EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION,

MANAGEMENT AND PLANNING

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION/MANAGEMENT
 Educational administration could be regarded as one of the branches of administration.
 To understand educational administration, one must acquire some sense of the development
of administration generally.
 The terms “administration” and “management” could be traced to the Cameralists in
Germany and Austria.
 The Cameralists belonged to a movement or school of thought known as Cameralism which
existed in the 1700s.
 By the end of the 18th century the term “administration” was used in America to describe
in general the administration of government, namely the legislative, the executive and
the judiciary.
 However, it was particularly used to describe the functions of the executive (the
President).
 Thus the term administration became more or less an offshoot of the term: “Public
administration” which had its roots in political science.
 The work of an administrator is not the same as a politician
 In other words, there should be no interference in the work of administrators by politicians,
since the two performed different functions.
 In this sense, one Goodnow in 1905 (Campbell and Gregg.1957) stated there are two
functions of government as “administrative” and political.
 He said that politics has to do with policies or policy formulation and administration has to
do with the execution of the policies.
 In the 1900s as a result of the development of industrial and business establishments
following the Industrial Revolution, the term management came to be associated with
industries.
 Management at this stage was the application of scientific outlook and methods to all
aspects of industrial organization aimed primarily at lowering the unit cost of factory
production and maximizing output.
 The man largely associated with industrial management is Frederick Taylor who popularized
the term “scientific management”
ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT DEFINED
 In looking at the concepts of Administration one cannot ignore the concept of management
 This is because the two concepts are often used interchangeably. They are interrelated and
interdependent.
 The Concise Oxford dictionary definition of ‘administration’ is ‘management’ one word
being substituted for another.
 Also some authors regard them as the same
 The question one may ask is –

is administration the same as management?

 MANAGEMENT DEFINED
 Management defies a single definition hence the many definitions.
 Management is both art and science. The art is making people more effective than they
would have been without you (administrator or a leader).
 The science is in how you do that.

 There are four pillars need in management and these are

 Planning, Organising, Directing and Monitoring.

MANAGEMENT DEFINED
 According to Gibson et al (n.d) management refers to a set of activities, which can be
classified as concerned with planning, organizing or controlling.
 Management consists of the interlocking functions of creating corporate policy and
organizing, planning, controlling, and directing an organization's resources in order to
achieve the objectives of that policy.
 Sherleker (1984) defines management as the guidance, leadership and control of the effort
of a group of people towards some common objectives.
 Management can be more scientifically defined as the co-ordination of all the resources of
an organisation through the process of planning, organising, directing and controlling in
order to attain organisational goals or objectives.
 All these definitions suggest that management is a process, that is, a sequence of
coordinated event – planning, organizing, coordinating and controlling or leading – in order
to use available resources to achieve a desired outcome in the fastest and most efficient
way.
 The activities (Planning, Coordinating, Controlling etc.) are referred to as functions of
management.
 These functions must be performed by all person in managerial positions whether
Administrators, Directors, Department Heads(Headmaster) or Supervisors
 ADMINISTRATION
 There is also little agreement on the term administration hence it has a plethora of
definitions.
 Administration is seen from different perspectives just as the six blind men of Hindustan
who described the elephant variously according to how each of them perceived the elephant.
 Administration involves cooperative efforts and goals accompliment. It cannot be done by
one person but through the group effort and it has the focus of achieving set goals.
 Okumbe(1999) educational administration is a process of acquiring and allocating resources
for the achievement of predetermined educational goals
 Gullick and Urwick also defined administration as a process of getting things done through the
efforts of others.

 Watson (n.d) held the same view when he stated that the administrator does not teach
geography; he sees to it that geography is taught.

 This means that the administrator does not do the work himself but through the efforts of
others.

 Gullick and Urwick buttressed Watson definition by looking at administration as a process of

getting things done through the efforts of others.
 Therefore, Administration can be defined as a process.

 This is descriptive or functional definition because it describes what administrators do.

 When Gulick and Urwick were asked what work the chief executive like the president of the
USA does, their answer was the coined word (acronym) POSDCoRB, which stands for
 Planning

 Organizing

 Staffing

 Directing

 Coordinating

 Reporting

 Budgeting

 The Headmaster as the Chief Executive Officer performs similar work in a school situation.
PLANNING:
 Means working out in broad outline the things that need to be done and the methods for
doing them to accomplish the purpose set for the organization.
 In schools, planning may involve setting objectives and establishing school policies and
procedures for implementation that will help to realize the goals.

ORGANIZING:
 Organizing: refers to the establishment of the formal structures of authority through which
works sub-divisions are arranged, defined and coordinated for a defined objective.
 In the school situation, it may entail appointing assistant headmaster, senior housemaster,
housemaster, class masters and school prefects: and establishing the chain of command as
well as assigning responsibilities such as that of sports, sanitary and entertainment and
providing the resources for carrying out such responsibilities.
STAFFING:

 Staffing refers to the whole personnel function of bringing in and training staff and
maintaining favourable conditions of work.
 In the school, it involves recruiting and assigning staff personnel, seeing to their welfare,
supervising and evaluating their performance as well as providing opportunities for their
professional growth, etc.
 DIRECTING: involves the continuous task of making decisions and involving subordinates
in specific and general orders and instructions and serving as the leader of the
establishment.
 In the school, the headmaster as the chief executive tells his subordinates (teachers and
students) what to do and he tries to motivate, influence, guide or stimulate their actions
towards the attainment of the desired instructional objectives.
 In this sense direction is part of supervision. It also involves formulating rules and
regulations to guide the conduct of both students and staff.
COORDINATING:
 Coordinating is the all-important duty of interrelating the various parts of the work in the
organization.
 The school with its many different curricula, departments and other service, requires some
top level-coordination if the headmaster is to provide effective leadership.
 At times the desire to improve one’s own department or class conflicts with the desires of
other teachers or departments.
 The head has to avoid such conflicts by acting as a coordinator to bring harmony and
understanding between the people, departments or the various sectors concerned. It may also
involve structuring the timetable to avoid clashes.
REPORTING:
 Reporting is keeping those to whom the executive is responsible informed as to what is
going on, which includes keeping him and his subordinates informed through records,
research and inspection.
 In schools, it includes keeping records such as class and admission registers, the logbooks,
and inventory of school property.
 It also involves preparing reports for the local/district school boards on issues as enrolment,
students’ performance, the school plant, and school’s achievements and failures.
 Teachers and students must also be informed about all correspondence concerning them,
which they need to know.
BUDGETING:
 Budgeting refers to all that goes with budgeting in the form of fiscal planning, accounting
and control.
 In schools, it may be classified as finance and business management which involves
drawing the school purchases, providing for a system of internal accounting and control and
providing funds to keep the school office running smoothly.
 The head teacher of a school is the administrative leader as well as the educational leader.
 THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT

 Judging by the definitions of administration and management, it is clear that

both concepts are concerned with organizations (i.e. group of individuals who
have been brought together for the attainment of obvious goals) and the
effective and efficient mobilization of resources for the attainment of set goals.
 However, ‘management’ is often used to connote the top hierarchy concerned
with planning and formulation of policies or programmes with a view to
achieving organizational goals.
 The term ‘administration’ on the other hand is generally thought to be part of management
and operates at a level below that of management, and is concerned with the
implementation of the policies laid down by management.
 However, administrators in the process of implementing policies also engage in planning,
organizing, coordinating or leading and evaluating at a micro-level and also contribute to
the policy formulation process.
 ADMINSTRATION
In general sense administration can be seen from four main perspective
1. As a discipline: that is learning branch taught in colleges/universities
2. As a vocation: A type of work or profession
3. As a process: relates to the activites to implement policies that provides services and
goods
4. As a synonym for goverments: that a body of persons in supreme charge of public
affairs. The Mahama, Kuffour administration
 EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT AND EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
 Educational management is concerned with the planning and formulation of educational
policies or programmes with a view to achieving educational goals.
 In other words, educational management can be defined as the application of the process
of planning, organizing, coordinating and evaluating human and material resources in
order to achieve stated educational goals or objectives.
 Educational administration on the other hand, can be defined as the systematic
arrangement of human and material resources and programmes that are available for
education and carefully using them systematically within defined guidelines or polices
to achieve educational goals. (Nwankwo, 1987).
 The educational administrator is therefore essentially an organizer and implementer to
plans policies and programmes meant for specific educational objectives.
 THE PECULATES/UNIQUE ASPECTS OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
 Educational administration has special features of its own. However,
educational administration is similar to general administration in
many ways but dissimilar to general administration in more ways.
 The definition of educational administration is almost the same as
that of “administration”. Perhaps the difference is that in defining
educational administration, emphasis is placed on the adjective
educational.
 The fact is that administration has been recognized as a phenomenon that
attaches itself to all organizations and institutions – government, business,
army, schools etc. in which people work together for the attainment of
organizational objectives.
 This suggests that administration is universal and general.

 As put by Campbell and Gregg (n.d), “It is believed that, the ways in which
administrators behave are essentially the same whether the administrator
operates in industry, government, the military or public education”.
 Though educational administration is similar to all other forms of
administration, a closer look at educational administration reveals that
educational organizations are not administered in quite the same way as
religious, military, business or health organizations.
 To a larger extent, the administration of any organization is influenced by the
work environment which relates to factors such as the kind of service provide,
the nature of activity in which the organization and how the activities of the
organization can be appraised.
 Itis therefore doubtful whether an administrator in the military can
function effectively in an educational institution with its
professionals who use the bureaucratic approach.
 This is because educational administration is basically more
humane, more flexible, more constructive, more creative, more
imaginative and more welfare oriented
THE PECULIARITIES OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

Goals and Educational Institutions

Educational goals such as teaching of literacy, critical thinking and the facilitation
of social mobility, call for special administrative techniques different from other
forms of administration
 Cruciality of education or school to the community

Education is crucial to the society because it produces the skilled labour that is
needed in running the economy.
 Effects of other agencies on the raw materials used by education
 The process of education

 The nature of staff in the school

 Evaluation of results in education, unlike other enterprises is complex and

difficult.
 The raw materials of the school, its pupils/students, are quite different from
the raw materials of a factory.
 The reference group that the school administrator has to deal with
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION
 Educational administration is concerned with educational policies,
educational planning, directing, coordination and supervision of educational
programmes while school administration is concerned only with institutional
policies their direction and control
 Educational administration has its primary focus on education, whereas
school administration has its attention primarily on the school. It is more
concerned with the institution, its goals, policies and execution of these
policies.
 Educational administration is more dynamic in nature than school administration. The
former has to face problems of wider nature, variety and implications whereas the latter is
concerned with the problems of a localised nature.
 Educational administration is more comprehensive term. School administration is only a
part of educational administration but at the same time it has its own distinct status and a
sphere of functioning.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION
 School administration is to fulfil aims and objectives of a school. The most important will
be to realize faithfully the goals which are laid down by the community for education. These
aims and objectives can be described as follows:
 To define functions of the school: the community prescribes aims and objectives of
education. It is the role of educational administration to enlist and define the functions of the
school necessary for the fulfilment of these aims and objectives.
 It provides to us the programmes and activities to be introduced in the school so that the
requirements of education may be satisfied. The school will function according to the
administrative instruction and provisions
 To coordinate the school activities: school administration looks to this coordination of
activities so that their cumulative and total effects on the learner is up to the mark. The
school will be made to function in a harmony so that there is no distraction, dispute and
displeasure. All the efforts will be directed towards the common goal
 To eliminate wastage: the school administration aims at eliminating and not only reducing
the wastage of every type. It will ensure that, none of the resources goes waste or is used
uneconomically.
 To simplify complexities: by simplifying the complexity of the tasks it ensures the best
results. Educational administration involves a large number and variety of tasks. The things
are so complicated that results cannot be shown without straightening and simplifying the
whole affair. There are all types of interest involved in education, leading to innumerable
problems.
 To introduce experimentation: educational administration will also create condition for
educational experimentation, research and follow up. In this fast-changing society of today,
education has to keep ahead of the times.
PRINCIPLES OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION
 In every administration and more so school administration, the responsibilities have to be
carried out according to certain principles. Administration devoid of principles cannot carry
much conviction with the concerned individuals. The follows are the principles of school
administration:
 Consistency with philosophy of education

 Democratic approach

 Optimum contribution by all

 Respect for individualities
 Due importance to different programmes

 Optimistic outlook

 All round development of the students

 Professional growth of the teachers

 School community relationship

CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION

 There are some essentials features in a good school administration:

 Flexibility.

