COMPREHENSIVE REPORT

in
THEORIES IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND LEADERSHIP

I. EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION: AN OVERVIEW

1. Educational Administration is regarded as the process of integrating the
appropriate human and material resources that are made available and made
effective for achieving the purposes of a programmed of an educational
institution.
The term “Administration” doesn’t refer to any single process or act. It is like
a broad umbrella encompassing a number of processes such as: planning,
organizing, directing, coordinating, controlling, and evaluating the
performance. The same situation occurs in the field of educational
administration. The concept of educational administration is applicable in
case of an educational organization which has certain powers or goals to
fulfill.
In order to achieve these purposes or goals, the head of the educational
organization plans carefully various programs and activities. Here the
educational organization may be a school, college, or university. The head of
the school or college or university organizes these programs and activities
with cooperation from other teachers, parents, and students. He/She motivates
them and coordinates the efforts if teachers as well as directs and exercises
control over them. He/She evaluates their performance and progress in
achieving the purposes of the program.
He provides feedback to them and brings modification, if required in the
plans and programs of the school or college or university. So the totality of
these processes which are directed towards realizing or achieving the
purposes or goals of the school or college or university is called educational
administration.
The Educational Administration has the following nature:
a. Educational administration doesn’t refer to any processes or aspects
constitute administration. These are planning, organizing, directing,
coordinating, and evaluation.
b. Educational administration is a non-profit making task.
c. Educational administration is primarily a social enterprise as it is more
concerned with human resources than with material resources.
d. Educational administration is more an art than a science. The relationship
is that human relationship prevailed here can’t be maintained by any set of
formula.
e. Educational administration is similar to general administration in many
ways, but it is also dissimilar to general administration in many more
ways.
f. Educational administration is a complex affair.

As we know the very fact that educational administration needs integration

and coordination of all the physical and human resources and educational
elements. Besides this, it requires a great efficiency with it based on human
sympathy, understanding, knowledge, and skill. The physical resources
mainly contribute building equipment’s and instructional materials.
The human resources include pupils, teachers, supervisors, administrators,
and parents. The additional elements comprise the various aspects of
educational theory and practice during including philosophy of education,
curriculum, method of teaching, discipline, role of the teacher, rules and
regulation, etc.
These elements are “parts, made into whole” and are components brought
into harmonious relationship. So the purpose of doing such vital task is to
fulfill different purposes which are known as the objectives of educational
administration.
The nature and scope and functions of educational administration began with
a consideration of Education Act of 1982 which in its entirety pose and
challenge to school administrators to define their major functions, functional
areas, tasks and areas of responsibility.
 The functional areas of administration are policy, resources, and execution.
The eight tasks school administration are (1) curriculum and instruction, (2)
negotiations, (3) physical facilities, (4) finance and business, (5) pupil
personnel, (6) evaluation, (7) supervision, and (8) recruitment, selection
administrator under five categories.
The task of the school administrator under five categories are instructional
program, staff personnel, student personnel, financial and physical resources,
and school-community relationships which involved in four areas of
responsibility, namely, purposing, maintaining, allocating, and evaluating.

2. The philosophy of education contains two distinct kinds of beliefs, namely:

(1) empirical beliefs, and (2) philosophical beliefs. These can be categorized
as metaphysical, epistemological, logical, or normative. The rationale of
philosophic theorizing is for the school administrator to reflect the conflicting
philosophical assumption in his behavior.
The philosophical term metaphysics examines the nature of reality, ethics
examines values and their relation to human actions, aesthetics is concerned
with the nature of beauty and epistemology examines the nature of
knowledge. Thus, five important philosophies have been examined.

