CHAPTER 2: SUBSTRUCTURE

Part 1

2.1 Building foundation: types and functions

2.1.1 Shallow Foundation

- strip footings , pad footing, raft foundation.

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 Wind load

Wind load

Dead load

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 What is Substructure?
 FOUNDATION is a part of SUBSTRUCTURE components

 foundation is the lowest portion of the building structure. Extends

from the bearing surface to the main structure.)

 Usually located below the ground level.

 A foundation is a part of the structure which is in direct contact

with the ground to which the loads are transmitted.

 Foundations can be located at; below ground, at ground level, or

above ground level.

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 Shallow Foundation
Deep Foundation
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 Main functions of the foundations
 To supports the weight of structure
and distribute the load of the
structure over a greater area.
 To transmit the load uniformly
under the structure.
 Anchors the structure to the earth,
providing a firm, level and strong
base over which the superstructure
may be constructed.

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 Main functions of the foundations
 To avoid any settlement or other
movement that can cause damage to
any part of the building (a stable
foundation should bear the loads
without sinking or settling more than
an inch at the most).
 To increase the stability of the
structure by preventing its tilting or
overturning against winds,
earthquakes and uneven distribution
of live load (Lateral Stability).

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 Selection Criteria
 Loading of the building, big
load need big foundation such
as raft foundation or piling.
 Types of soil such as peat soil
prefer piling or deep
foundation
 Most economical but capable
to support numbers of building
or storey (pad footing or
pilling?)

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 Selection Criteria
 The loads that must be transferred from the structure to the soil strata supporting
it. This also should evaluate the ability of the soil to support the ultimate loads.
 The capability of the structure that will safely transfer the loads from the
superstructure to the foundation bed.
 The possibility and extent of settlement of the soil due to the presence of mines
and quarries in the vicinity.
 The possibility of the underground water has sulfates or other salts that can
degrade the foundation materials.

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 Factors That Need To Be Considered in the Foundation
Design
 Soil Investigation (S.I) is needed to determine the subsoil
includes the soil type, strength, soil structure, moisture
conditions and the presence of roots.
 Purpose of S.I-determine the bearing capacity, seasonal volume
changes and other possible ground movements.
 Common methods obtaining soil samples;
 trial pits,
 boreholes,
 window sampling and
 dynamic probe test.

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 Factors That Need To Be Considered in the Foundation
Design
For more safety precaution use factor of safety
FOS = 3
Increase number of bore hole or sufficient number
of borehole so that the result of the report is more
accurate.
Choose the critical point load for borehole
Every end of the building
Supervise the S.I properly make sure no mistake

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 Factors That Need To Be Considered in the Foundation
Design
For the safety of the foundation design use the lowest
of bearing capacity value.
The engineer must have good enough data for the S.I
such as previous soil report, cutting or filling area.
Engineer also must make sure the original ground level
and purposed level or formation level while designing
the foundation.

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 Factors That Need To Be Considered in the Foundation
Design
The correct parameter is important to
prevent from foundation failure that
may occur causing building collapse. It
will cause a big loss of material and
even peoples life.

Highland Towers-
Malaysia

Overturning
Shanghai-China residential building
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 Soil Quality Is The Key
 Building rely on soil beneath to stay put. If the soil under the house moves
up, down, or sideway, the house is in trouble.
 The soil profile may be varies as we move across from side to side, and
when we dig deeper downward.
 Strong soil- weak soil type range from;

STRONG Bedrock-gravel-course sand-fine sand-clay-silt-organic material. WEAK

The following are the different types of soils on which foundations are
constructed:
 Soft soils - This soil is compressible and yields when loaded. Examples are
clayey soil and loam. Small buildings or ordinary structures can be built on
these types of soils.
 Spreading soils - These are non-cohesive soils. Examples of this type of
soil are sand and gravel.
 Hard or rocky soils - These are incompressible and strong soils. They can
withstand heavy loads without yielding. Multistoried buildings and water
15 reservoirs are designed on such soils.
 Types of Foundation
• Strip/Spread Footings
Shallo • Pad Footing/Foundation
• Raft/Mat Foundation
w
• End Bearing Pile
• Friction pile (spun pile,
Deep bored pile, bakau pile and
micro pile)
• combine

