CAREER COUNSELING

MODELS

Daryl Mhar T. Ramos

Levy O. Abaja
OBJECTIVES:

• To know some issues and concepts emerging from model

development.
• To further understand the five career counseling models.
• To understand the multicultural career counseling model
for ethnic women.
• And, to know more about the model summary of
counseling goals, intake interview techniques, use of
assessment, diagnosis, and counseling process.

2
 ICEBREAKER

THIS PROFESSION TRACES ITS ROOTS TO

ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA, WHERE
SCRIBES WERE RESPONSIBLE FOR
RECORDING INFORMATION ON CLAY
TABLETS. TODAY, THEY PLAY A CRUCIAL
ROLE IN DISSEMINATING INFORMATION
THROUGH VARIOUS MEDIA CHANNELS.
WHAT IS THIS PROFESSION?
3
THE PROFESSION DESCRIBED IS "JOURNALISM" OR "NEWS
REPORTING." IN ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA, SCRIBES WERE
RESPONSIBLE FOR RECORDING INFORMATION ON CLAY
TABLETS, MARKING ONE OF THE EARLIEST FORMS OF
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION. OVER THE CENTURIES, THE
ROLE OF DISSEMINATING INFORMATION EVOLVED, AND
TODAY JOURNALISTS PLAY A CRUCIAL ROLE IN
GATHERING, REPORTING, AND DISSEMINATING NEWS
THROUGH VARIOUS MEDIA CHANNELS, INCLUDING
NEWSPAPERS, TELEVISION, RADIO, AND ONLINE
PLATFORMS.
SOME ISSUES & CONCEPTS EMERGING
FROM MODEL DEVELOPMENT
• Trait-and-factor theory is viewed by some as promoting a very simplistic counseling
process that is characterized by “three interviews and a cloud of dust” (Crites, 1981, p.
49), whereas others have argued that the applied concepts of the theory represent a
misinterpretation of what Parsons (1909) and later Williamson (1939) intended (Brown,
Brooks, & Associates, 1990; Rounds & Tracey, 1990; Spokane, 1991; Swanson, 1996)
and Gelso and Fretz (2001).
• Diagnosis of client problems, at times referred to as appraisal or simply as problem
identification, has involved some interesting criteria. Crites (1981) suggested three
types of diagnosis—differential, dynamic, and decisional.
• Three client labels that have been used extensively are decided, undecided, or
indecisive.

5
SOME ISSUES & CONCEPTS EMERGING
FROM MODEL DEVELOPMENT
• The following diagnostic systems are often used as guidelines for
designating client problems: an extensive diagnostic taxonomy by
Campbell and Cellini (1981); diagnostic and treatment suggestions by
Rounds and Tinsley (1984); categories and suggested treatment by
Kinnier and Krumboltz (1984); and a classification of problems suggested
by Holland, Daiger, and Power (1980). In sum, contemporary models
employ a combination of diagnostic criteria for specifying tailored
interventions to meet specific client needs.

6
SOME ISSUES & CONCEPTS EMERGING
FROM MODEL DEVELOPMENT
• Finally, Gysbers and Moore (1987) have envisioned the career counseling process as Life Career
Planning in which a strategy is created to help clients embark on a career path that might involve a
series of occupations. This plan is very inclusive and incorporates family and leisure roles. In this model
the career counseling process has two major phases and several subphases as follows:
I. Client goal or problem identification, clarification, and specification
A. Establishing a client–counselor relationship, including client–counselor responsibilities
B. Gathering client self and environmental information to understand the client’s goal or problem
1. Who is the client?
a. How does the client view himself or herself, others, and his or her world?
b. What language does the client use to represent these views?
c. What themes does the client use to organize and direct his or her behavior based on views?