 Practicability.

 Conformity to the social and political philosophy of the

country.
 Efficiency.

 Successful achievement of desired objectives.

 WHAT IS EDUCATIONAL PLANNING?
 Educational planning is concerned with the problem of how to make the best use
of scarce resources devoted to education (Woodhall).
 According to Coombs (1970), it is the application of rational systematic analysis
to the process of educational development with the aim of making education more
effective and efficient in responding to the needs and goals of its students and
society.
 It implies taking of decisions for future with the view to achieving predetermined
objectives through the optimal use of scarce resources (Indian Planning
Commission)
 Educational planning is primarily concerned with the how to make the best use of
limited resources allocated to education in view of the priorities given to different
sectors of education and the need of the economy.
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 EDUCATIONAL POLICY
 The ultimate purpose of educational planning is to design educational policy on e.g.,
curriculum content, design of physical facilities, methods for exploiting new sources
of revenue, and cost implications of alternative educational technologies.
 Policy is a guiding principle or a course of action considered to be expedient, prudent
or advantageous to issues of interest. According to Newman, a policy is a general
plan of action that guides members of an organisation in the conduct of its operations.
 An education policy is a general plan of action adopted by an education agent to
influence and determine educational decisions (e.g., tuition fees, FCUBE).

41
 TRADITIONAL APPROACHES TO EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
 These approaches developed from the viewpoint of educational inputs. According
to Adesina (1986), these approaches are
1. Social demand approach

2. Manpower requirement forecasting approach

3. Cost-benefit analysis approach

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1. SOCIAL DEMAND APPROACH (SDA) (I)

 This approach to educational planning sees education as consumption, a

service demanded by the community. It regards educational planning as a
process of forecasting demand and providing sufficient places to satisfy
the demand.
 SDA perceives education mostly from the consuming point of view, the
purest form of SDA is used to plan 1st level education of a country.
 Attempts are made to forecasting future demand of education for places in
educational institutions taking into consideration the demographic and
social trends in the economy.

43
 SOCIAL DEMAND APPROACH (SDA) (II)
 At the basic level of education, children of school entering age are estimated and
provisions are made to accommodate the extra number that is likely to result in the
school system
 The plan is made well head of commencement data to time for the training of
additional teachers, building of additional classrooms, and supply of additional
facilities.
 Ghana is one of the 1st countries in Africa to adopt this approach in planning primary
education during the Nkrumah days.

44
SOCIAL DEMAND APPROACH (SDA) (III)
 The approach is now being used again in the planning of the current
FCUBE programme. It is often popular with societies that:
a. Favour free and compulsory education as a tool for egalitarian and
permissive (democratic) societies.
b. Have strong attachment to traditional cultural values, e.g., China, where
there is 100% enrolment in school. They aim at perpetuating their culture
through education.
c. Have politicians who respect public opinion and regard satisfaction of
public demand as key to political stability and social progress.

45
 CHARACTERISTICS OF SDA
1. The major characteristics of SDA is that clients who are qualified for admission to
certain level of education and who wish to be admitted must not be denied to acquire
that education.
2. This implies that the educational system has to adapt itself to client pressure. It can
be argued that SDA is applicable only where education is free and where admission
is automatic.
3. There will be adequate resource supply for all qualified students.
4. The economy will eventually be able to absorb all the products or outputs of the
educational system.

46
 ADVANTAGES OF SDA
1. It provides the planners with approximate number of places where educational
facilities has to be provided.
2. It is a suitable political tool to meet the need to satisfy the demands of the general
public.
3. Where resources are acutely limited and where we are seeking to provide those kinds
and quantities of education which will offer the greatest good to the greatest number,
such planning techniques are best.

47
 WEAKNESSES OF SDA (I)

 Many of the assumptions are unrealistic. Using the SDA only to plan for a
country’s education may not respond adequately to the country’s educational needs.
The approach is weak because:
1. The content and level of teaching at higher level keep changing and so does the
proportion of passes at the various pre-degree examinations.
2. It does not consider the absorptive capacity of the labour market for graduates of
different levels and education.
3. The approach does not in any way lay claim to whether the resources expended are
economically allotted and to that extent, the approach is poor.
4. The approach does not provide guidance we need as to how best to meet the
identified needs.

48
 WEAKNESSES OF SDA (II)
5. The approach has no control over factors such as the price of education. It
does not take into account changes in the price of education over time. In
principle one can measure the price elasticity of demand.
6. It does not attempt to portray optimum allocation or resources between
education and other sectors or between various educational programmes.

49
2. MANPOWER REQUIREMENT FORECASTING APPROACH (I)

 This approach assumes that we are thinking of manpower need, i.e., what
will be our requirements for surveyors, medical doctors, teachers, nurses,
etc.
 This approach is restricted to what the economy needs. Thus, education is
not offered to all and sundry but to the needs of the economy.

50
 MANPOWER REQUIREMENT FORECASTING APPROACH (MRFA)
 The very popular approach to educational planning to LDCs is using
manpower needs as basis for school expansion.
 The planners estimate the size of manpower needed given the growth
target of the GNP projected on the basis of past trends.
 To achieve a given growth rate in the GNP, the additional manpower
needed has to be supported by the educational system.

51
MANPOWER REQUIREMENT FORECASTING APPROACH (MRFA)
 The goal of the manpower planner is to balance the demand and supply of
educated manpower on the labour market. When imbalances occurs, the
educational system has to be adjusted.
 The level of output for each type of educational manpower is expanded or
contracted according to labour market conditions.

52
 GENERAL PROCEDURES IN THE MRFA
1. The critical stock of manpower and output are estimated.
2. The growth rate of Gross National Product (GNP) is projected.
3. The growth and demand for manpower is derived from the expected
growth in the GNP with the help of base year input-output ratios.
4. The total demand is converted into numerical quality of educational
programmes.
5. The required enrolment figures are inflated for likely wastages (repeaters,
drop outs).
6. The admission arrangements to the different programmes are made well
in advance.
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 STRENGTH OF MRFA
1. The approach is however useful in determining broad magnitude of
manpower requirement of the economy, e.g., using the Tinbergen
Regression Model, gives a gross figure; the problem arises when the
figure is broken into occupational classifications.
2. It can be modified for better results by incorporating the rate of return
analysis into the model
3. The Synthetic Eclectic Approach is amalgamation of MRF and rate of
return analysis, which is supposed to be an improvement but not yet
invented

54
 CRITIQUE TO MRFA TO EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
1. This approach has come under heavy criticisms such as the different manpower
forecasting models produce different estimates none of which ever tallies with reality. In
USSR, Iran, and Nigeria, manpower projections went wide of the mark.
2. The approach appears to disregard the contribution of non-formal learning structures to
human resource development (farmers, traders, factory hands). Economic development
cannot be solely dependent on the labour contribution of educated manpower; especially
in the LDCs. This model will be appropriate in developed states where the citizens are
almost educated.
3. The approach concentrates on the problem of minimising manpower shortages. It
overlooks the problem of eliminating surpluses likely to be generated by the fast
expanding systems of education.
4. The approach also ignores the financial requirements for skill formation.
5. Occupational distribution cannot be easily translated into educational output.
55
 3. COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS APPROACH
 This is based on the assumption of getting the best out of the investment made in
education, i.e., where the benefit outstrips the cost.
 Where the cost is greater than the benefit then it is not advisable to embark upon such
enterprise.
 The cost that will be incurred in providing education is matches with the benefit
accruing from it.
 This is based on the assumption that the wages and salaries paid to workers closely
reflect differences in their productivity and variations in their productivity are
primarily the result of differences in the amounts and kinds of education they have
received.

56
 MERITS OF COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS APPROACH

 By looking at the age earnings structure of the educated person, it is possible to

measure or quantify the increase in productivity of an educated person.
 The analysis can suggest the directions in which education systems in a society
should expand so as to maximize the earning capacity of their products.
 It shows the relationship between the cost of gaining more education and the
increase in payment which results from additional education

57
 COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS APPROACH (II)

1. It does not consider the process of the inputs into outputs.

2. In African states, it is a wrong assumption to say that salaries reflect productivity.
3. It is difficult to measure the benefits, which derives from investing in any type of
education.
4. In developing countries, differentials in earnings of workers cannot be attributed to
additional education acquired but to other things such as habits, customers, family
background etc.

58
 ADMINISTRATIVE THEORIES AND PRACTICES IN
EDUCATION
WHAT IS THEORY?
Etymologically, the concept theory is derived from a Greek word, “theoria “meaning “a
look at “or viewing/contemplation/speculation. In modern usage, however, we cannot
accept any definition of theory which is limited to a mere “looking at “or mere observation.
What then is theory?
Theory is “A conceptual scheme of system that is held to explain a group of facts or
phenomena and to discover and organize new facts”
A theory is regard as a hypothesis which has undergone verification and which has
potential (a) for explaining and predicting events and (b) for the production of new
knowledge’
 CONT….
A theory can be viewed as a set of relevant, internally consistent postulates
about a particular observable phenomenon along with definitions to enable the
user to move from the abstract to the real in order to describe, explain, predict,
and/or advance knowledge (Kimbrough and Nunnery, 1983).
From the many definitions it is clear that theory is a way of thinking about
reality to better understand that reality and to describe it more accurately.
As Albert Einstein described it, theory is like a man who came across a watch
and tried to understand the mechanism of that closed watch.
He saw the face and the moving hands and even heard it ticking but had no
way of opening the case.
 CONT…….

To find out how the watch worked, how it came about and its
functions he had to form a mental picture or theorize in order to
explain the reality.