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 SHALLOW
FOUNDATIONS
RAFT FOUNDATIONS

STRIP FOUNDATIONS PAD FOUNDATIONS

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 Strip Foundation
 Most suitable, economical type of foundation
for small building on compact soil.
 Strip foundation should be build/construct on
soil with high bearing capacity.
 This type of foundation is also known as wall
foundation or continues spread footing
foundation.
 Consist of continuous strip of steel-
reinforced concrete, from centrally under
load bearing walls.
 The continuous strip serves as a level base on
which the wall is build and the width is
design to capable to support the load without
undue compaction.

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 Strip Foundation
The greater the bearing capacity of the subsoil, the less the width of
the foundation.
Width of strip foundations depends on the bearing capacity of the
subsoil and the load on the foundations.
Refer table 3.2 for minimum width of strip foundations.
Types of strip foundations;
stepping strip,
wide strip and
narrow strip (trench fill or deep strip).

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 Characteristic of Spread/Strip Footings
Low Cost
Ease of construction
For small-medium size structures with moderate-good
soil.
For large structures with exceptionally good soil or
shallow bedrock.
Spread/strip footing may be built in different shapes and
sizes to accommodate individual needs.

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 Types of spread footings based on size and
shape
Types of Spread
No Footings Applicable

1 Square for a single centrally-located column

2 Rectangular when large moment load are present

3 Circular for light standards, flagpoles etc

4 Continuous for bearing walls

(wall/strip footings)

5 Combined when columns are close together

6 Ring for walls of above-ground circular storage tanks

Strap (cantilever when very close to a property line/other

7 footing) structure

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 In both
situations shown
the thickness (T)
of the foundation
should be equal
to P or 150mm,
whichever is
greater T T
T=P or 150mm
(whichever
greater) Foundation width Foundation width should be
should not be less than not less than the
the appropriate appropriate dimensions in
dimension in Table 3.2 Table 3.2 plus offset
dimensions A1 and A2
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 If P is greater than T, then the
foundation may shear at 45°
reducing the width of the
foundation and bearing area.
The foundation fails
where tension is P
exerted on the concrete

Shear failure angle

45°
Following the shear failure, the
load is concentrated on a smaller
area, the ground may consolidate
under the increased load

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  When strip foundation used in
sloping sites-stepped the
foundation.
 The full thickness of the upper
foundation should overlap
twice twice the height of the
step (O=2xT), or 300 mm
whichever is greater.
 The brickwork and blockwork
on the top of the foundation
should tie in at the step to
avoid the needs of cutting
bricks/blocks and to avoid the
possibility of reducing the
STEPPING STRIP stability of the wall.
FOUNDATIONS

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 WIDE STRIP FOUNDATIONS

Figure 8: Wide Strip

Foundation

 Wide strip foundations distribute loads over a larger area and

reducing the load per unit area on the ground.
 Wider strip foundation is most suitable for subsoil with poor bearing
capacity such as soft sandy clays.
 Widening and deepening the concrete foundation (to ensure the
foundation does not shear) – uneconomical. Alternatively-form a
strip of steel-reinforce concrete for safe-economical wide strip
26 foundation (figure 8).
 NARROW STRIP FOUNDATIONS
 Also known as trench fill/deep strip foundation.
 Suitable for good bearing soil with no seasonal
volume change soil/clay; e.g: stiff clay.
 The base of narrow/deep strip will extend up to a
depth where the clay soil is unaffected by seasonal
changes in moisture content.
 50-mm thick compressible sheet material may
needed to prevent lateral pressure to the sides of
the foundation (saturated and dries out condition
cause expansion and contraction of soil at the
external face of the foundation)

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 Rectangular Spread Footings
 It have plan dimension of B x L, where L is the longest dimension.
 These are useful when obstructions prevent construction of a square footing
with a sufficiently large base area and when large moment loads are
present.

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 Circular Spread Footings
 This foundation are round in
plan view.
 These are more frequently
used as foundation for light
standard, flagpoles, and
power transmission line.
 If these foundation extend to a
large depth, they may be have
more like a deep foundation.