7
SOME ISSUES & CONCEPTS EMERGING
FROM MODEL DEVELOPMENT
2. What is the client’s current status and environment?
a. Client’s life roles, settings, and events
b. Relationship to client’s goal or problem
C. Understanding client self- and environmental information by sorting,
analyzing, and relating such information to client’s goal or problem through
1. Career development theories
2. Counseling theories
3. Classification systems
D. Drawing conclusions; making diagnosis
8
SOME ISSUES & CONCEPTS EMERGING
FROM MODEL DEVELOPMENT
II. Client goal or problem resolution
A. Taking action; interventions selected based on diagnosis. Some
examples of interventions include counseling techniques, testing,
personal styles analyses, career and labor market information,
individual career plans, occupational card sorts, and computerized
information and decision systems.
B. Evaluating the impact of the interventions used; did interventions
resolve the client’s goal or problem?
1. If goal or problem was not resolved, recycle.
2. If goal or problem was resolved, close counseling relationship.
9
 1. 1. TRAIT-AND-FACTOR AND
PERSON-ENVIRONMENT-FIT

2. 2. GENERATING A PEF ANALYSIS

5 CAREER
COUNSELING 3. 3. DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL

MODELS 4. 4. A LEARNING THEORY OF

CAREER COUNSELING (LTCC)

5. 5. COGNITIVE INFORMATION
PROCESSING (CIP) MODEL
TRAIT-AND-FACTOR AND PERSON-ENVIRONMENT-FIT

• Trait-and-factor theory is viewed by some as promoting a very simplistic counseling process

that is characterized by “three interviews and a cloud of dust” (Crites, 1981, p. 49), whereas
others have argued that the applied concepts of the theory represent a misinterpretation of
what Parsons (1909) and later Williamson (1939) intended (Brown, Brooks, & Associates,
1990; Rounds & Tracey, 1990; Spokane, 1991; Swanson, 1996) and Gelso and Fretz (2001).

• Current proponents of trait-and-factor approaches strongly suggest that Williamson advocated

multiple sources of client information, including subjective domains of cognitive and affective
processing. Williamson’s (1939) own words about analysis, the first step in his model,
supports their observation: “Collecting data from many sources about attitudes, interests,
family background, knowledge, educational progress, aptitudes, etc., by means of both
subjective and objective techniques” (p. 215).

11
TRAIT-AND-FACTOR AND PERSON-ENVIRONMENT-FIT (PEF) CONVERGE

• In general terms, some trait-and-factor methods have been

adapted to determine person-environment-fit, but significant
changes have also occurred: (1) both cognitive and affective
processes are now involved; (2) clinical information and
qualitative data are included in the appraisal process; and (3) the
counselor’s role has shifted from a directive approach to one in
which counselor and client negotiate and collaborate (Swanson,
1996).

12
THE FOLLOWING MODEL INCLUDES
SEVEN STAGES:
Stage 1. Intake Interview Stage 3. Assessment
a. Establish client–counselor collaboration a. Ability patterns
relationship b. Values
b. Gather background information c. Reinforcer requirements
c. Assess emotional status and cognitive clarity d. Interests
d. Observe personality style e. Information-processing
skills
Stage 2. Identify Developmental Variables Stage 4. Identify and Solve
a. Perception of self and environment Problems
b. Environmental variables a. Affective status
c. Contextual interactions b. Self-knowledge needs
d. Gender variables c. Level of information-
e. Minority group status processing skills
13
THE FOLLOWING MODEL INCLUDES
SEVEN STAGES:
Stage 5. Generate PEF Analysis
a. Cognitive schema
b. Criteria on which to base choice Stage 7. Follow-Up
c. Optimal prediction system a. Evaluate progress
b. Recycle if necessary
Stage 6. Confirm, Explore, and Decide
a. Counselor and client confirm PEF analysis
b. Client explores potential work
environments
c. Client makes a decision
14
GENERATING A PEF ANALYSIS

Figure 3-1 represents the PEF

analysis schematic that is used for
optimal career choice. Following
the steps from left to right, the
client is administered an abilities
test and a values questionnaire. In
the second step, ability and value
patterns of occupations are
compared with the client’s ability
and values.