Normally theories come out of hypotheses or assumptions.

Thus theory is a unifying set of assumptions from which testable
hypotheses may be derived and which will serve as basis for
consistent useful action as well as for acquisition of knowledge.
 FUNCTIONS OF THEORY
Theory serves the following functions among others-
An explanatory function: A theory provides explanation for possible
relationships between events, and therefore helps us understand event better.
For example, it may help the administrator understand why people behave as
they do in an organization and therefore guide his decisions.
Heuristic function: Theory allows one to point out areas where knowledge is
lacking, and where further research is needed which may lead to extension of
knowledge.
Predictive function: A good theory enable one to make predictions about
relationships on conditions that have not yet been observed or have not
occurred.
 CONT……

A taxonomic function: It provides a framework or classification scheme that

enables the user “fit” what is observed or known about a particular group of
events. Theory helps to organize our knowledge into a systematic, orderly
body.
Theory provides a guide to researchers: It serves to clarify the perspective or
conceptual framework to be used as the foundation of the empirical study.
More importantly theory guides practice: It tells us how to behave under
certain situations.
SCHOOLS OF ADMINISTRATIVE THOUGHT
Over the last ninety years and more, the science of administration has evolved in
three phases. And each of these phases can be identified with a particular school
of thought.
These are
1. The classical or Traditional school of Management thought (1900-1930)
2. The Human-Relations Movements (theory) (1930-1950)

3. The Behavioural Science Approach (1950+).

 THE TABLE BELOW SHOWS THE SUMMARY

BEGINNING DEVELOPMENTAL PHASES OF PIONEERS

ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCE

1900 - 1930 Classical & neo-classical schools of thought i. Taylor, Gantt, Brandels
ii. Fayol, Galick, Urwick

1930 - 1950 Human relations approach i. Mayo, Follett

ii. McGregor, Ouchi

1950 + Behavioural science Barnard, Simon

 THE CLASSICAL SCHOOL OF THOUGHT
The Classical School of Management consists of two separate perspectives –
(a) The Scientific Management Approach and
(b) The Administrative Management Approach

THE SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT APPROACH

 This was the period when the search for a science of management was initiated.
 The birth of scientific management is generally credited to Frederick Taylor.
 Other proponents included Henry Gant and Louis Bandies.
FREDERICK TAYLOR (1856-1915)
 Taylor who is regarded as the ‘Father of Scientific management was an engineer by profession and he sought
ways to use people effectively in industrial organizations.
 Background and experience:
 He first started at the Midvale Steel Company as a labour and rose through the ranks and later became the
Managing director.
 CONT…….
His experience at all levels industry led him to formulate his principles, which were
condensed in the “The Principles of Scientific Management”, published in 1911.
His essential points may be summarized as follows:
1. Time study principle: All work should be measured by accurate time study and a
standard time established
2. Piece-rate principle: Wages should be proportional to output. In other words high
pay should be tied to successful completion of task.
3. Standard conditions: The worker should be given standardized conditions and
appliances, which will enable him to accomplish his task with certainly (e.g. he
designed shovels, which improved working efficiency)
4. Loss in case of failure: When the worker fails he should be sure that sooner or later
he will be the loser for it, i.e. failure should be personally costly. In other words the
 CONT…..

5. Experience in large organizations: As organizations become

increasingly sophisticated, tasks should be made so difficult as to be
accomplished only by a first rate worker who should be remunerated
according to this capability.
6. Scientific-methods-of-work principle: Management should take over
from the workers the responsibility for their methods of work, determine
scientifically the best methods and train the workers accordingly.
7. Managerial-control principle: Managers should be trained and taught to
apply scientific principles of management control
8. Functional-management principle: The strict military principles should
be applied to industries and should be so designed that it best serves the
purpose of improving the coordination of activities among the various
 CONT…..
Taylor and his followers who are described as human engineers focused on
physical production, and their time and motion studies concentrated on physical
limits of the workers and they described the faster methods for performing a
given task.
They recommended that:
1. The two hands should begin and end motions simultaneously
2. Smooth continuous hand motions are preferable to zigzag or straight-line
motions involving sudden or sharp changed in direction
3. Tools, materials and controls should be close to and in front of the operator.
4. Tools should be combined whenever possible.
 CRITICISMS OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
1. Taylor’s approach reduced man to the status of a machine and neglected the human and
ethical aspects of labour.
2. He took a narrow view of management, as he did not consider the impact of forces in
the environment on the organizations.
3. Taylor and his followers overlooked the social needs of workers as members of a
group. Thus they ignored associations, unions or the informal aspects of an
organization.
4. They also ignored socio-psychological aspect of man and overlooked the desire for job
satisfaction and other variables.
5. Scientific management theory was concerned primarily with problems at the
operational level and failed to deal with higher levels of management such as planning,
decision-making and problem solving.
 MERITS OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
In spite of the criticisms level against it, scientific management has something good to
offer. Much of what Taylor and his followers propounded can be found in large complex
organizations today.
The contributions include:
1. The demonstration that jobs could be performed more efficiently through the
management of jobs;
2. Time and motion studies which tended to increase worker efficiency;
3. Helping the unskilled worker by improving productivity enough to raise his pay;
4. Increasing the productivity of the worker with corresponding decrease in his effort,
fatigue etc.
5. It stimulated others and served as the basis for further studies in management.
 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT
THEORY
Taylor’s ideas of management for education are worth considering.
 The mechanistic approach or reducing human beings into rational beings
implies that in the school the teachers should be routinized.
 Furthermore maximization of productivity emphasized by Taylor cannot suffice
as the sole end of education.
For instance, education productivity should not be based on the volume of
lecture notes or the number of passes in examinations. Since education aims at
the total development of the child, the degree to which the teacher is able to
inculcate in students the society’s desired social norms and values should be
considered.
 CONT….
 It is also important to note that education involves the human mind hence it is
difficult to measure the amount of work done by the teacher.
Consequently the claim that remuneration should be commensurate with the
volume of work done could be difficult to apply in the school setting.
 Again, though the economic reward is important, it should not be emphasized
at the expense of the psychological needs.
 Teachers in particular are more likely to work hard under administrators who
are kind, sympathetic, honest, impartial, considerate and accommodating or
concerned with their welfare.
CONT………
 Teachers also deal with students who are human beings and therefore cannot
pretend to be so impersonal and simply task oriented. Effective teaching depends
greatly on good teacher- pupil relationship.
 It is also unrealistic to maintain that the teacher’s work should be standardized.
Teachers are not machines, they have their individual differences and these
differences greatly influence their teaching assignment.
 Lastly, rigid control or supervision is not the best in the school situation as it stifles
initiative and creativity and leads to too much bureaucracy. Control system though
necessary should be flexible. Teachers as professionals require some kind of
autonomy in their work.
 ADMINISTRATIVE THEORY – HENRY FAYOL
Henry Fayol is a French industrialist and a classical theories with emphasis
on management of organisation more that the workers. He believe that
training the administrators will improve operations within organisation.
Whiles Taylor had a rigid application of his principles, Fayol was more
flexible and looked at them as a guide to administration. Fayol defined
administration based on the five major functions thus; planning, organizing,
commanding, coordinating, and controlling. He is well known of his
fourteen principles of administration which he set down for practicing
managers to apply.
 FAYOL’S FOURTEEN PRINCIPLES

1. Specialization: the need for division of labour

2. Unit of direction: one manager per set of activities
3. Authority and responsible: Centralized authority
4. Discipline: agreement and sanctions
5. Unity of command: employees respond to one supervisor
6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest
7. Remuneration of employees: fair price for service
 CONT……

8. Centralization: reduce subordinate role

9. Scalar Chain: vertical communication
10. Order
11. Equity
12. Stability of tenure of personnel: sufficient time is necessary for
familiarity
13. Initiative: managers should rely of workers initiative
14. Esprit de corps: Team spirit “unity in strength”
 MANAGEMENT ASSUMPTIONS THAT INFLUENCE THEIR
ATTITUDES

Douglas McGregor studied the attitudes people have towards work

and his study revealed certain assumptions (beliefs) people
(workers) have towards work.
He categorized these assumptions into two groups which he called
theory X and theory y.
These are regarded as two types of management philosophies which
guide the actions of administrators in organisation/educational
institutions .
 THEORY X
McGregor based his theory X on assumptions and propositions generally associated with the
classical school of management thought, as suggested by adherents of Taylorism.
The assumptions of the theory are:
1. The average human being has an inherent dislike for work and will avoid if possible

2. Most people are not ambitious, have little desire for responsibility, and prefer to be directed or
led.
3. The average man is by nature torpid/indolent – he works as little as possible.

4. Most people have little capacity for creative in solving organizational problems

5. Motivation occurs only at the physiological and safety levels.

6. Most people are inherently, self-centred, indifferent to organizational needs

7. Man is by nature resistant to change.

 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION OF THEORY X
The outlined assumptions of Theory X have wide application to all organization including schools.
These include:
1. Rigid patterns: Theory X results in rigid patterns of control which may be applied in many ways.

i. the theory advocates close and careful supervision.

ii. it relies on many detailed directions such as demanding compliance from the workers.

iii. if employers feel the workers do not perform their duties they threaten them with firing and withdrawal
of pay.
2. Insistence on centralized power.
All decisions are made and channelled from the top. The workers do not have any say in matters which
affect them. Thus, it leads to authoritarian leadership.
In the school, it may show up in teacher-dominated classroom where students do not have any say. He
might arbitrarily decide to punish students by giving them underserved low grades.
 CONT….

3. Another problem with theory X is that it concerns itself

exclusively with high productivity of the organization at the
expense of the workers.
4. Administrators who use Theory X approach adopt wrong
attitude towards the workers, considering them to be unreliable,
irresponsible and immature. The workers are therefore not given
any important responsibilities or involved in decision-making.
 THEORY Y
Theory Y’s assumptions goes beyond the early assumptions of human relations approach about human
behaviour and has positive attitude towards the worker.
The assumptions are:
1. External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means of bringing about efforts
towards organizational objectives to which they are committed.
2. Commitment to objectives is a functions of the rewards associated with their achievement.

3. The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept, but also to seek
responsibility.
4. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in the
solution of organizational problems is widely and narrowly distributed in the population.
5. Under the condition of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average human
being are only partially realized or utilized.
 EDUCATIONAL IMPLCATIONS OF THEORY Y
1. Administrators who are Theory Y oriented seek information from workers and listen to them. They
will be concerned with the welfare of their problems. In the classroom, the teacher who is Y
oriented will be student-oriented and give them freedom to express their ideas, and give them
support in their class-work.
2. The belief in Theory Y also leads to decentralization of activities or power and delegation of
authority. That is, responsibilities are shared among workers. Besides, the workers are given self-
direction, freedom to act (participate), responsibility and recognition for achievement. By this the
worker becomes highly motivated.
3. Workers are regarded as responsible and mature and therefore treated with due respect.
4. Finally a theory Y managerial behaviour would reflect a less authoritarian or democratic leadership
style.
 CONT….