3. Four phases in the development of administrative science have been

identified, namely: Classical Organizational Thought (1900-1930) which has
scientific management, the key to this approach is the concept of man-as-
machine, and Administrative Management which could also be called as
traditional or classical organizational truth. This theory includes the broad
problems of department division of work and coordination. The difference
between scientific management and administrative management is, Taylor’s
human engineers worked from the individual workers upward while the
managers worked from the managing director downward.
Human Relation Approach (1930-1950). The contribution of Mary Parker
Follet are widely organized. She believed that problem in all organization
was the development and maintenance of dynamic and harmonious
relationship. She also voiced that two conflict was not necessarily a wasteful
 outbreak of incompatibilities but a normal process by which socially valuable
differences register themselves for the enrichment of all concerned.
Behavioral Approach (1950), this perspective – to full the first two approach
and proposition drown from sociology, economics, political science and
psychology. The behavioral approach differs from other behavioral science
only in one respect: it is subject matter, which is worked behavior in formal
organizations.
Quantitative System Approach to administration represents the fourth trend in
management. To gain insight and recommendation for action concerning a
wide range of decision problems, operational research techniques utilized
quantitatively based analytical methods. Such approaches are utilized to gain
insight and recommendations for action and solving problems in school
administration. Quantitative tools and techniques were utilized.
Developments in education here and abroad are generally parallel those in the
broad field of administration. Early students of educational administration
analyzed organizational behavior from the vantage point of job analysis;
students lacked the rigor of the human engineers.
The KATZ framework for thinking without administrative performance were
identified and conceptual skills, technical skills, and human skills, while the
types of administrative behavioral focused on leadership, decision making
and communication.