15
PERSON-ENVIRONMENT-FIT

16
PERSON-ENVIRONMENT-FIT

17
PERSON-ENVIRONMENT-FIT

18
19
PERSON-ENVIRONMENT-FIT
In Lee’s case the client’s needs and values became the central focus
of discussion, which led to a better understanding of how these
factors affect job satisfaction and adjustment. In PEC, job satisfaction
is considered a significant variable in determining job involvement
and career tenure. The PEF analysis stresses the use of occupational
information to assist clients in matching needs and abilities with
patterns and levels of different reinforcers in the work environment.
As work environments change in the future, more research will be
needed to maintain the effectiveness of the MIQ. For more
information on PEF counseling and the MIQ, see Zunker and Osborn

20
DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL
The developmental model has been built from the premise that career
development is a lifelong process, and the career counseling needs of
individuals must be met at all stages in life (Healy, 1982; Gelso and Fretz,
2001; Sharf, 2002). The development of goals, learning strategies, and the
timing of interventions in this model are guided by Super’s (1957, 1990)
vocational developmental tasks and stages. The overarching goals are
problem identification and developing intervention strategies to overcome
them. The developmental model also stresses the necessity of discovering
each client’s uniqueness of development.

21
FOUR STAGES INDIVIDUALIZED CAREER COUNSELING MODEL BY HEALY (1982):

Stage 1. Establishing Client Individuality Stage 2. Identifying and Selecting Strategies

a. Goals
b. Obstacles Stage 3. Teaching and Aiding
c. Assets for Securing Goals Implementation
d. Beliefs About Problem Resolution and
Counseling Stage 4. Verifying Goal Achievement
e. Action Already Taken
f. Feelings
g. Learning Style
h. Goal Impediments

22
23
24
 Lou’s example of problem identification illustrates information that can be
attained from the intake interview and supplemented with assessment
data. Information from an intake interview should be viewed by the
counselor as material from which one can draw tentative conclusions.
Such conclusions should be verified by further assessment or with a
client referral to a psychologist. In the developmental model, problem
identification is considered a most important stage. Armed with relevant
information about the source of problems, counselor and client can
negotiate intervention strategies that will assist clients in overcoming
persistent crises that lead to vague goal statements and subsequent
unproductive counseling.

25
A LEARNING THEORY OF CAREER COUNSELING (LTCC)

A most comprehensive approach to career decision making has been

carefully delineated by Krumboltz, Mitchell, and Gelatt (1975); Krumboltz
and Hamel (1977); Krumboltz and Nichols (1990); Mitchell and Krumboltz
(1990, 1996); and Krumboltz (1996). These authors emphasize that each
individual’s unique learning experiences over the life span are most
influential in the career choice process. Therefore, learning is a key
ingredient in career counseling and career guidance, suggesting that career
counselors’ major task is to enhance learning opportunities for clients by
using a wide array of effective methods that begin in childhood and endure
throughout a lifetime.

26
 • Career counselors may take the role of mentor, coach, or educator and
should be prepared to solve unique beliefs that hinder personal
development.
• As Krumboltz (1996) sees it, the counselor as educator provides the
environment for clients to develop interests, skills, values, work habits,
and many other personal qualities. From this learning perspective, clients
can be empowered to take actions that promote the creation of satisfying
lives now and in the future.
• In this model, the client is viewed as one who is exploring and
experimenting with possibilities and tentative decisions. A client should not
be condemned for abandoning a goal in the exploratory process of
learning about self, workplaces, and careers.

27
THE FOLLOWING PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS FOR COUNSELORS
ARE PARAPHRASED AS:

1. Assessment instruments are used to stimulate new learning by identifying

needed new skills, cultivating new interests, and developing interpersonal
competencies;
2. Educational interventions should be increased to provide more
opportunities of learning about one’s abilities to meet career demands, the
demands of the workplace, changing work habits, changing beliefs, and
values;
3. Success criteria should be based on learning outcomes and not solely on
whether a client has made a career decision—the focus is on new
behaviors, attempts to learn, and revised thoughts; and
4. Counselors should integrate career and personal counseling; learning
28 should focus on personal as well as career issues (Krumboltz, 1996).
THE FOLLOWING CAREER COUNSELING MODEL RELIES HEAVILY ON A DECISION-
MAKING MODEL DEVELOPED BY KRUMBOLTZ AND SORENSON (1974) AND HAS BEEN
UPDATED BY MORE RECENT PUBLICATIONS AS NOTED IN THE BEGINNING OF THIS
DISCUSSION AND BY WALSH (1990) AND SAVICKAS AND WALSH (1996).