In sum, as pointed out by Szilagyi (1981) theory Y encourages

(1) delegating authority for many decisions to lower level workers;

(2) making an effort to make workers’ job less routine and boring:

(3) increasing the level of responsibility in each workers job

(4) improving the free flow of information and communication within the organization:

(5) recognizing that people are motivated by a complex set of psychological needs, not just
money.
 THEORY Z
Theory Z is the term coined by William G. Ouchi to characterize the japans approach to
managing a business.
Like Theory Y, Theory Z emphasizes concern for people and participative or consultative
decision-making.
Though some countries and American firms have adopted it, it is a non-traditional approach
in these countries.

This philosophy based on several ideas that are uniquely Japanese, emphasizes the workers
as the key to productivity and economic growth.
For instance, some workers have the security of employment without the threat of being
fired or laid off until mandatory retirement at age fifty-five.
Workers are trained to perform a variety of tasks and are rotated from job to job to reduce
excessive boredom.
 CONT……….
Promotions are from within the company and progression through the ranks is slow and
deliberate.
The most significant aspect of theory Z, however, is the importance it places on the
traditional mechanisms.
Ouchi believes, the secret of Japanese success is the great concern Japan’s managers show
for the well-being and development of employees.
The main features of theory Z are:
i. Life time employment;

ii. Collective decision-making;

iii. Collective responsibility;

iv. Slow evaluation and promotion;

v. Implicit control mechanism;

vi. Non-specialized career paths;

 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

 Leadership is of particular importance in educational administration

because of its far-reaching effects on the accomplishment of school
programmes, objectives and the attainment of educational goals.
 Stogdill (1950) considers leadership as the process of influencing the
activities of an organized group toward goals setting and goal
achievement.
 Leadership can also be defined as the process of providing direction and
influencing individuals or groups to achieve goals.
 Leadership comes about in school in three ways:
 (1) Appointment eg. Headmaster

 (2) Election e.g school prefect and

 (3) emerge by popular choice, e.g. one who automatically emerge as a

course prefect.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE LEADER

 An effective leader is that leader who:

i. Studies the situation in which he finds himself decides on the style of leadership most
appropriate to the situation.
ii. Perceives the needs of the group and organizes the group's efforts towards the satisfaction of
those needs.
iii. Attempts to make the organizational goals/objectives complementary to the group's
objectives and directs the group's efforts towards those objectives.
iv. Employs appropriate techniques to motivates members of the group so that they work towards
achievement of the objectives of the organization.
v. Is sensitive to the needs to change when necessary.
vi. Knows when to delegate, to take action, and when to involve the group in decision-making

vii. Keeps the channels of communication in the organization open for a free flow of information.
 BASES OF LEADER POWER
 Influence, which is the key element in leadership can be defined as the control that a person
possesses and can exercise on others.
 Generally, the ability to influence, persuade and motivate others is based largely upon the
perceived power of the leader.
 Five identified bases or sources of a leader’s power and influence are:

 1. Reward power
 2. Coercive power:
 3. Legitimate power :
 4. Expert power:
 5. Referent power:
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ADMINISTRATION AND LEADERSHIP
 Administration is generally defined as the process of working with and
through others to efficiently accomplish organizational goals.
 Leadership also involves accomplishing goals with and through people.
 What then is the difference between leadership and administration in an
organization?
 Are the two terms the same since they deal with people and attainment of
goals?
It is believed that the difference in the two terms is in the
phrase “organizational goals”.
 While administration involves exclusively fulfilling the goals of the
organization, leadership does not confine itself to organizational goals
only. Thus,
 Leadership involves the fulfilment of both organizational and personal
goals, and may even include a friend’s goal.
 The head teacher, for instance encourages his teachers to work hard not
necessarily to have many students pass the examination but may be to
be considered as an efficient administrator in order to keep his job, feed
his family and send children to high cost schools.
 Also according to Owens(1995), administration is concerns with the
smooth operation of an organization.
 In his role as administrator, the headmaster facilitates the use of
established procedures and structures to help the school achieve its goals.
Administrators are particularly concerned with maintaining the
organization, with keeping its interrelated part functioning smoothly, and
with monitoring the orderly processes that have been established to get
things accomplished.
Leaders on the other hand, initiate changes in the organizations: changes in
either its goals or in the way the organization tries to achieve its goals.

The emphasis is upon ‘change’, as differentiated from the administrators

emphasis on ‘maintaining’.
 LEADERSHIP THEORIES
 There have been three broad approaches that characterize the study of leadership.
 They are trait Theory, Personal-behaviour theory and Situation or Contingency theory.
 1. TRAIT THEORY
 Early theories suggested that leaders possessed personal characteristics and that leaders are
born not made.
 Such qualities or personality characteristic include initiative, imagination and above all
intelligence as well as physical stature, etc.

 2. THE BEHAVIOR THEORY

 Rather than trying to figure out what effective leaders were, the behaviourists tries to
determine what effective leaders did and how they carried on their tasks.
 It was believed that unlike traits, behaviours could be learned, so it flowered that individuals
trained in appropriate leadership behaviours would be able to lead more effectively.
 Similar to trait theories, however, the behavioural approach sought the ‘one best’ style of
leadership that would be effective in all situations and ignored situational factors.
 THE SITUATION/CONTINGENCY THEORY

 The theory maintains that neither the personality trait approach nor the search for the 'best'
leadership style or behaviour was adequate to deal with the complexities of the underlying
processes
 The proponent of this theory argues that, the ability of a manager to be a leader and to
influence his subordinates depends on the particular situation and will vary from case to
case.
 Thus, a particular situation or environment will dictate the kind of leadership suited to it.
 Therefore a person may be an effective leader in one situation or environment but
ineffective in another.
 Factors which vary in different situations, are the personality of the leader, his leadership
style, the nature of the group's tasks, the nature of work and external environmental factors.
 LEADERSHIP STYLES

The autocratic style

The Democratic Style
The Laissez-Faire Style
The Nomothetic Style
The Idiographic Style
The Transactional Style (managerial)
The Transformational style


 THE ROLE OF THE HEAD TEACHER/MASTER IN SCHOOL
MANAGEMENT
 Head of a school has two major responsibilities to play in school
management; managerial and instructional leadership.
 The management duties are those required to organise and
administer the school.
 Instructional leadership responsibilities are those necessary to
ensure that teaching and learning are effectively carried on in the
school.
 MANAGEMENT LEADERSHIP ROLE OF THE SCHOOL HEAD
 In order to manage and administer a school efficiently, the headmaster must provide
organisational leadership.
 In this respect, the headmaster is responsible for things such as planning, coordinating,
directing the staff and pupils and managing school building and facilities.
 Administrative leadership should provide the physical and human school environment
conducive to teaching and learning.
 Working towards this objectives involves paying attention to the following details of the
organization and administration:
 Organising the school timetable and seeing to the day-to-day operation of the school

 Managing an maintain the school buildings, grounds, equipment and facilities

 Coordinating the activities and functions of teachers

 Maintaining good working conditions for staff and establishing high morale among them
 Supervising the co-curricular activities of students/pupils

 Maintaining high standard of conduct and discipline in the school both among staff and
students/pupils
 Controlling and supervising the business aspect of school life such as receiving,
purchasing and distributing supplies
 Managing the finances of the school and applying appropriate checks and balances in
financial deals on behalf of the school
 Keeping different types of records for the school for example, attendance, staff records,
school finances, school supplies, records of meetings with staff and Board of Governors
 Maintaining good school-community relationships and perhaps participating in
community development projects
 Encouraging local community citizens and leaders to participate in the planning and
execution of the development and expansion programmes of the school
 Making known and interpreting school and government policies and regulations to
parents
 Supervising and organising guidance and counselling services for students/pupils.

 These are some of the managerial responsibilities of the school head but schools are first
established first as an instructional centre.
 Therefore all the managerial activities of the school head should be geared towards
fostering the effectiveness of the school as a place where students learn effectively .
 This implies that the managerial and administrative duties of the school
head are the means to an end.
 The ultimate goal of such responsibilities must provide a healthy and
interesting school environment within which teachers can teach and
students can learn effectively.
 INSTRUCTIONAL LEADERSHIP
The head teacher/master, as a instructional leader of the school, is responsible for the
following things:
1. Planning the school curriculum in accordance with the stated and implied aims of education and the regulations
and guidance of the educational authorities in the district, the regional and the country.
2. Discussing emerging theories in education and current developments in primary/secondary school education with
his teachers, and encouraging resourcefulness in teaching methods among his staff.
3. Encouraging teachers and pupils to use the available teaching facilities effectively
4. Supervising the instructional activities of teachers.
5. Helping teachers to grow professionally by encouraging them to attend in-service training programs, workshops,
refresher courses organized by universities, colleges of education, the ministry of education and other agencies
that are interested in the development of better methods of school organization and instruction.
6. Establishing methods for evaluating, examining and reporting students’/pupils’ progress in school.
 DUTIES OF THE HEAD TEACHER/MASTER IN RELATION TO STAFF
UNDER HIM/HER
1. To give confidential reports on staff.
2. To forward teachers resignation notices.
3. To draw attention to a teachers’ shortcomings, first orally, then in writing if necessary.
4. To report a teachers’ misconduct to the appropriate to the appropriate authorities.
5. To give warning in writing in cases of general inefficiency.
6. To assign school duties to teachers.
7. To give written permission for leaving school premises during school hours.
8. To give written permission for travelling out of station.
9. To give written permission for absence from duty when appropriate.
10. To make internal arrangement to cover duties of sick teachers or absent once
11. To report all cases of leave of absents at the end of each term to the district office.
ADMINISTRATIVE TASK/DUTIES OF THE SCHOOL HEAD

 The school head as an administrator/CEO and leader determines the success or failure of the school
organization.
To achieve the goals of the school, he has to perform certain duties known as administrative tasks.
These tasks can be classified under the following headings: -
 1. School-community Relationships
 2. Curriculum, Instruction and Appraisal
 3. Pupil Personnel
 4. Staff Personnel
 5. Physical Facilities and Educational Materials
 6. Financial and Business Management.
A related classification that will be considered is how (he head organizes to achieve the tasks.
GENERAL TASKS

 Apart from the six major areas of the administrative tasks, the school head also performs some general
tasks such as:
i. Organizing and conducting meetings or conferences
ii. Publicizing the work of the school

iii. Responding to correspondence

iv. Preparing reports for the local/districts school boards

v. Attending headmasters/principals meetings eg CHASS
vi. Scheduling school programmes.