4. A theory is a concept, assumptions, and generalizations. The major function

of theory is to describe, explain, predict behavior, stimulates, and guides the
further development of knowledge. The different theories, research, and
practice are interrelated elements of educational administration.
Administration is seen as the art and science of applying knowledge to
administration and organization problems. The relationship between theory
and practice was discussed along with a consideration of some problems of
theory in educational administration and a final note about certain bodies of
administrative and behavioral science theory comparing the conceptual
foundation of educational administration.
II. FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
1. Leadership is an activity and a process of influencing people to band together
for a common purpose and endeavor by the inspiration and guidance of a
leader determined to achieve that purpose are being advance to attain the
common good. Traits/characteristics theories and empirical approaches to the
study of leadership have been supported by mounds of data, graphic models,
and regression statistics. While there has been criticism of these mainstream
approaches, there has been little in the way of meta-physical support develop
for either side of the argument. Good leadership should create a wholesome
unity of the organizational and personnel interests.
Leader is a very important aspect of management. Leaders must exercise all
the functions of their role to combine human and material resources to
achieve, personal-environment, exchange, humanistic, exceptional,
contingency, and path-goal theory. Each of these theories is concerned with
the small subset of the total leadership problem.
Furthermore, a leader can be effective in one situation and ineffective in
another. Thus, he needs to adopt leadership style based on the use of
authority. The use of these styles of leadership will depend on situations.
There are three types of power leaders use to direct followers to follow. These
are coercive power, utility power, and principle-centered power. Each of this
style of leadership has different motivational and psychological roots.
2. The decision-making process is conceptualized as being cyclical on nature
with distinct phases: recognition and definition of the problems, analysis of
difficulties, establishment of criteria, development of an action plan, and
initiation of a plan.
3. Communication is a dynamic aspect because it is the method of concrete
action that continually affects the various dimensions of social organization.
It is the behavior that conveys the desired meaning of a message between two
or more people or groups. The initiation of structure, the development of
decision became a reality through this component of administrative behavior.
4. Whenever a problem or opportunity arises that requires the involvement of
other people, the leader must make a choice. The essential leadership choice
is to decide on a power base – coercion, utility, or principles. The choice will
 be limited by character and by the interactive skills or the capacity to remain
true to deeply held values under pressure or a history of integrity and trust in
others, it is almost impossible not to resort to force when the leader is in the
middle of a crisis.
For the leader who wishes to increase principle-centered power, as long-term
commitment is require. Trust in relationships, which is the foundation of
principle-centered power, cannot be fabricated and hoc. Sincerity cannot be
faked for long. Eventually leaders reveal themselves, and what a leader is,
beyond what the leader can do to followers, ultimately determines the depth
of principle-centered power has.
5. To be an effective leader, one must have an unclouded vision about the goals
and objectives ahead. It is important to set priorities and keep them clear
while leading. The leader must have an ability to see all ramifications of
his/her actions or inactions. The leader’s effectiveness will be in direct
proportion on the amount of focus applied to the most important goals and
objectives.
6. Leader is a very important aspect of management. Leaders must exercise all
the functions of their role to combine human and material resources to
achieve, personal-environment, exchange, humanistic, exceptional,
contingency, and path-goal theory. Each of these theories is concerned with
the small subset of the total leadership problem.
According to behavior researchers who explored leadership functions, in
order to operate effectively, groups need a person or someone to perform the
so-called talk-related or problem-solving function and group maintenance or
social functions. It is also believed that a person or a leader who is able to
perform both roles successfully is an effective leader.
Effective leader relies on communication to keep all parties concerned
working in a department. Likert believes that a leader should adopt a
supportive attitude in which they share in one another common needs, values,
aspirations, expectations, and goals. Likert recommended four systems of
management over which he inferred that this approach is the most effective
way to lead a group. The three approaches to leadership, namely: contingency
approach, trait approach for effective and behavioral approach to leadership
are important approaches to study the leadership qualities of leaders and their
followers.
Since the art of leadership is the art of influencing people so that they
contribute spontaneously with enthusiasm towards the attainment of desired
group goals, it is necessary to understand that leadership ultimately requires
followership sustained with goodwill. In search for effective leaders, the
following leadership qualities were identified:
(1) trust in subordinates in the foundation of delegating authority. A leader
gets things done through people.
(2) leaders must provide a vision for the enterprise and inspires others to
conform themselves to this vision,
(3) leaders must take command in times of crisis. Even those who subscribe
to participate management realize that, at critical times, they have to take
charge, (4) taking risks is part of business – not careless risks, but calculated
ones, probably those who have never failed may not have managed well.