Stage 1. Interview
a. Establish client–counselor relationship.
b. Have client commit to time needed for counseling.
c. Reinforce insightful and positive client responses.
d. Focus on all career problems, family life, environmental influences,
emotional instability, career beliefs and obstacles, and traditional career
domains of skills, interests, values, and personality.
e. Help clients formulate tentative goals.

29
STAGE 2. ASSESSMENT

a. Objective assessment instruments are used as a means of providing

links to learning interventions.

b. Subjective assessment attempts to attain the accuracy and coherence

of the client’s information system, identify client’s core goals, and faulty
or unrealistic strategies to reach goals.

c. Beliefs and behaviors that typically cause problems are evaluated by

using an inventory designed for this purpose

30
STAGE 3. GENERATE ACTIVITIES

a. Clients are directed to individualized projects such as taking

another assessment instrument, reviewing audiovisual materials,
computer programs, or studying occupational literature. 106 Part
One Foundations and Resources.

b. Some clients may be directed to individualized counseling

programs to address personal problems or lack of cognitive
clarity.

31
STAGE 4. COLLECT INFORMATION

a. Intervention strategies are reviewed.

b. Individual goals, including newly developed ones, are

discussed.

c. A format for previewing an occupation is presented.

d. Clients commit to information gathering by job-site visit or

using job-experience kits.

32
STAGE 5. SHARE INFORMATION AND
ESTIMATE CONSEQUENCES
a. Client and counselor discuss information gathered about
occupations and together estimate the consequences of choosing
each occupation.

b. Counselor evaluates client’s difficulty in processing information.

c. Counselor evaluates client’s faulty strategies in decision processing.

d. Counselor develops remedial interventions.

e. Clients can be directed to collect more information or recycle within

33
the counseling model before moving to next step.
STAGE 6. REEVALUATE, DECIDE
TENTATIVELY, OR RECYCLE
a. Client and counselor discuss the possibilities of success
in specific kinds of occupations.

b. Counselor provides the stimulus for firming up a

decision for further exploration of a career or changing
direction and going back to previous steps in making a
decision.

34
STAGE 7. JOB SEARCH STRATEGIES

a. Client intervention strategies can include using study

materials, learning to do an interview or write a resumé,
joining a job club, role playing, or doing simulation
exercises designed to teach clients the consequences of
making life decisions. Client and counselor reintroduce
the concepts of career life planning and, specifically, how
the procedures of learning to make a career decision can
be used with other major decisions in life.

35
In sum, learning is the key to enhancing self-
knowledge. A key focus is to develop a greater
sensitivity to the advantages and limitations of
environmental experiences that influence career
decision making. Using learning intervention strategies
to develop skills, interests, and abilities to expand a
client’s outcome potential is a unique feature of this
model.
36
COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING (CIP) MODEL

• This model is an extension of a career development theory, a cognitive

information processing approach to career problem solving and decision
making, developed by the same authors.
• A CIP approach to career development and its application to career
counseling requires an in-depth understanding of cognitive information
process theory.
• Information processing for career decision making is conceptualized within
this model as a hierarchical system from a base of Knowledge Domains (self-
knowledge and occupational knowledge) to a Decision Skills Domain, and
finally to an Executive Processing Domain, as shown in Figure 3-4.

37
38
 This model and its theory attempt to answer some
important questions about problem solving and the
career decision-making process. This career
counseling model is basically a learning model built
around CIP theory. In applying this theory to a career
counseling model, the authors have developed a
sound system of steps that are clearly delineated for
the practitioner.
39
THE MULTICULTURAL
CONNECTION
THE MULTICULTURAL CONNECTION

