoring
 Not suitable for item analysis
 Difficulty levels and discrimination powers
 Cont.…

Mutual adaptation where the teacher has freedom to

make necessary changes to the planned curriculum
during implementation in line with the existing school
situation.
Enactment which represents the polar opposite of the
fidelity approach. It puts a great deal of priority on the
class-room based(micro-curricular) movement in the
school experience. It is also known with a name school
based curriculum/SBCD/. Implementation is viewed as
a matter of giving teachers the independence to create
experiences that may or may not have any link to
normative/national standards or purposes.
 Cont.…

Types of Curriculum Evaluation

1.Initial
2. Formative
3. Summative
4. Longitudinal evaluations,
 Cont.…

Methods of evaluation
1. Attainment tests
2. Direct observation
3. Indirect observation
4. Unobtrusive measures
5. Curriculum analysis
6. Case studies
 Cont.…
1. Attainment tests
set by the evaluator or other internally or externally
set tests. Attitudinal and other non-cognitive tests
may be included.
2. Direct observation
the evaluator attending meetings while the
curriculum is being developed as well as observing
implementation in the classroom.
 Cont.…

3. Indirect observation
the use of interviews, checklist, questionnaires, teachers’
diaries, group discussion, conferences, etc. so as to obtain
feelings of participants.
4. Unobtrusive measures
the examination of physical evidence about how often text
books and other materials were used.
5. Curriculum analysis
the content analyzed for values and assumptions.
6. Case studies
curriculum development to be examined in detail.
 Cont.…
Problems in Evaluation
1.The role of the evaluator
2. The timing of the evaluation
3. Distortion
4. Technical problems
5. Value Judgments
 Cont.…
Techniques and Procedures of Evaluation
1. Consistency with objectives
 Evaluation needs to have an integral relationship.
2. Comprehensiveness/Objectivty
√ Evaluation programs should also be as comprehensive
in scope as are the objectives of the school / curriculum.
3. Significant diagnostic value
This is concerned to the distinguishing of various levels
of performance or mastery attained and describes the
strengths and weaknesses in the process as well as in the
product of performance.
 Cont.…
4. Validity
Validity, or the capacity of the evidence to describe what
was designed to describe, is even more important in
improving curriculum and teaching than dependability and
objectivity.
5. Unity of Evaluative Judgments
To measure behavior clearly and precisely, and to
note the differences among individuals accurately.
6. Continuity
Evaluation should be a continuous process and an
integral part of curriculum development and of
instruction.
 Cont.…

Formulating Educational Aims, Goals, and Objectives

Aims of education
Aims are general statements that provide both shape and
direction to the more specific actions designed to achieve
some future product or behavior.
Aims are starting points that allow educators to go in specific
direction. They are supposed to serve the function of guiding
education but cannot be directly observed and evaluated.
They are too general to guide particular instructional
decisions. Despite this fact, educators must first determine
aims in order to Mach objectives with them.
 Cont.…
Goals of Educatin
In contrast to aims, goals are not open statement. Goals are derived
from aims and they provide teachers and curriculum decision makers
with statement, which indicate what should be accomplished in terms
of students learning as a result of particular educational program.
The distinction b/n aims and goals of education is one of generality.
Aims deal with the general process of education while goals can be
more specific referring to particular school system, to a specific subject
area of curriculum.
For Example; “building world mindedness” may be an aim of
education whereas goal of social studies curriculum can be derived like
“students will become aware of the various nations of the world and the
roles they play in the world community.
 Cont.…
Educational Objectives
The term “objective” is used in more specified sense. It normally
refers to an intended /pre- specified outcome of a planned
program of teaching and it is expressed in terms of what the
student is expected to learn.
Objectives can be general or specific/specific intended learning
outcome/. In educational context, it is important to set objectives
that indicate more specific out comes of curriculum or project.
In translating aims in to goals and goal to objectives, we proceed
from the very general to more specific.
 Cont.…