(5) Leaders should be very competent in their fields and command the respect
of the employees,
(6) a top executive surrounded by “yes-sayers” will get an incorrect view of
what is really going on within and without the organization. Thus, executives
should invite dissenting views.
III. THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL SYSTEM
1. Social system is a model of a school organization that processes a distinctive
(creativity) beyond its component parts. It is distinguished from its
environment by a clearly defined boundary. It is composed of subunits,
elements and subsystem that are at least interrelated within relatively stable
patters of social order.
2. Elements of Social System includes:
2.1 Institutional Elements
 The institutional dimensions or element-institutional role expectation –
is the formal school organization on the bureaucratic structure. Thus
the school building or the entire school or the district school and its
formal characteristics exemplify the institutional dimensions.
2.2 Individual Element
 That social system is pole is the next assumption in the model.
Individual occupy roles or positions in the school, and because owing
to individual difference no two administrators, teachers, or students
have the same personality, these individuals behave differently in
similar situations. Getzels and Guba breakdown the individual
elements into personality and need. They define personality as the
dynamic organization within the individual containing need
dispositions that governs idiosyncratic reactions to the environment.
Hoy and Miskel propose that work motivation constitute the most
relevant set of needs for employees in formal organizations.
2.3 Informal Group Element
  When individual is brought together in an organization such as a
school, informal groups from. The group balances bureaucratic
expectations and individual needs. As these informal group forms,
climate and intentions develop also affect individual behavior.
3. Conceptualization of the Educational System
III.1. The Guerrero Model shows that educational system (in this case the
educational system of the Philippines during the period of the New
Society) is composed of four subsystems as follows: pre-elementary,
elementary. Secondary, Higher Education.
The supersystem is the largest system closes both system and
subsystem. The output is the product of the system. The feedback
refers to the information or communication which the educational gats
from the supersystem or environment. The feedback serves as the input
to the system and is analyzed and used in making decisions regarding
any desired change and directions in the system.
III.2. The Anglin-Goldman-Anglin Model shows inputs that represent the
base or starting point for the educational system and include the
beginning knowledge and skills brought to the system by both teachers
and students. Process includes the various methodologies applied in the
active learning situation to achieve the stated goals. Outcomes falls into
three broad categories namely the cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor skills. Feedback continuously monitors the educational
system. Teachers and administrators receive feedback through test
scores, student evaluations, and observations regarding the
effectiveness of student performance.
III.3. The Tuckman Model has certain advantages which includes:
 in viewing it as a system, we realize that the educational system is
more or less and assemble of components that are planned and
organized by man into a unified whole for the purpose of attaining a
specific objective that provides educational services
 The aforementioned purpose is realized through a harmonious blending
of different inputs and through the educational process, the desired
output – the educated and enlightened citizenry – is produced.
  Various aspects of the educational system, namely, purpose, inputs,
resources and constraints, actually emanate from the society or the
suprasystem. In effect, therefore, for the educational system to
maintain its ability and equilibrium, it must produce an output which
will be acceptable and prepared in consonance with the demands of the
suprasystem.
 Within this framework, we are compelled to assess the performance of
the quality control (evaluation) measures for the purpose of effecting
and making adjustments in the education system.
 The system view in education provides a framework for understanding
the need for change in Philippine education as well as the rationale
behind the innovations, reforms, and thrusts which have been
introduced in our schools in the Philippines.
 Through a system view educator, and administrators are provided with
a systematic and methodological way of thinking, identifying, and
solving complex problems as they come, since the application of
system theory in education enables them to relate interdependent
components of educational system for the accomplishment of
objectives.
 View in the light of system concepts, the educational system may be
likened to a living organism the components of which are continuous
interaction and integration with one another for the achievement of the
systems objectives. Such interdependence among components parts in
the educational system explains why changes in the one part of the
system affect the other parts of the whole system.
 Using system concepts as framework, the educational system may also
be viewed within the context of the bigger system, namely, the society
in which it operates. The educational system is one of our system in
one of several “peer system” or social which interact with one another
within society.
A social system is a model of a school organization possessing a distinctive total
unity and consists of interacting elements that are integrated to accomplish a certain
goal. Several conceptualizations of the educational systems were also given,
including those developed by Guerrero, Anglin, et al., and Tuckman. Finally, the
transaction-cultural model of the school as a social system was presented. This
model is an adaptation from the Getzels-Guba basic model as well as from the
Getzels-Thelen model. The transactional-cultural model postulates that social
behavior in the school system is influenced by four dimensions-institutional,
individual, the group, and cultural values.