• A growing awareness among practitioners of demographics that predicts

a more racially and ethnically diverse workforce strongly reinforces the
need for modifying career counseling models. Research that addresses
the career counseling needs of multicultural groups is in its infancy,
although there have been significant increases in numbers of
publications that focus on multicultural issues in career counseling
(Arbona, 1996).
• Bingham and Ward strongly suggest that counselors are to prepare for
clients by using a self-administered Multicultural Career Counseling
Checklist (MCCC) (Ward & Bingham, 1993) as displayed in Appendix B.
The first section of this instrument assesses the counselors’ preparation
for counseling a culturally different client by identifying both counselor’s
and client’s racial/ethnic backgrounds.
41
T H E M U LT I C U LT U R A L C O N N E C T I O N

A l s o i n t h e p r e c o u n s e l i n g p h a s e , t h e c l i e n t i s a d m i n i s t e r e d a C a r e e r C o u n s e l i n g C h e c k l i s t ( C C C ) ( Wa r d & Ta t e , 1 9 9 0 ) d i s p l a y e d i n a p p e n d i x C . T h i s i n s t r u m e n t c o n t a i n s 4 2 s t a t e m e n t s t h a t
measure such factors as knowledge of the world of work, gender issues, role of family in the decision process, and client’s concerns about choosing an occupation.

42
A BRIEF EXPLANATION OF EACH STEP IN THE CAREER
COUNSELING MODEL FOLLOWS:

• Step 1: Establish Rapport and Culturally Appropriate Relationships

• Step 2: Identify Career Issues
• Step 3: Assess Impact of Cultural Variables
• Step 4: Set Counseling Goals
• Step 5: Make Culturally Appropriate Interventions
• Step 6: Make Decision
• Step 7: Implement and Follow-Up
43
STEP 1: ESTABLISH RAPPORT AND CULTURALLY
APPROPRIATE RELATIONSHIPS

• Client–counselor relationships are considered to be most

important in all career counseling models, but especially in this
model.
• When clients feel free to express themselves in a counseling
relationship, they can be excellent teachers as cultural
informants, provided the counselor makes it clear that
discussions of ethnic/racial information is welcome.

44
STEP 2: IDENTIFY CAREER ISSUES
• Sue and Sue (1990) suggest that a counselor’s understanding of the
client’s worldview issues will facilitate an understanding of barriers that
could impede career decision making. Ethnic minority clients who have
experienced discrimination, for example, might feel that they cannot
overcome the barriers that have conditioned them to limit career choice.
• Counselors should realize that cultural groups often share a common set
of experiences of oppression that can collectively limit their perspectives
of future opportunities. One major goal of this step is to assist clients in
identifying those experiences that limit career choices.

45
STEP 3: ASSESS IMPACT OF CULTURAL VARIABLES

• In this step, counselors identify cultural variables that have the

most limiting influence on career choices. This process can be
very time-consuming, yet productive, when clients recognize
the importance of understanding how their family environment,
religion, and cultural history, for example, have shaped their
prospects for the future.
• Counselors need to isolate unique cultural variables that need
further delineation in culturally appropriate intervention
strategies.

46
STEP 4: SET COUNSELING GOALS

• Goal setting is to be a collaborative negotiation between client

and counselor. This process encourages clients to be more
active in pursuing satisfactory outcomes. A collaborative
counseling relationship is especially important for ethnic
minority clients. Some ethnic minority clients assume that they
are to be passive participants, leaving all decisions to the
counselor. In this context, clients are reluctant to share their
true feelings and experiences and are uncomfortable being
actively involved in the entire career counseling process.

47
STEP 4: SET COUNSELING GOALS

• Counselors should inform clients that it is proper and

acceptable to negotiate activities throughout the counseling
process. Leong (1993) suggests that pragmatic goals are
more appropriate for ethnic minority groups than are goals
based on self-actualization. The point here seems to be that
clients who are more collective oriented, that is, placing family
before self, might be more concerned about how a career
benefits the family.

48
STEP 5: MAKE CULTURALLY APPROPRIATE INTERVENTIONS

• Individual needs determine appropriate interventions for

members of multicultural groups. For some ethnic minorities,
however, family approval and involvement in developing and
delivering intervention strategies are recommended. In these
cases, individuals turn to the family for approval before feeling
free to fully involve themselves. Counselors will find that it is
very productive to fully investigate which members of the
family are empowered to make major decisions.