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 Continuous Spread Footings
This type of foundation is also known as wall foundation
or strip foundation.
It uses is to support bearing wall.

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 Ring Spread Footings
 This footing are continuous footing
that been wrapped into a circle.
 This type of footing is commonly
used to support the walls of above-
ground circular storage tanks.

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 Forces pushing down
must equal the forces
pushing up -
EQUILIBRIUM

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 Heave

If the forces pushing up is greater

than the forces pushing down the
building will be pushed upwards –
HEAVE

If forces pushing down is greater

than the forces pushing up the
building will sink – SUBSIDENCE

Subside

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 Problems if the rules are not The load spreads at about
followed 400 through the foundation
(P>T)

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 Loads Acting on the Foundation
 The foundation has to bear more than just the
load of the superstructure.

 A load can be defined as anything, which exerts

pressure or thrust on a structure.

 The following are the different types of loads

that act on the building foundation:

 Live Load (Q ) - A live load or imposed load

k
is a movable, temporary or transferable load.
This can include moving vehicles, people
walking or children jumping.
 Dead Load (G )- This load is permanent and
k
immovable. It is the non- transferable load of
the structure itself.
 Wind Load (W ) - This load is applicable
k
when the structure is tall.
 Snow Load - This load is considered when
the structure is situated in snowy, hilly areas.
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 Rock or soil Typical bearing value
(kN/m2)
Massive igneous 10,000
bedrock 2,000 to 4,000
Sandstone 600 to 2,000
Shales and mudstone 600
Gravel, sand and gravel,
compact
Medium dense sand 100 to 300
Loose fine sand Less than 100
Hard clay 300 to 600
Medium clay 100 to 300
Soft Clay Less than 75

36 Typical allowable bearing values

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 PAD FOUNDATION/FOOTING
 Similar to continuous footings
accept for they are usually lain
under a single pier/column.
 Pad foundation spread the load
out (in a square) with the
column/pier sitting in the middle
of the square.
 Can also be designed for loads
of the walls and the buildings
are transferred through ground
beams that rest on the pad
foundations.
 The pad foundations will
transfer the loads to a lower
level where soil of sufficient
load bearing strata exist.
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 Construction sequence of pad foundation

Marked out and excavate
ground to correct level.
Excavation level should up
to good load bearing
strata.
The clean and leveled Formwork for the footing
ground then poured with installed at the correct
50mm thickness lean position
concrete.

After pad footing detailing

inspected and approved than
concrete can be poured and
leave the foundation to dry
(curing process)
Install reinforcement according
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 PAD FOUNDATION/FOOTING
The advantage of this system
of foundation is that pockets of
tipped stone or brick and
concrete rubble that would
obstruct bored pile may be
removed as the pits are
excavated.
The nature of subsoil also may
be examined as the pits are dug
to select a level of sound
subsoil.
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 Square Footings

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 Combined Footing Foundation
These are usefull when
columns are located too close
together for each to have its
own footing.
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 In this type, the two walls or
columns of a superstructure are
provided with a single
combined footing.
 This is designed so that the
center of gravity of the
supporting area is in proportion
to the center of gravity of the
tow column loads.
 These can be rectangular or
trapezoidal in shape.
 RAFT FOUNDATION
 Depending on its position raft
foundation also known as Mat
foundation in floating position.
 Sometimes also called as
Floating Foundation.
 Used where heavily
constructed loads are to be
distributed over a large surface
area.
 It is used where the soil is
marshy, clayey or soft, with
weak bearing capacity.

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 RAFT FOUNDATION

This consists of
reinforced concrete
slabs covering the entire
area of construction,
like a floor.
Always made of
reinforced concrete.

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SIMPLE RAFT FOUNDATION
 RAFT FOUNDATION
 If ground pressures
are likely to be
excessive at
different seasons,
reinforcement may
be required; this is
known as fabric
when in sheet mesh
form.

REINFORCED RAFT FOUNDATION

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 Conditions for Raft/Mat Foundations
-Structural loads require large area to spread the load
-Soil is erratic and prone to differential settlements
-Structural loads are erratic
-Unevenly distributed lateral loads
-Uplift loads are larger than spread footings can
accommodate;
-Mat foundations are easier to waterproof

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