It should be noted that the educational administrator can or should perform these tasks alone.
The tasks are achieved with the assistance of others through delegation of work. This means the
administrator should always establish an organizational structure that promotes delegation of
responsibility,
THE DELEGATION OF POWER
 In delegating responsibility and authority to an assistant/a teacher, the head teacher/master should be guided
by certain principles. Some of which are
 The organisational structure must be streamline and made clear to all in the school, pupils included. Every
assistant must know to whom and for what he is responsible. This should minimise conflicts in
administration
 One of the fundamental principles of administration is that those who participate in the implementation of
the policies of an organisation should participate in the formulation of those policies. Therefore the head
must involve as many of his assistant/staff as possible in the formation and implementation of policies and
decision.
 The officially established hierarchy of power must be respected.
 Any person to whom responsibility is delegated must also be given the necessary authority to enable him
to carry out the assignment
 DESIRABLE LEADERSHIP QUALITIES OF THE HEAD TEACHER
 There are four important leadership qualities which are important for the post of school
headmaster. These are
 Personality: A good headmaster should have qualities such as friendliness, enthusiasm,
spontaneity and self-confidence. This is an individual’s characteristics through which the person
influences other people and wins their support and cooperation
 Purpose: the headmaster should have a clear perception of what is all about, particularly the aims
and objectives of education.
 Knowledge: the school headmaster should be knowledgeable enough in most educational matters
 Professional skills: the headmaster is a professional leader and he/she must possess the skills
often associated with effective leadership. The first group of skills is conceptual and the second is
human relation
 THE ADMINISTRATIVE COMPETENCE AND SKILLS REQUIRED BY THE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR

 The basic skills as identified by Katz (1985) are technical, human and conceptual.
 Technical skill refers to the proficiency or ability to use the tools, methods, processes,
procedures and techniques of a specialized field.
 Conceptual skill refers to the mental ability to coordinate and integrate the entire interests
and activities of the organization, and more importantly, it also refers to the ability to apply
information and concepts to practice.
 Human skill refers to interpersonal skills. It is the school administrator's ability to work
effectively with, and through other people as individuals or groups. It also requires an
understanding of one's self, group dynamic, and the ability to motivate oilier people.
  MEANS BY WHICH ADMINISTRATIVE SKILLS ARE ACQUIRED

 Administrative skills could be acquired through

i. Education: which involves, for example, undertaking undergraduate and graduate studies.

ii. Experience: which involves exposure to a variety of situation, problems and demands. It
involves time and entails maturity on the job.
iii. A mentor-mentee relationship: It involves a young administrator learning a set of
administrative skills by observing, working with and relating to a more seasoned higher
administrator.
MANAGING AND ADMINISTERING SCHOOL FINANCE
 One of the essential tasks of the school head is financial management in the school.
Financial management in school is necessary for a number of reasons
 It helps to ensure that funds are collected and efficiently utilized for the attainment of
institutional goals
 It helps in mobilizing financial resources for the school by organising fund raising
 It helps in drawing effective budget for the school, which ensures that anticipated revenue
is raised and expended according to plan
 It helps to account for school funds properly and fully
 The success of any school programme or the overall performance of each school depends
on how the financial resources are effectively and efficiently managed
 Prudent financial management encourages stakeholders and other benevolent institutions
and individuals to continue to lend their support
 SOURCES OF SCHOOL FUNDS
 Government: capitation, scholarship etc government provides to support schools’ activities
 School fees: approved fees by GES and PTA etc
 Local Authorities: District Assembly may provide funds for the development of
schools
 School facilities: classroom and playing grounds can be hired to generate
revenue
 Community Groups: donations from old students, philanthropies etc
 Non-Governmental Organisation: the school may be funded by an NGO
 Sale of Products: sale of farm products etc
 Fund Raising: organising speech day, issuing of coupons/envelopes etc
 KEEPING OF FUNDS RECORDS
 To properly manage school funds, there are number of records to keep in the school.
Some of such records are
 Receipt books

 Cashbook

 Cash analysis book

 Bank accounts

 Etc
 RECEIPT BOOKS
 Receipts books are used to record all monies collected in the school.
 There are two main receipts books that are kept in Ghanaian schools especially in Basic
Schools. These are
 GES receipts books

 PTA receipts books

The GES receipt book is needed to record the GES approved fees while the PTA receipt is
to record PTA approved fees.
The receipts can be duplicate or triplicate depending on whatever fee is collected.
Original given to the payee and the duplicate kept in the school and when it is triplicate the
duplicate sent to the district office and the triplicate kept in the school
 CASH BOOK- ENTRIES IN THE CASH BOOK

income expenditure
Date Item Receipt no. Amount Date Item Receipt no. Amount

11/01/2016 Sale of yams A.C 1255 50,000

15/01/2016 Purchase of pens C.k 03481 30,000

25/02/2016 Sale of craft A.C 04256 80,000

28/02/2016 Repair of chairs T.K 4567 60,000

CASH ANALYSIS BOOK – ENTRIES IN THE CASH ANALYSIS BOOK

Date Name of pupil Text books Sports Culture PTA Special levy Total

9/05/2015 Yaw Rebecca GHS 50.00 10.00 5.00 15.00 4.00 84.00
9/05/2015 Asante George GHS 50.00 10.00 5.00 15.00 4.00 84.00

9/05/2015 Therma Grant GHS 50.00 10.00 5.00 15.00 4.00 84.00

total GHS 150.00 30.00 15.00 45.00 12.00 252.00

KEEPING BANK ACCOUNTS
 Basically there are three types of accounts that can be kept by the school.
 These are

 current accounts

 Saving accounts

 Fixed deposit accounts

TIPS-BITS FOR KEEPING BOOKS OF ACCOUNTS
 Follow the procedures laid down by the education ministry
 no erasures should be made in the accounts books

 All wrong entries and mistakes should be neatly cancelled and initiated

 Accounts must be rendered to your PTA, staff etc of monies collected and
expended occasionally
 School accounts should be made ready for auditing or inspection at all
times
THE USE OF SCHOOL FUNDS

 Some of the funds that come to the school are paid to the education office while some are retained in the
school and used to support the school’s activities.
 It is important that funds retained in the school are used judiciously and prudently to support the activities
of the school such that ultimately the goals of the school can be achieved.
 The items for which school funds can be used for include the purchase of:

Teaching and learning materials

Sports equipment
Tools for practical lessons.
Stationery
Furniture
Textbooks and library books,
PLANNING THE USE OF SCHOOL FUNDS (SCHOOL BUDGETING)

 For prudent financial management in the school there is a always the need for planning the
use of school funds or effective budgeting.
 Budgeting is a process of preparing a statement of the anticipated income and the proposed
expenditure of funds in a systematic way to the achievement of the school in pursuing its
various activities towards the achievement of its goals.
FUNCTION/PURPOSES OF SCHOOL BUDGETING

 The main purposes of school budgeting are to:

 Identify areas that require attention and action with regard to the use of funds.

 Evaluate the financial performance of the school and to control the financial operations of the school.

 Provide an operational cost-time framework for the implementation of school programmes, hence a major planning
instrument.
Steps in planning the use of school funds
The following steps in planning the use of school funds as suggested by the GES Headteahers’ Handbook, can be followed:
i. Identify your needs, programmes, projects or activities to be accomplished together with your staff.
ii. Check on the cost of items/projects
iii. Prepare estimates
iv. Show the estimates to the staff or the PTA for discussion and approval .
v. Carry out the project or purchase the items using the estimates as a guide.
PROBLEMS OF FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT IN SCHOOLS

 One major source of problem for most schools relates to financial management of the school.
 For a school to be seen as effective, it should be able prudently manage its financial resources.

 This can be done if problems associated with school financial management could be identified and addressed.

 The problems relate to:

i. Inadequate funds
ii. Delays in payment of fees.
iii. Refusal/inability of parents to pay fees.

iv. Inability to obtain receipts to cover monies paid

v. Failure to make prompt recording of monies received or paid

vi. Poor keeping of records

vii. Embezzlement, misappropriation of funds etc

DEALING WITH THE PROBLEMS OF FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT IN SCHOOLS

 It is believed that if school heads would abide by certain basic principles, a lot of the
problems they face in managing school funds would be minimized if not eliminated
completely.
 These principles are as follows:

i. Go by the rules and procedures regarding financial management as spelt out by the GES.
ii. Permission must be sought from the District Director of Education before any monies
apart from authorized fees are collected.
iii. Keep proper records of all monies received and all payments made

iv. Obtain receipts for all payments.

i. Issue receipts for all monies received and promptly enter them in the cashbook
ii. File all receipts for easy and future reference.
iii. Monies collected must be promptly sent to the bank or paid to the appropriate quarters.
iv. Educate parents and community members on the need to pay fees or contribute to the
development of the school.
v. Maintain close contact with parents and the community and be accountable to them. The
head should report periodically to them about the financial management of the school.
vi. Encourage periodic auditing of the school’s accounts to help detect any financial lapses
before the situation gets out of hand.
 THE ROLE OF THE SCHOOL HEAD IN EFFECTIVE SCHOOL MANAGEMENT

What is School Effectiveness

To better understand the meaning of school effectiveness, one has to define the term effectiveness and link it to
school.
Hence, look at effectiveness and school separately and then you combined the two terms.
According to Stoner, Freeman and Gilbert(1995) effectiveness is defined as choosing the right goals and doing the
right thing.
This means for a school to be considered as effective, it must be able to set suitable goals and do things right so that
the intended results can be achieved.
Therefore, school effectiveness is seen as the extent to which the set goals or objectives of a school programme are
accomplished.
The effectiveness can be seen in relation to either the quality, quantity or equality of educational instruction given in
the school.
FEATURES OF AN EFFECTIVE SCHOOL

 Effective school has a number of features to be considered as effective

 Strong leadership by the head teacher/master/mistress
 Increased involvement of teachers and students in decision-making
 High expectation for students achievement on the part of teachers and other staff members
 Maximum communication between head teacher/teachers and students
 Parental and community involvement
 Good climate which promotes unity of purpose, discipline and conducive teaching and learning
environment
 Staff stability to facilitate the development of a strong cohesive school culture
 Emphasis on time for teaching and learning
 An orderly environment
 THE ROLES OF THE SCHOOL HEAD IN MANAGING LEARNING RESOURCES

i. The roles here include the following:

ii. procurement of resources:
iii. Ensuring effective use of resources.
iv. Taking care of and maintaining the resources.
v. Keeping records of the resources.
vi. Improving the quality of teaching
vii. The school head has the responsibility of ensuring that there is qualified teaching in
the school
 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF TEACHING

 The school head has the responsibility of ensuring that there is quality teaching in the
school.
 This can be achieved through the following means:

i. Recruiting the right calibre of teachers with the requisite academic professional
qualifications.
ii. Providing the necessary materials that will enable the teachers carry their job effectively.

iii. Proper supervision of teachers.

iv. As part of the supervisory role the head should visit the classroom and observe teachers
teaching, exercises given, and ensure that teachers are regular and punctual.
v. Assessing teacher performance
ROLE OF HEAD TEACHER IN ESTABLISHING SCHOOL -COMMUNITY RELATIONS

i. He has to educate his staff on the role of the community in the educative process hence the need for
co-operation between the school and the community.
ii. He has to provide his staff with adequate and accurate information about the community so that they
will make a realistic appraisal of events in the community and adjust their expectations accordingly.
iii. He has to ensure the provision of a two-way communication between the school and the community
to have a proper interpretation of educational problems and issues.
iv. The head teacher is expected to identify the power structure within the community chiefs, elders,
opinion leaders and work with them because it is through them that the community could be
reached.
They constitute the first link in the communication influence their people to accept it. if they hold the
school in high esteem, the community is likely to follow them. The head teacher can also use the mass
media to keep the general public informed about the progress and activities of the school.
 WHY THE SCHOOL SHOULD CONTINUE TO RELATE TO THE COMMUNITY