49
STEP 5: MAKE CULTURALLY APPROPRIATE
INTERVENTIONS
• Group interventions are also considered as very productive for some
cultural groups. For example, clients who are struggling to learn English
may be served best by group interventions that use the client’s native
language. In some cases, interpreters may be used to facilitate groups.
• Groups might be more effective when composed of the same racial group,
biracial group, ethnic gender group, and community members. Bingham
and Ward point out counseling interventions may require several sessions
because many ethnic minority groups take considerable time to complete
an agenda. Finally, if an inventory is used during the course of an
intervention strategy, it must be appropriate for the client’s racial/ethnic
group.

50
STEP 6: MAKE DECISION

• An important suggestion in this step involves continuing

monitoring of the decision process to make certain that the
client is free from all barriers to goals. Some barriers can be
difficult to remove, and some clients will make a decision
mainly to please the counselor. Clients must be invited to
recycle in this model without a sense of embarrassment; in
fact, a review of the model steps can suggest to the client that
it is a legitimate request to continue counseling.

51
STEP 7: IMPLEMENT AND FOLLOW-UP

• At this point, clients are usually referred to information

resources, individual contacts, or agencies for assistance.
Counselors monitor clients’ progress and invite them to return
for counseling in the future.

52
THE FOLLOWING RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE MULTICULTURAL CAREER
COUNSELING PROCESS AS SUGGESTED BY BINGHAM AND WARD (1996) SUMMARIZE
THIS MODEL:

1. The counselor should be aware of a variety of worldviews.

2. The counselor’s preparation for multicultural counseling should be
directed by recommendations of Sue, Arredondo, and McDavis (1992).
3. The counselor should fully understand his or her racial identity.
4. The counselor–client relationship should be a collaborative one, that is,
a negotiating and working consensus is recommended.
5. The role of the family in the decision-making and counseling process
should be emphasized.
53
THE FOLLOWING RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE MULTICULTURAL CAREER
COUNSELING PROCESS AS SUGGESTED BY BINGHAM AND WARD (1996)
SUMMARIZE THIS MODEL:
6. Worldview, history of client, local sociopolitical issues, and stereotypes
should be fully discussed.
7. The influence of racial/ethnic factors that limit career choices should be
discussed.
8. Nontraditional interventions such as conversing in groups in the client’s
native language, using interpreters, and involving community members
who can offer insight and direction should be used. Encourage clients to
join a biracial network.
9. Client–counselor process should be evaluated continually during
counseling and after counseling is terminated.
10. An extensive follow-up should be done and counseling recycled if
necessary.
54
• Case 3-5 illustrates the use of the Career
Counseling Checklist with a Hispanic senior high
school student who currently resides in a small
town in Texas. Experiencing conflicts between
his former culture and the dominant culture, he
asks for help from a career counselor. This case
illustrates a few examples of the problems faced
by individuals from a different culture who want
to become working American citizens.

55
• Counselor: I noticed that you checked item 14. “My ethnicity may influence my career choice.” Could you
tell me more about this item?
• Carlos: What I was thinking is that people might not think I can do the kind of work I want to do.
• Counselor: Explain more fully.
• Carlos: Well, you know how the Mexican man is supposed to work—or not to work hard.
• Counselor: You feel others may judge you this way?
• Carlos: Yes! But I will work hard at any job if I am given the chance.
• Counselor: You are really worried about getting the opportunity to prove yourself. Is that right?
• Carlos: Yes, I believe that a lot of Americans will think I can’t do it!
• Counselor: To an extent, that is a realistic appraisal of what could happen. But on a more positive note, more
and more minorities are moving into other than labor-type jobs. I would rather you think of it as a golden
opportunity right now to choose the job that you are interested in and pursue it using your best abilities.
• Carlos: That is what I want to do and if I am given the chance, I can prove myself.
• Counselor: That is a good start, but let us try to remove the negative feelings you still have about getting an
equal opportunity in the future.
56
MAJOR PARAMETERS OF FIVE MODELS

• Counseling Goals
• Intake Interview
• Use of Assessment
• Diagnosis
• Counseling Process
57
 THANK YOU!

58