Geological structures 2

Folds, Planar and Linear

structures
 Lecture guide
• Meaning and significance of folds
• Basic fold geometry and nomenclature
– Fold hinge and limbs, axis and axial plane
– Fold axial surface and Inter-limb angle
• Fold orientation and Classification
• Planar and Linear structures and Fabric
explained or defined.
 Meaning and significance of folds
• A fold is a structure produced when an
originally planar structure becomes bent or
curved as a result of deformation.
• Folds are an expression of a more ductile
type of deformation that produces gradual
and more continuous changes in a rock
layer, both in its attitude and internally, as
the rock accommodates to changes in
shape.
• Anticlinal fold—In an anticlinal fold, the
rocks get progressively older towards the
core of the fold.
• Synclinal fold—In a synclinal fold, the
rocks get progressively younger towards
the core of the fold.
Common fold types
 Response of strata to folding
• When strata, originally horizontal, are
folded, the higher beds form a greater arc
than lower beds. Why?
• Beds on the outside may be relatively
stretched while those on the inside are
compressed, or
• Beds on the outside may slide over the
surface of the inner beds.
 Elements of Fold (Fold hinge and limbs)
• Hinge: zone of maximum curvature of the
surface;
• Limbs: areas between the hinges
• Hinge line: a line of maximum curvature
• A single fold comprises a hinge and two
limbs that enclose the hinge
• In a series of folds, each limb is common
to two adjacent folds.
 Elements of Fold (Fold axis and axial
plane)
• Axial plane: an imaginary plane that is
equidistant from each limb and bisects the
angle between them;
• Fold axis: A line drawn along the points of
maximum curvature
Fold axis, axial plane and limbs
Fold axial surface and Inter-limb angle

• Fold axial surface: A surface which passes

through the hinge lines of each successive fold
surface. It does not generally correspond with
the axial planes of the individual layers in the
fold.
• Inter-limb angle: The smaller angle made by the
limbs of a fold. The tightness or openness of a
fold as expressed by this angle is a useful
method of classifying folds.
 Fold orientation
• Fold orientation may be measured in the field by
obtaining the attitudes of both limbs.
• Fold plunge: The attitude of a fold axis is
measured as the angle between the axis and the
horizontal. This angle, which must be measured
in a vertical plane (like the dip angle) is termed
the plunge. A complete description of the
orientation of a fold axis is given as amount and
direction of plunge. E.g. a fold plunges 30º
towards (on a bearing of) 105 º.
Plunge of a fold
 Fold Classification
• 1. by attitude of folds
• a. According to axial plane dips
• I.upright folds (dips of 80-90)
• Ii.inclined folds (dips of 10-80)
• iii.recumbent folds (dips 0-10)
• B.According to plunge of folds axis.
• I.horizontal folds (0-10)
• ii.plunging folds (10-79)
• Iii.vertical folds (80-90)
 Common fold types
• Anticlines
• Synclines
• Monocline
 FOLD CLASSIFICATION
CONTD.
• 2. by interlimb angle.
• 3. by mode of stacking of folded
surfaces
• I.parallel folds-In these folds successive
folded surfaces remain mutually parallel
throughout.
• ii. Similar folds-here successive folded
surfaces are ideally congruent.
Illustration of common fold types
Description of fold types
Anticline: block diagram
Anticline fold
Anticline
Syncline: block diagram
Syncline
Syncline
 Dome-these are folds equivalent to anticlines,but
comprise of layers which are shaped like an inverted bowl
Basin-folds which are equivalent to synclines, but comprise of
layers which are shaped like a bowl.
 Recognition of folds
• By plotting the attitude of beds, i.e., their
dip and strike on the map;
• Repetition of beds in their occurrence in
the field, infers the presence of a fold.
 PLANAR STRUCTURE
• A Planar structure is a set of planar
surfaces produced in a rock as a result of
deformation.
• Types include foliation, slaty cleavage,
fracture cleavage, crenulation cleavage.
Others include schistosity and gneissosity.
 Linear Structure
• A linear structure is a linear counterpart of
a planar structure – that is, a set of linear
structures produced in a rock as a result of
deformation, eg lineation, fold axes.
 Fabric
• The fabric of a rock is the geometrical
arrangement of all the structural elements
within the body.
Discuss the following questions.

• What are the three forms of stress and how do they behave on earth
materials?
• In general, how do rocks behave when stress is applied to them?
• Describe the difference between stress and strain?
• Define ductile and brittle deformation and describe the difference
between them.
• Describe the structure or shape of each of the major fold forms.
• For each of the major fold forms what is the stress that has been
applied?
Discuss the following questions.

• If a basin is eroded flat, where will the youngest rocks and oldest
rocks be located relative to the fold center?
• Describe the difference between a joint and a fault?
• What two criteria are needed to classify a fault?
• Draw a diagram showing the major features of a fault.
• For each of the major fault forms, describe the relative motion, fault
plane orientation, and stress that has been applied.
• What are the various symbols used on maps to define faults and
fault features?
• Define strike and dip.
 IMPORTANCE OF
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES.
• They contribute to the permeability of
rocks, which influences groundwater flow,
petroleum migration and accummulation.
• They also allow the passage of
hydrothermal fluids, some of which may
carry valuable metals.
• They serve as traps for mineral deposits.
 IMPORTANCE OF
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
•
CONTD.
They guide such geological processes as
igneous intrusion, volcanism, earthquake
and weathering.
• Fractures and joints are essential in
mining and quarrying operations, where
they guide ground-breaking operations.
• In engineering work in determining the
suitability of rocks for foundations and
excavations.