IV. OPERATIONAL MODELS OF THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL SYSTEM

1. The Getzels – Thelen Model
 A few years later, Getzels-Thelen reformulated the basic Getzels-Guba
Model by adding three more dimensions to the original two. The three
additional dimensions being the biological, cultural, ang group factors

2. The Lipham-Hoeh Model

 Extracted three dimensions – nomothetic, idiographic, and ethos
(cultural values)

3. The Hoy-Miskel Model

 Extracted three dimensions – nomothetic (institution), idiographic
(individual), and group

4. The Transactional-Cultural Model

 Adaptation from the Getzels-Guba basic model as well as Getzels-
Thelen model. This model postulates that social behavior in the school
as a social system in influenced by four dimensions – institutional,
individual, the group, and the cultural values.
V. THEORIES IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
1. The Theory X and The Theory Y
 Each of these theories propounded by Douglas McGregor is based on a
set of assumptions about people in the working environment. The
Theory X asserts that the average human being is inherently lazy,
dislikes work of any kind and will avoid it whenever possible. He has
no ambition and prefers to be led rather than lead and take
responsibility. He is self-centered and indifferent to the needs of the
organization. Moreover, he is gullible and not particularly bright or
discriminating. Worst, he is resistant to change.
Because of these characteristics, the theory implies that people must be
directed, ordered, or coerced, and constantly supervised by managers
so that organizational goals may be achieved.
Theory Y, on the other hand, asserts that the average human being is
not indolent, nor he is without the urge to assume responsibility. He
can be self-motivated and find self-satisfaction in work if the right kind
of environment is provided by managers. If he is resistant to change or
indifferent to all organizational needs, it is because of his experience in
organizations.
Neither theory is right or wrong. Each theory can be useful if it
“approximates reality’. The better theory, perhaps, is that which
employs both approaches at one time and another depending on the
variables obtaining at the time.
2. Getzels and Guba Theory
 Personalizing as a force acting on role expectations, and socialization
appears as force acting on need disposition, each tending to push to
normative and personal axes towards congruence. The term
socialization of personality and personalization of roles are bases for
the emergence of three styles of leadership: the nomothetic style,
idiographic style, and transactional style.
The nomothetic orientation emphasizes the requirements of the
institutions, the roles and the expectations rather than the requirements
of the individual, the personality and the need disposition. The
idiographic style is the ideographic dimension of behavior and stress
the requirement of the individual, the personality, and the need
disposition rather than the requirements of the institution, the role and
the expectation. In other words, the socialization of personality is
emphasized in the nomothetic style or uniform adherence to a given
role; and the personalization of roles is emphasized in the idiographic
style or in discrete expression of individual personality. The
transactional style integrates both nomothetic and the idiographic
dimension. It analyzes situation continuously in relation to individual
and organization needs and purposes.

3. Hierarchy of Needs Theory

 The process of motivation is further explained by a number of
motivational theories from Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of
motivational theories from Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs to
Douglas McGregore’s Theory X and Y.
Motivational is the inertly drive to become successful and reach a
specific goal. Whether it is a needs to satisfy a basic necessity or the
ego wanting to prove something, motivation can come from the inside
of a person or may be a stimulus from the outside environment.
In a business organization, such motivation is built within the structure,
process, and system that put rewards and incentives according to goals
 and performance. As the employee confronts office tension with the
ability to do the job and recognize opportunities for self-growth, the
goals of the company are fulfilled, and the concerned employees are
rewarded withy incentives. This is a self-repeating process that
nurtures a win-win situation for both the organization and the
employee.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs assumes that individuals should satisfy
first the physiological needs, set at the bottom of the hierarchy, before
proceeding to the next level. Satisfied needs do not motivate but
unsatisfied one’s cause stress and conflicts. The corresponding
percentages in the pyramid refer to the degree of satisfaction of each
level of needs.
Kenrick, Griskevicious, Neuberg, and Schaller (2010) updated
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and reflected the more important facts
about human nature. The theorists believed that self-actualization is no
longer important and is replaced by three motives which they believed
were neglected by Maslow. The additional motives were based on the
findings in the field of neuroscience, developmental psychology, and
evolutionary psychology. The three motives replacing self-
actualization are the following: mate acquisition, mate retention, and
parenting on top of the hierarchy.
In the new pyramid, the reproduction of genes is considered as one of
nature’s most biologically fundamental desires and aspiration.
Subconsciously, it is in human nature that there is a need to raise
children.

4. The Two-Factor Theory

 In research conducted by Frederick Herzberg and his associates on 200
engineers and accountants, they identified two groups of factors which
they thought would explain motivation. One of these groups contained
environmental factors such as salary, supervision, status, job, security,
working conditions, company policy, and administration and
interpersonal relations. They termed these factors “hygiene” because
 just as good hygiene does away with factors that may be detrimental to
one’s health, what they call hygiene factors in the job situation remove
possible cause of dissatisfaction although they do not really motivate
people to produce over the long haul. Although the presence of these
factors will not motivate people, they must however, be present or
dissatisfaction will rise.
In other group of factors, Herzberg and his associates uncovered what
they considered to be real motivators or “satisfiers”. These factors – all
related to job content, including the work itself, recognition,
advancement, the possibility of growth, responsibility, and
achievement. It also pointed out that true motivation occurs only when
both the motivators and the hygiene factors are present.
Or late, the two-factor theory has come under attack. Other researchers
have uncovered different results. In one study among blue collar
workers, the hygiene factors such as salary and job security were
considered as motivators. In another study, researchers found that
Herzberg’s hygiene factors were useful in motivating employees as
were their motivators. These findings indicate that more research is
needed before definitive conclusions about the two-factor theory can be
withdrawn.