 There are many reasons why the school should have closer relationship with the African
communities.
 1. Perpetuation of society's culture.
 2. The school is an instrument of change.
 3. Changes in the school programmes.
 4. Changing notions about teachers.
 5. The need for correct information about the school.
 6. Financial support.
 7. The need for proper Child development
 8. Other vested interests in the community.
 PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING GOOD SCHOOL-COMMUNITY RELATION

i. A good school and community relationship should stress the aims and aspirations of the
school e.g. the headmaster can give a talk on these at a community festival or durbars.
ii. Ability to give precise and correct information. This builds confidence in the school.
iii. A good relationship depends on adequate Understanding of the people. The head and his
staff should pay visits to say the chief, distinguished personalities etc. in the community
and study the “dos” and "don'ts" of the society.
iv. All members of staff should support the community relations programme.
v. Information disseminated should deal with all dimensions of school’s life
vi. Encourage pupils/students to share in the community life of the people.
In building a successful programme, the staff should thoroughly know the difficulties,
aspirations and needs of the people in the community
As much as possible, the head and his staff must avoid all forms of personal pride, business
and patronage.
Public relations programmes should have both short and long-term objective
Attempts should be made to reach all classes of people in the community and reading
materials to the community should be simple, clear and concise
MEANS OF REACHING THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY

 .
 The school can make use of the following suggested means of reaching the school
community.
 1. Students and School Children: Through School Magazine:
 2. Schools and College Reports:
 3. Parent groups:
 4. Special Events;
 5. Mass Media:
 6. Use of Public Facilities:
 WORKING WITH THE EDUCATION OFFICE

Introduction: Schools do not operate in isolation, but as part of a school district with broad
educational philosophies, set goals and values emanating from the Ghana Education
Service (GES).
The head must forge co-operation with the Education offfice to achieve the success for the
school.
WORKING WITH EDUCATION OFFICE CONT’D
 The school administrator works within the framework of policies and
guidelines set out by the GES
 GES is responsible for their monitoring and implementation

 Supervisors from the District Education Office are expected to visit the
schools to oversee what goes on there
THE NEED FOR GOOD RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE SCHOOL AND
THE EDUCATION OFFICE
 The Education Office provides resources to the schools e.g. textbooks, chalk etc
 The Education Office helps with hiring or recruitment of personnel for the school

 Any major change that the school may implement needs the consent of the District
Education Office
 Supervisors from the Education Office should communicate their intentions to visit the
school to the head-teacher
 Education Office is responsible for the professional development of teachers in the school
e.g. in-service training, promotion etc
 SCHOOL-DISTRICT OFFICE CONT’D

 The school provides feedback as to whether the policies of GES are working or not
working
 Education office may draw the school calendar e.g. fix dates for sporting activities and
cultural festivals within the district.
 District Education Office conduct or supervises examination conducted by West African
Examination Council (WAEC)
COMMUNICATION BETWEEN THE SCHOOL & EDUCATION OFFICE
 Head-teacher should build occasions into the school calendar that officials in the education
office are invited e.g. speech and prize giving day etc
 The invitation should be sent to the officials in the Education Office to occasions well in
advance
 Acknowledge their presence when they attend events/occasions
 Head-teachers need to ask the district about key meetings to attend or delegate a staff to attend
on his behalf.
 Head-teacher should provide Education Office with feedback on policies and programmes
implemented in the school
 Acknowledge the role played by the Education Office when they initiate an idea or project and
it is successfully implemented – commissioning of such initiated projects
 TIPS FOR WORKING WITH THE EDUCATION OFFICE

 Request for activities calendar early enough (before a new year begins)
 Post appropriate dates in your office, on your calendar and in the staff
common room
 Establish files or folders for district-level events by dates
 Plan ahead but expect surprises
 Keep the district education informed about happenings at the school
 Invite Education Office personnel to celebrations and other functions of
the school
 Read memos or seculars from the education office carefully
 If possible have school-level personnel serving on district committees
 DECISION MAKING IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION
 According to Terry (1960), if there is one universal mark of a manager or an administrator
then it is decision-making. In order words, administrators are paid to make decisions
concerning how to use the organisation’s resources both human and materials to achieve the
organization’s set goals.
 Thus, without decisions, the fundamental functions of management could not take place.
 Peretomode (1992) supports this idea when maintains that decision-making is a central
responsibility of the educational administrator.
 In educational administration, decision have to be made about work direction, leadership
style, the planning process, the pattern of communication, mode of supervision and the
nature and content of public relation programmes.
 Again, decisions have to be made about work operation in term of sources of funds,
financial control procedure, rewards and punishment systems, professional development
programme and assignment of responsibilities.
 Finally, decision have to be made about services in connection with equipment, facilities
and record keeping.
 Campbell et al (1970) have shown that these and other decisions can be classified under six
administrative task areas, namely;
i. school-community relationship;

ii. curriculum,

iii. instruction and appraisal; pupils/students

iv. staff personnel

v. school plant

vi. then financial and business management.

Furthermore, the headmaster in performing his decision-making roles may be seen as:
 (a) an entrepreneur (b) disturbance handler (c) resources allocator

 (d) negotiator.
 WHAT IS DECISION MAKING
 The Webster’s dictionary defines decision making as “the act of determining in one’s own
mind upon an opinion or course of action”.
 Gregg on his part maintains that decision-making is the process of choosing from among
alternative ways of achieving an objective or providing a solution to a problem.
 It is important to note differentiate between decision and decision-making.

 Decision is simply what one intends to do or a choice between alternatives but decision-
making is a process of making a choice between or among various alternative considering
the costs and benefits of these alternatives.
TYPES OF DECISION

 There are two types of decision as distinguished by Simon(1960)

 These are programmed and unprogrmmed decisions.
 a)Programmed decision are those which are well structured, receptive and
generally routine in nature and there are definite rules and procedures for
handling them.
 Risks involved are not high and can therefore be more easily delegated.
 For example the decision to punish a student who leaves the school without
exeat or the decision to employ a new teacher.
 b)Un-programmed decisions, are those that are out of the ordinary or are
unique. They are new and non-repetitive with no established procedures for
handling the problem.
 Decision made entail high risk and greater expenditure of resources, e.g. a decision to construct a new classroom
block would be classified as an unprogrammed decision as such decisions are not made frequently.
CLASSIFICATION OF ADMINISTRATIVE DECISIONS

Griffiths (1958), has suggested a tripartite classification of

administrative decisions.
These are
1. Intermediate decision
2. Appellate decision
3. Creative decision
Intermediate decisions
These types of decision do not originate with the school administrator but are delegated to him
by a superior in the organizational hierarchy (e.g. the school board).
Example is the decision to dismiss a student from the school.
The headmaster on his own cannot take a decision to dismiss a student from the school. Such a
decision has to be taken by the school Board of Directors and implement by the headmaster
Appellate decision
 This types of decision is called for when subordinates refer matters to the educational
administrator for his disposition.
 Example; at the school the disciplinary committee after considering an issue does not have
the powers to decide and implement a particular type of punishment to a student who had
violated school rules.
 After its deliberations, the committee makes recommendation to the headmaster who then
takes the decision on what to do with the student
Creative decision
 Creative decisions are those concerned with significantly improving some aspects of
education such as curricular programmes and admission policies. It normally involves the
initiative of the executive concerned.
 Ideally, much of the executive’s time should be spent on creative decisions, which aim at
bring desirable changes in the organizations.
 For example, the decision to run two streams instead of one could be described as a creative
decision.
 Also the decision to build more classrooms blocks to avoid classrooms under trees.
 DECISION MAKING THEORIES

Basically there have been two main approaches to the study of organizational decision-
making, namely
1. The prescriptive approach

2. The descriptive approach

The prescriptive approach as exemplified by the Classical decision-making Model (Rational

D-M model)attempts to present how executives ought to make decisions.

The descriptive approach as exemplified by Lindblom’s theory of Muddling through: This

model presents how executives do in fact make decisions.
 THE CLASSICAL DECISION-MAKING THEORY (RATIONAL D-
M MODEL )
 The model calls for a rational, deliberate and systematic approach in the decision-making process.
 This is based on the assumption that people are economically rational and attempt to maximize
outputs in an orderly and sequential-manner.
 Each step in Rational model is considered indispensable and one must precede the specific order.

 Different writers give different number of steps in the model but basically it involves 6 steps
which are:
1. Identification and definition of the problem
2. Statement of the desired state of affairs
3. Generation of alternative course of action
4. Formulation and selection of the preference course of action
5. Implementation
6. Evaluation
 Identification and definition of the problem
 Effective decision-making demands that the administrator has a clear concept of the problem on hand, knowing specifically what the problem is.
 Statement of the desired state of affairs
 This involves establishing the criteria against which the solution to the problem would be compared. Here we are concerned with what the
decision has to accomplish; the objectives the decision seeks to satisfy. Without the executive clearly stating his objective, he might not even
know when he attains them. At this point it is evident that the solution to a problem will be in terms of the decision-maker’s perception,
knowledge and value system.
 Generation of alternative course of action
 To any given problem, there would be several possible alternative solutions. To increase the chances of obtaining the most appropriate solution, it
is important to consider several alternative solutions. This involves the collection and analysis of accurate and up-date data.
 Formation and selection of the preferred course of action
 Once alternative course of action are proposed there arises the need to select the preferred course. This involves identifying and weighting the
consequences of each course of action, and seeking a single solution as the most likely one to succeed. The decision maker products the
consequences of each course of action, and seeking a single solution as the most likely one to succeed. The decision maker/educational
administrator predicts the consequence of each course of action on the basis of what he knows of the probabilities of success.
 Implementation
 The implementation stage involves putting the preferred solution into action. It involves programming or setting up the necessary structures as
well as instituting control measures or the setting up of limits within which the structures responsible for the implementation of the decision will
operate.
 Evaluation
 There is the need to assess the effectiveness of the decision. Evaluation should not only be at the end of the process but any stage so that the
necessary corrective measures could be taken or the problem redefined. It must be noted that the process is cyclical. As one implements decision,
new problems may be identified and the process starts again.
 LINDBLOM’S THEORY OF MUDDLING THROUGH(NON- RATIONAL D –
M MODEL)
This is a descriptive and non-rational approach to decision-making.
The model sees the decision maker as an administrative man rather than a rational economic man
who make the most logical decision.
The model recognises educational administrators lack access to adequate information as well as
their ability to utilize the information at their disposal effectively and these could serve as a
limitation to the decision they make.
Due to these and other limitation, rather than making the best or ideal decisions, the educational
administrators more realistically settle for a decision that will adequately serve their purpose or
appears reasonable based on their past experience and knowledge.
In Simon’s terms, at best they only “satisfy”, that is, they look for a “satisfactory” or good
enough” rather than maximize or reach the optimal decision.
 PARTICIPATION IN SCHOOL DECISION-MAKING