PHILOSOPHY AIMS GOAL GENERAL OBJECTIVE SPECIFIC

OBJECTIVE
 Cont.…

Curriculum objectives mainly come from three sources;

1.Society/Social environment/
2.Child/learners/
3.Subject/nature of knowledge, subject expertise/.
Criteria for formulating educational objectives;
1.Machining
2. Worth
3.Wording
4.Appropriateness
5.Logical grouping
6.Periodic revision
 Cont.…

1.Matching: objectives should relate to the goals and the

aims from which they are derived.
2.Worth: first, it relates to the importance of objectives.
It also, relates to whether attaining an objectives has
value to the student at present and in the future.
3.Wording: the persons who are to use curriculum
objectives as their guides should understand the
objectives/intended out comes/ in the same way as the
writers of the outcomes. Objectives should be brief and
free of excessive wordiness and are easy to understand.
 Cont.…

4. Appropriateness: In determining appropriateness, educators must

consider the students who are to receive instruction and the context
with in which the curriculum is delivered. The age, social/educational
back ground, personal needs and interest of the student must be
considered.
5. Logical: objectives should be grouped logically so as to make sense
where units of instruction and evaluation are being determined. They
should be grouped according to some common thread idea, or domain.
6. Periodic revision: no objectives can be treated as permanent;
objectives need periodic revision in accordance with time as students,
society, the realm of knowledge, and instructional strategies change.
Educators should occasionally analyze their objectives to determine if
they are still of value to the program.
 Cont.…

Models and theories differentiated

Models are sub-theories which designate analogies.
Curriculum models represent curriculum theory. The
construction of a model is a way of representing given
phenomena and their relationships.
Models can be useful, detailed perspectives on some
particulars of the curriculum in action, but not the total
picture. To the extent that they fail to account for the
complexities of the planned curriculum, the enacted
curriculum, and the experienced curriculum, they are
not entirely satisfactory solutions to the problem of
creating curriculum theories.
 Cont.…
However, various models in curriculum have been empirically tested
and are widely used in curriculum research process. Current
curriculum models can be broken down in to two broad categories:-

(i) The product models

(ii)The process models

The product model is results oriented. Grades are the prime objective,
with the focus lying more on the finished product rather than on the
learning process. The process model is more open-ended, and focuses
on how learning develops over a period of time.
 Cont.…

Ralphy Tyler’s objectives Model

Ralph Tyler’s Model anchors on four basic principles
which are popularly known as Tyler’s Rational. Tyler’s
model was one of the first models and it was and still is a
highly simple model consisting of four steps.

1. Determine the school’s purposes (objectives)

2. Identify educational experiences related to purpose.
3. Organize the experiences.
4. Evaluation of the purposes.
 Cont.…

Hilda Taba’s Objectives Model

1. Diagnose needs,
2. Formulate objectives,
3. Select content,
4. Organize content,
5. Select learning experiences
6. Organize learning experiences
7. Determine what to evaluate and ways and means of
doing it.
 Cont.…
Laurence Stenhouse’s process model
1.Define the value positions in any curriculum specification,
2.Specify curriculum in terms of content materials and method,
3. Indicate training procedures for teachers,
4.Define the contextual variables in schools, systems,
environments that will affect realization in practice,
5.List and test hypotheses regarding effects,

6. Attempt to relate effects to contextual variables.

 Cont.…

Foundation of curriculum
1.Philosophical foundation
2.Economical foundation
3.Sociological foundation
4.Psychological foundation
5.Historical foundation
 Cont.…