5. The Expectancy Theory

 Vroom claimed that the strength of his preference for an outcome
(valence) and the probability that a particular course of action will
achieve a desired outcome (expectancy). The expectancy theory can be
expressed in the following equation: Motivation = Valence x
Expectancy
As can be seen in the formula, no motivation will result if the valence
or expectancy were zero or negative. Employing this formula and
assigning values from – to 1.0 for both valence and expectancy,
consider the case of Mr. X. If he calculates his valence to be 0.9 and
his expectancy is 0.8, his motivation index would be 0.72
 Vroom defines motivation as a process governing choice among the
alternative forms of voluntary activity. The theory’s major terms are:
a. First level outcomes. This is the result of doing the job.
b. Second level outcomes. This is a reward produced by the first level
outcome.
c. Instrumentality. It is the perception of the individual that the first
level outcome will be produce a second level outcome.
d. Valence. This is the preference for the outcome of the individual.
e. Expectancy. This is the perception of the individual that a particular
behavior will be followed by a particular outcome.
Money can be a strong motivator. If an employee wants more money
(valence), he believes that if he exerts much effort, he will be
successful in giving a good performance (expectancy). He believes that
more money (pay increase) will follow every good performance
(instrumentality).

6. The Reformulated Theory

 Developed by Hoy and Miskel, The Reformulated Theory has three
factors instead of two – motivators, hygienes and ambients. Ambients
contain the components that are mentioned with equal frequency as
satisfiers and dissatisfiers. Motivators as a group contribute more to job
satisfaction than to job dissatisfaction. However, a lack of adequate
motivators can contribute to dissatisfaction. Similarly, hygienes
contribute more to job dissatisfaction than to satisfaction, but an
abundance of hygiene factors can ambient factor has five components –
salary, growth possibility, risk opportunity, relationship-superordinates,
and status. Salary is a motivator for an individual when he sees a direct
relationship between pay and job performance. But when an individual
does not perceive this direct relationship, salary acts to lower
satisfaction to the extent that the individual perceives his salary as
reducing or preventing the gratification of his active needs. Therefore,
salary can be either a satisfier or dissatisfier and hence it is classified as
an ambient.
7. Role Theory
 Role Theory according to Clarence Newell suggests that individuals
occupy a variety of roles on a daily basis. These roles may be
inherently incompatible, given that they comprise various time and
behavioral expectations. The clash between obligations results in what
others have called “interrole conflict.”

8. Values Theory
 Lipham and Hoeh proposed that values are structured hierarchically in
terms of endurability or conversely, in terms of their propensity to
change. Within this view, a model for ordering and understanding
value orientations has been constructed.

9. Communication Theory
 According to Hoy and Miskel, communication is a process whereby
messages are transmitted from sources using symbols and messages, so
that the recipients understand the messages in the same way and
influence their behavior. Educational organizations, like other
organizations, depend on effective communication, which is one of
their vital traits, to ensure their purposes and goals are achieved.

10. Climate Theory

 Taguiri has defined organizational climate as a relatively enduring
quality of an organization’s internal environment that (a) is
experienced by its members, (b) influences their behavior, and (c) can
be described in terms of the values of a particular set of characteristics
(or attributes) of the organization. According to Litwin, organizational
climate can be created by experimental manipulations of organizational
conditions. The climate created is an organization attribute and
members of the organization perceive the climate created.