 For any given situation, decision taken is the result of efforts by one person or of a group.
 Whatever approach that is used depends upon the individual circumstances. Individual
decisions may be describe in emergency issues and in circumstances where the group has
little knowledge or background in the subject area or when the decisions are fairly easy to
reach.
 Group decision or participative decision-making has become popular because it gives
members the chance to voice their opinion concerning matters that affect their work. It helps
to promote esprit de corps, boost morale and increase productivity and commitment of staff
to the decision taken as they feel part of the system.
 Again many issues in modern management are so technical that the services of experts in
these areas must be utilized in order to reach a good decision.
 In the school situation, when teachers are made to participate in decision making, it foster
friendly informal discussions and they become committed to the decisions they helped to
formulate. This encourages them to work harder to help achieve institutional goals.
when and how should staff involvement be sought in decision making process.
Owens’ (1970) has stated different modes of involving teachers in decision-making by
educational administrators.
 Discussion:

 The administrator could organize the teachers formally or informally to discuss

educational/school problems or issues. This methods is especially used to make teachers
aware of problems which require the making of decisions by the administrator
 e.g. on student feeding, management of non-teaching staff, etc. where participation is
limited to discussion, the administrator could make the decision with the hope that it will be
accepted, since teachers took part in the initial discussions.
 Information-seeking
 Although this technique involves discussion, it goes beyond that.
 Here the administrator’s aim is just to seek information from teachers so that he could make a more
rational and logical decision.
 It should be noted that Discussion and Information-Seeking as forms of teacher participation in
decision-making are very useful when the decision falls within the teacher’s ‘Zone of indifference’,
(Barnard, 1966).
 It could again be noted that the purposes of discussions and information seeking are:
 a) To help the administrator make a better decision and
 b) To enhance the likelihood that the group will accept the decision when it is made.
 Decisions on matters that directly affect teachers are those that fall outside the teachers’ zone of
indifference.
 Decisions on such issues (for example, curriculum, examination, textbooks, accommodation,
discipline, fringe benefits, etc) should by all means involve teachers if the administrator desires
peace.
 In such circumstances, the following techniques in joint decision-making could then be adopted.
Democratic-Centralist
 This procedure is very common. It consists of the administrator presenting the
problem to the staff and asking for suggestions, reactions and ideas.
 The administrator then tries to reflect the staff’s participation in his decision.

Parliamentarian
 Here the teachers actually make a decision through voting to determine which way the
decision has to go.
 This technique is useful whenever the administrator senses that a decision concerning
teachers may not be unanimous, that is, may not be taken through consensus.
 Parliamentarian procedure offers the great advantage of specifically providing for
minority opinions conflicts o ideas and values.
Participant-determining:
 The main characteristic of this procedure is that consensus is required of the group.

 The technique is useful (a) when the issues are considered very important to the teachers
and b) when it appears that consensus probably will be reached. This method at any rate, is
not frequently used since consensus is difficult to obtain.
Delegation
 The administrator could delegate his decision-making authority to his staff. The members of
staff will then be in charge of routine decision that only require the application of general
rules and regulations to deal with.
Brainstorming:
 In using the approach, the administrator puts a group of individuals/
teachers who are knowledgeable in the area where the decision is to
be made and charges them with responsibilities of solving a problem.
 The group then generates or invents as many solutions to the
problem as they can for the administrator to make the desired
decision.
 This approach is particularly useful because it is believe that the
average person could think twice as many ideas, when working in a
group, than when working alone.
 SCHOOL PLANNING AND ORGANISATION

Organization and administration compared

i. Organization is concerned with the provision of materials, human
equipment, regulations, forms, schedules and other facilities of work
while Administration is the process of integrating the efforts of personnel
and of utilizing appropriate materials to draw maximum educational
benefits from the available facilities.

ii. Organization provides resources while Administration is the management

of these resources.
3. School organization defines and determines the functions of the school
programme and activities while Administration is basically concerned with
the efficient execution of these programme and activities .

4. Good organization ensures unity of effort, efficiency, goodwill and

proper use of resources while Good administration ensures proper
planning, direction and evaluation

5. Organization is that agency by which we achieved the desired objectives

while Administration carries out educational schemes, programmes and
practices .
ELEMENTS OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATION
i. Policy making and planning
ii. Financial provisions
iii. Provision of activities
iv. Records and reports
v. Setting up and maintaining a good library and ensuring efficient library service.
vi. Regular inspection and supervision of school work.
vii. Material provisions
viii. Provision of personnel
ix. Instructional provisions
x. Provision for experimentation
CONT’…..
i. Evaluation of end-products
ii. Control, direction and co-ordination
iii. Classification of students, their attendance, their fees, fines, concessions,
scholarships, aids, etc.
iv. Organization of various guidance services.
v. Organization of exhibitions, fairs and other competitions.
vi. Organization of the hostel.
vii. Coordinating the work of school, home and society.
viii. Providing various auxiliary services like mid-day meals, school uniform,
book banks, stationery etc.
ix. Cooperating with the management and other local authorities.
x. Cooperating with departmental authorities and implementing the orders
of the concerned authorities.
ORGANIZATIONAL HEALTH/SCHOOL CLIMATE

Organizational climate has been viewed from many perspectives

and defined in a number of ways by different writers.

The definitions include the following:

Climate of a school might be viewed as the enduring characteristics
which describe a particular school, distinguish it from other schools,
and on the other hand as the ‘feel’ which teachers and students have
of that school.
 According to Litwin Stringer(n.d) organisational climate is
define as the perceived subjective effects of the formal
system, the informal style of managers, and other
important environment factors on the attitude, beliefs,
values and motivation of people who work in a particular
organization.
 Tagiuri and Litwin on their part viewed organizational climate as the
milieu, atmosphere, culture, feel, tone or the internal quality of an
organization, especially as experienced by its members and noticed
by visitors to the organization.
 Hoy and Miskel (1987) consider school climate as a set internal
characteristic that distinguish one school from another and
influences the behaviour of people in it.
 They further pointed out that the climate is an end product of the
school groups.
 There are several factors that can influences the climate of an organization such
DETERMINANTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE

as the school. These included:

i. the size and structure of the organization/school

ii. the leadership style employed by the manager or educational administrator

iii. the communication networks used to convey messages

iv. the goals or nature of the organization

v. the complexity of the entire system

vi. decision-making practices (the extent of subordinates involvement)

vii. concern for employee

CONT’….
i. Technological adequacy – are equipment and other resources
available, well managed and improved methods quickly adopted
ii. motivation
iii. the economic conditions of the organization
iv. organizational policy
v. values – particularly of managers
vi. the characteristics of members such as ages, sex etc
vii. life stage of the organization – whether young or old.
KINDS OF SCHOOL CLIMATES
 One basic classification of school climate which has gained wide
acceptance is that by Halpin and Croft.
 They identified six basic school climate ranging along a continuum from
open to close.
 They are listed as open, autonomous, controlled, familiar through paternal
to closed

 Open climate
This indicates an atmosphere where both the headmaster and teachers are
genuine in their behaviour and nothing is hidden from any worker.
The autonomous climate
It describes an atmosphere of almost complete freedom for
teachers to conduct their work and fulfil their social needs as
they wish.

The controlled climate

It refers to an atmosphere of hard work at the expense of social
life, although esprit is quite high.
 The familiar climate
 It describes an atmosphere of congenial sociality at the expense of
task accomplishment. Every teacher satisfies his personal needs at
the expense of the task, which the school has set itself to perform.

 The paternal climate

 This generally exists in school where the head is on the average
older than the teachers. Though the teachers are free to do what
satisfies them personally and are not overburdened with busy work,
they have little or no opportunity to influence decision as a group.
The closed climate
The closed climate marks a situation in which the group members
obtain little satisfaction with respect to either tasks-achievement
or social needs.

In short the headmaster is ineffective in directing the activities of

the teachers, at the same time, he is not inclined to look out for
their personal welfare.
 FACTORS OF HEALTHY SCHOOL CLIMATE
 Miles (1965) identified ten dimensions, which he believes constitute a
healthy school climate. These are:
Goal focus: In healthy school, the goal must be reasonably clear and
accepted by system members..
Communication adequacy: There must be free flow of information
and there must be enough data about problems to help deal with them
effectively.
Optimal power equalization: In a healthy organization, the
distribution of influence is relatively equitable.
Resource utilization: This means effective and efficient use of inputs,
both human and material, in the system.
Cohesiveness: This means that members feel attrcted to membership in the
organization and will want to stay with it and be influenced by it. There is
therefore collaboration
Morale: It implies a sense of well-being or satisfaction as opposed to feelings of
discomfort and dissatisfaction.
Innovations: A healthy system should posses self-reviewing properties. The
system should grow, develop and change rather than remain routinized and
standard.
Autonomy: A healthy organization would and respond passively to demands from
outside. Rather it would tend to have a kind of independence from the environment.
Adaptation: A healthy organization actively responds to its environment

Problem-solving adequacy: A healthy organization has well developed structures

and producers for sensing the existence of problems, for inventing possible solutions,
for implementing them, and for evaluating their effectiveness.
THE IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL OR SCHOOL CLIMATES
 The concept of school climate is important to educational administrators for
a number of reasons.
i. There is evidence that some climates are likely to yield better results for
specific tasks than others.
ii. Managers or administrators can also influence the climate their
organizations, or, more specifically, their own unit within the organization.
iii. The ‘fit’ between the individual and the organization appears to play a
significant role determining the individual’s performance and satisfaction
within the organization, hence the need for administrators to be concerned
about organizational climate.
iv. Improving on organization’s climate can be a useful strategy to
improve group relations with the organization.

v. There is evidence that an educational administrator will have a

difficult time exercising his educational leadership roles without a
sufficient supportive climate within which to work.

vi. There is some research support for the conjecture that climate
affects student outcomes..
 HUMAN RESOURCE ADMINISTRATION IN EDUCATION
Human resource of every organisation is considered as the skills, knowledge and
abilities of the human capital in the organisation.
Human resource administration is refers to the managing of human capital within an
organisation or an industry.
Human resource administration in education is seen as management of human capacity
of educational system. In the school situation the head teacher is consider as the human
resource administrator and handle all human resource issues in the school.
The major duties as a human resource administrator includes; recruiting, screening,
training, rewarding and appraisal of staff (Dessler, 2008).
QUALITIES OF A HR MANAGER (SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR)

The headteacher/master of a school, Principal of a college is referred to as the

school administrators and are expected to to see to the day-to-day activities of the
school or college.
A school administrator should possess the following features;
 Personal Qualities

 Open minded

 Outstanding character

 Sense of humour

 Initiative

 All round personality

 Firm, fair and flexible

 Inspirational Ethusiasm

 Maturity in judgement
OTHER FEATURES TO BE POSSESED BY THE ADMINISTRATOR
 Training

 Knowledge and experience

 Abilities: Plan, communication, handle issues, etc.