1.Philosophical foundation
Philosophy gives meaning to our decisions &
actions.
It attempts to understand all that comes with in the
bound of human experience.
Philosophical foundations refer to the philosophies,
values, ideals,& ideologies b/c they represent points
of view which guide the development of the
curriculum at a particular time.
 Cont.…
1.Idealism
• only ideas can be known. Idealism believes in refined wisdom;
reality is a world within person’s mind; truth is in the consistency
of ideas and goodness is an ideal state to strive to attain. As a
result, schools exist to sharpen the mind and intellectual
processes. Students are taught the wisdom of past heroes.
2.Realism
• Realism asserts that objects in the external world exist
independently of what is thought about them.
• Realism believes in the world as it is. It is based on the view
that reality is what we observe. It believes that truth is what we
sense and observe and that goodness is found in the order of the
laws of nature.
• As a result, schools exist to reveal the order of the world and
universe. Students are taught factual information.
 Cont.…

3. Perennialism
) Permanence is more real than change.
(1

(2) Human nature remains essentially the same.

(3) The good life-the life that is fit for men to live-remains
essentially the same.
(4) Moral principles remain essentially the Same.
"Education implies teaching. Teaching implies knowledge.
Knowledge is truth. The truth everywhere is the same.
Hence, education should be everywhere the
same.
 Cont.…

4. Essentialism
• Essentialism is a uniquely American philosophy of education which began in the
1930’s and 1940’s as a reaction to what was seen as an overemphasis on a child-centered
approach to education and a concern that students were not gaining appropriate
knowledge in schools.
• The two origins of essentialism are idealism and realism.
• Essentialists believe that there exists a critical core of information and skill that an
educated person must have.
5. Experimentalism
• Experimentalism believes that things are constantly changing. It is based on the view
that
reality is what you experience. It believes that truth is what works right now and that
goodness
comes from group decisions.
• As a result, schools exist to discover and expand the society we live in. Students study
social
experiences and solve problems.
 Cont.…

6. Existentialism
• Existentialism believes in the personal interpretation of the world. It is based on the
view that the individual defines reality, truth and goodness.
• As a result, schools exist to aid children in knowing themselves and their place in
society.
• As a result, schools exist to aid children in knowing themselves and their place in
society.
• Students learn what they want and discuss subjects freely.

7. Constructivism
• Learning is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new
experiences.
• Learning is a search for meaning. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as
parts. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use
to perceive the world. The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or
her own meaning, not just memorize the “right” answers and regurgitate someone
else’s meaning.
 Cont.…

8. Reconstructivism
• Focus is on providing students the critical tools to be agents of
social change. Students explore controversial issues, analyze
world events.
• Progressivism: The goal is to help each student think rationally.
Student-centered approach. Project and problem-based learning.
• Postmodernism: Focus on helping students recognize that here
are no universal truths, and the traditional narratives of the
dominant culture must be deconstructed. Deconstruction through
dialogue. Critical pedagogy.
• Behaviorism: Free will is an illusion; students' behavior is
shaped in order
to reinforce proper learning and behavior. Drill and practice.
 Cont.…
Competency-Based Education is given to the
performance of the workers.
this system is to provide guidelines to management
so as to set valid and reliable controls in place with a
view to have reasonable assurance of meeting their
business/training objectives by assuring that their
employees/trainees/students are well trained,
assessed, verified and proved to be competent at
work location and that they can discharge their
responsibilities in a safe and effective manner.
 Cont.…

1.How does the nature of competence addressed in

the Ethiopian TVET system?
2.How competence is understood in the industries?
Conduct interviews with concerned stakeholders
in the industry
3.Explain the contributions and limitations of CBE.
In each case, provide practical examples
4.How shall CBE be included in the curriculum?
What shall be done to maximize the values of CBE?
 Cont.…
Types of Modules
1.Freestanding
for short course and work place assessed gaps.
if workers in an industry lack some sort of skill in
assembling or in the disassembling of the different parts of a
machine, then a module that will help to alleviate this
problem will be prepared (a module in technology). Or, if
teachers have problems on the methods of teaching, test
construction skills, or in curriculum evaluation, then a
module can be prepared for each of these training areas in
alleviating their problems (a module in the academic sector).
 Cont.…

2.Clustered modules

a particular profession. For instance, the education

of professional teachers involves three major
modules in the professional, specialized, and
general knowledge.