FUNCTION OF PERSONNEL / HR MANAGER

The main aim of the personnel function in an educational system are to
attract/recruit, develop, retain and motivate personnel in order to
effectively marry and achieve the school and individual personnel
objectives and aspirations.
In order to achieve these goals, it must be translated into operational
terms and implemented through the following dimension of the
personnel function;
FUNCTIONS OF THE PERSONNEL MANAGER
 Manpower planning
 Recruitment of personnel
 Selection of personnel
 Placement and induction of personnel
 Staff development
 Appraisal of personnel
 Compensation of personnel
 Collective negotiation
 ADMINISTRATORS – STAFF RELATIONS
School administrator work a variety of people including the teaching and
non-teaching staff, students, parents, etc and therefore should try to
maintain positive relationship between these groups.

One important duty of Administrators is to recognize and maintain high

staff satisfaction and morale. Satifaction and morale are attitudinal
variable reflecting positive or negative feelings about a particular situation
or person.
Morale of a person reflect the extend he/she is satisfy with a situation or person
Satisfaction is a persons feelings about themselves or a situation in which they find
themselves.

For individuals to develop high morale;

 They must be able identify the goals of the organisation

 Is based on an assessment of their skills and personal needs and must feel they
belong to the organisation.
 To have an overall evaluation of the organisation, its goals, objectives and
expectations must appear rational and sensible to them.
 HOW THE HEAD CAN BOOST MORALE AND INCREASE
SATISFACTION OF PERSONNEL
 To maintain systematic and regular feedback from staff and individual and as a group
on their perceptions of issues and how it affect them.
 To always work towards improving the satisfaction which personnel derive from their
work.
 Strive to improve the operation of the school and the overall quality of the educational
programme.
 To be sensitive to problems of interpersonal nature between and among all stakeholders
and mediate these problems when appropriate.
 To involve personnel in the decision making process

 To practice good human relations: Effective personal interactions with staff and as a
whole and with individual members should be maintain.
HOW ADMINISTRATORS CAN MAINTAIN GOOD HUMAN RELATION
 Be sensitive to the needs of others
 Attempt to explain the reasons for your action

 Try to involve others in decisions about the school

 Be open to criticisms not to be defensive

 Be willing to admit mistakes and accept new ideas

 Be honest and fair in your interactions with others

 TEACHERS MOTIVATION AND COMMITMENT
Ethologically the word motivation is derived form a latin word “movere” meaning ‘to
move’. It is concern with the question ‘what move man’? Why does we behave the
way we do?
Kelly (1974 p279), states that ‘motivation has to do with the forces that maintain and
alter the direction, quality and intensity of behaviour’.
It is also seen as the process of influencing or stimulating a person to take action that
will accomplish desired goal (Monday et al, 1980).
It is therefore mean that, motivation; drieve, stimulate, excites, create energy, direct,
etc. personnel towards the achievement of the school’s goals.
TYPES OF MOTIVATION
 Intrinsic: Internal forces that drive the individual to take and action or
behave in a certain manner. Thus desire, needs, wants, wishes which exist
within the individual.
 Extrinsic: This is motivation that stem from outside stimulation and
events. This can be controlled by incentives and reward and punishment.
 HOW TO CREATE AN ATMOSPHERE THAT WILL MOTIVATE STAFF

The three major ways by which school heads can prepare the proper atmosphere that
would motivate his staff includes;
 Provision of immediate attainable goals towards which the staff should work.

 Provision of means for the attainment of the set goals for the staff

 To welcome and act on the feedbacks from the staff.

 IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION
1. High productivity
2. Boost morale
3. Help to take responsibility and actively involve in decision making
4. Help administrators to understand subordinates
5. It encourage mgt to treat workers with respect
6. It also relates to leardership
DISCIPLINE/CODE OF ETHICS OF THE TEACHING
PROFESSION
Discipline involve self-control; a discipline individual knows and takes the right
course of action. A discipline person is guided in his behaviour by moral and social
principles; he tries to overcome his selfish emotions and desires, and does what is
right and good.
Characteristics of a discipline person includes;
 Diligence

 Integrity

 Truthfulness

 Self sacrifice

 Patriotism

 Sympathy, etc
SYMPTOMS OF INDISCIPLINE SCHOOL
 Pupils demonstration (peaceful or voilent)
 General unrest

 Mass disobedience

 Drug use

 Truancy

 Persistence lateness

 Absenteeism

 Drunkenness

 Stealing, etc.
CAUSES OF INDISCIPLINE
 Ineffective teaching
 Bad staff behaviour

 Poor examination rules

 Poor communication in the school

 Authoritarian methods of administration

 The influence of home and society

 Lack of respect

 Harsh school rules, etc

HOW TO MAINTAIN DISCIPLINE IN SCHOOLS
The following are the guidelines to help maintain discipline in schools.
 School administrator must be self-disciplined

 To always set good example to impress your staff

 Involve all staff members in decision making process

 To avoid haste judgment

 Be firm and fair in enforcing disciplinary measures

 To maintain constant communication with both staff and pupils

 Should establish clear disciplinary policies. Etc.

CODE OF PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT FOR TEACHERS
i. a teacher shall prepare relevant and adequate teaching notes for his work.
ii. A Teacher shall report for duty punctually and in good time before school begins
iii. No teacher shall bring babies or children under school going age to school
iv. Teachers shall take part in approved co-curricula activities in the school in
which they teach
v. No teacher shall drink alcohol while on duty or be found found drunk during
school hours. etc
 COMMUNICATION SKILLS AND PUBLIC RELATIONS
THE CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION
 Communication has been defined by a number of writers and here we give some of the
definitions:

 (a) Koontz and O'Donnell — "Communication is an intercourse by words, letters,

symbols or messages; and is a way that one organisation member shares meaning and
understanding with another."

 (b) Newmann and Summer — "Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas,

opinions or emotions by two or more persons."
 (c) Allen Louis A. — "Communication is a sum of all the things one person does
when he wants to create understanding in the minds of another. It involves a
systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and understanding.“

Thus, communication involves interchange of thought or information among persons

in an organisation and is a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and
understanding.
IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION
 Helps in smooth working in the school
 Helps in maintaining peaceful co existence in the school

 Helps in decision-making

 Increased managerial and administrative efficiency

 Helps in projecting the image of the school

 Helps in enhancing staff Personal Safety

 Helps to acquaint staff with their evaluation

 Helps employees to perform effectively

 Helps in recruitment process, etc

 SCHOOL PUBLIC RELATIONS AND COMMUNICATION

The public relation of a school deal with communicating issues and activities of the school
to rest of the world.

The purpose and objective of the school public relations programme is to:
 Sell the educational programme to the community
 Interpret operation of the educational programme to the community
 Encourage community interpret and participation in the school programme.
 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF PUBLIC RELATION PROGRAMME

The best PR programmes is based on an open dialogue with the public on the strengths,
weaknesses and problem of the school.

The specific objectives of such a programme been identified are;

 To develop intelligent public understanding of the school in all aspects of its
operations
 To determine how the public feels about the school
 To secure adequate financial support
 CONT.’
 To help people feel they are responsible for providing quality education in the school
 To earn confidence and goodwill of the public
 To involve citizen in the work of the school
 To bring into public notice the need for change in the school
 ORGANISATION OF PR PROGRAMME
This involve organizing human and material resources to come out with PR programmes
that will help achieve the school objectives and goals. To effectively organize PR
programmes, school administrators should consider the following steps;
 To develop up-to-date philosophy and objectives of the school PR programmes

 Identify and define the PR roles of the administrative teams.

 Plan and implement PR activities to accomplish the goal of the programme

 To focus much on PR programme when the school want to develop and sustain new
programmes.
 To evaluate the school PR programme in order to identify and ascertain the need for
improvement.
 EDUCATION OFFICE
Schools do not operate in isolation, but as part of a school district with broad educational
philosophies, set goals and values emanating from the Ghana Education Service (GES).
The head must forge co-operation with the Education offfice to achieve the success for
the school.
The school administrator works within the framework of policies and guidelines set out
by the GES
GES is responsible for their monitoring and implementation
Supervisors from the District Education Office are expected to visit the schools to oversee
what goes on there
DISTRICT EDUCATION OVERSIGHT COMMITTEE
This is a committee set up at the district level by the ghana educational service
council to see to the qualitative and quantitative education of basic schools in the
district.
Members of the committee;
 District Chief Executive

 Education director

 Inspector of schools as secretary

 Representative of Islamic council and Christian council

 Representative of ministry of health

 Distirct social welfare officer

 GNAT representative
 PTA representative

 Three representative of the district assembly

 District coordinating director

 Representative of traditional council

 FUNCTIONS OF DEOC
 To ensure that schools has the relevant facilities in place e.g. school building, libraries,
urinals etc
 To ensure that right caliber and adequate number of teacher are provided at each
school in the district
 To obtain information about the proper performance of duties of staff in the district

 To ensure teachers put up the right moral standard

 To deal with staff and students complains in the district

 To ensure conducive environment for both teachers and students.

 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE (SMC)
The committee is made up of prominent personalities in the community. These are;
 District director of education or his/her representative

 Headteacher of the school

 One member of the district assembly

 One member of PTA

 One member appointed by the chief in the town

 One member of the education unit ie Catholic, Islamic, Presby, etc

 Two members appointed by the teaching staff one from Primary and one from JHS

 One member of old pupils association

 FUNCTIONS OF SMC
 To control the general policy of the school
 Not to encroach upon the authority and responsibility of the headteacher

 To submit to the Director General of GES through the District Director such
information, returns and accounts as the Director General requires from time to time.
 To ensure the school premises is conducive for both teachers and students to enhance
quality academic work
 PARENT TEACHER ASSOCIATION (PTA)
This is an association of all parents and guardians of the children in the school as well as
the teachers. It is therefore important to have PTA in every school for the following
reasons;
 To encourage cooperation between parents and teachers so that both parties can best
promote the interest of the school.
 To promote the welfare of the pupils, teachers and the community

 To provide opportunity for teachers to explain to parents what they doing in the school

 To help teachers maintain discipline in the school

 To make parents feel the school belong to them and contribute to the training of their
wards.
 CONT’.
 Some parents serves as resource persons to teach some subjects
 To support the school financially

 Contacting the chief to release land for the school projects

 PTA also serves as a form of reaching the community

 NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS (NGOS)
These are organizations that support schools and communities by rendering voluntary
services and can also mobilize some community resources such as labour to supplement
the assistance being given.
Examples of NGOs are;
Plan International
Care international
World vision International
Catholic Relief Services (CRS), etc.
Some of the supports provided by NGOs to schools includes;
 Provision of library books and TLMs

 Provision of school building

 Providing toilet, urinals, boreholes etc for schools

 Offer in-service training for teachers

 Providing health assistance to both students and teachers

 To ensure community participation in school activities, etc

THANK YOU!