Maraging Steels:

Properties, Applications and

Processing

Presented By

Dr. O P Sinha,
 About Maraging Steels:
Maraging steels are ultra-high-strength alloys, a special
class of low-carbon steel, that exhibit superior strength
and toughness compared to most other steels, yet have a
similar ductility. ‘Maraging’ is a term derived from
martensitic and ageing, referring to the process by which
the steel is strengthened.
Maraging steel differs from other steel alloys in that it is not
hardened by the presence of carbon but by the
precipitation of a special selection of other inter-metallic
compounds.
The absence of carbon and the use of intermetallic
precipitation allows maraging steel to achieve combinations
of high strength and toughness while maintaining
relatively high ductility.
Specific Properties of maraging steels:
Some of the most advantageous properties of maraging
steels include:
• High Yield strength(YS) and Ultimate tensile strength(UTS)
• High Toughness
• High ductility
• High Impact strength
• High Fatigue strength
• Workability
• High Resistance to crack propagation
• Weldability
• Heat treatment features
• Low Coefficient of thermal expansion
Maraging steels are widely used in the aerospace industry as
well as parts for tools and weapons:
Production tools Aerospace and aircraft parts
Aluminium and zinc dies ; Casting and forging Anchor rails; Arresting hooks
dies; Carbide die holders; Extrusion press rams, Gimbal ring pivots; Rocket motor
dies and containers; Gears for machine tools; cases; Load cells; Shock
Index plates; ; Pistons; Springs; absorbers for lunar rover;
Stub shafts; Cold reducing mandrels
Universal flexures

Military Others
Cannon recoil springs Auto-racing car parts (rods, shafts,
Lightweight portable military bridges gears); Uranium enrichment plants
Rocket motor cases parts (rotors, shafts); Cable sockets;
Hydraulic hoses; Pump impellers and
casings; Tensile test equipment;
Rotors for ultracentrifuges
 Due to their properties and wide range of
applications, including widespread use in the
aerospace industry, maraging steels have
recently been demonstrated to be suitable for
the fabrication of parts via 3D printing.
Maraging steel grades are named according to their nominal yield strength
value in ksi. The maraging steels available commercially are designed to provide
specific yield strengths that range from 150 to 350 ksi (1,030 to 2,040 MPa).
Some maraging steels achieve yield strengths up to 500 ksi (3,450 MPa) or higher
. Table: Different maraging steel grades and their composition.
Composition (%)
Grades
Ni Mo Co Ti Al

18Ni(200) 18 3.3 8.5 0.2 0.1

18Ni(250) 18 5.0 8.5 0.4 0.1
18Ni(300) 18 5.0 9.0 0.7 0.1
18Ni(350) 18 4.2(2) 12.5 1.6 0.1
18Ni(Cast) 17 4.6 10.0 0.3 0.1
12-5-3(180)(3) 12 3.0 -- 0.2 0.1
Notes:
(1) All grades have a maximum content of 0.03% C
(2) Some manufacturers use the combination of 4.8% Mo and 1.4 % Ti
(3) Contains 5% Cr [ Unit: 1 ksi  6.89 Mpa]
Table 3. Mechanical properties of different 18 Ni maraging steel grades.
Grades Tensile St Yield Stre Elongatio Reduction Heat
rength ngth n of area Treatment
MPa MPa , 50 mm (%)
(%)
18Ni(200) 1500 1400 10 60 A
18Ni(250) 1800 1700 8 55 A
18Ni(300) 2050 2000 7 40 A
18Ni(350) 2450 2400 6 25 B
18Ni(Cast) 1750 1650 8 35
Cobalt-free
200/250/300 1895 1825 11.5 58.5 C
Heat treatments:
A: at 815°C for 1 hour and 480°C for 3 hours,
B: at 815°C for 1 hour and 480°C for 12 hours,
C: at 815°C for 1 hour and 480°C for 5 hours.
 Guide lines for
Production and processing of maraging(250) steel
Melting [Primary(VIM)+ Secondary(VAR/ESR)] parameters (C, S, P, N, O, H &
impurities, i.e. Pb, Bi etc] are to be optimised to achieved specific
composition which meet the required propertied in the products as per
customer. *High quality virgin raw materials ( i.e. Fe, Ni, Co, Mo, Ti, Al etc.)
having low impurities are required.
Hot processing (Forging+ Rolling) parameters [ Heating cycle with Soaking
Temperature & Time as per size of the feed stocks] of remelted ingots are to
be optimized to give proper/ required shape without crack as per customer’s
requirements.
Heat treatment parameters [Annealing & Aging of the products as per their size]
are to be optimized to achieve optimum properties which qualify the
customer’s specification.
Quality check [ Chemical, Physical ( IR, GS, Micro/Macro), Mechanical ( Strength,
Hardness etc.), NDT/UT examination] of the heat treated products as per
customer’s specification
Machining as customer’s requirements and dispatched to the customer.
Typical physical and thermal property values of the
standard 18 Ni (18% Nickel) maraging steels are presented
in the tables below:
Table 2. Physical and thermal properties of 18 Ni Maraging Steel
Property Value
Density 8.2 g/cm3 at 20°C
Coefficient of thermal expansion 1.3x10-5/K at 20°C
Melting point 1425 -1505 °C
Specific heat capacity 440 J/(kg*K) at 20°C
Thermal conductivity 20-25 W/(m*K) at 20°C
 Proposal for Tentative Melting Practice of SWIL 250 Grade at SWIL
• Vacuum Induction Melting Furnace of 3 Tons; Electrode of 350 Ф.
• Vacuum Arc Remelting [ ground 350 Ф400 Ф] under <10µmHg.
• Chemical Composition(wt%) of SWIL250 steel:[Melting-Ar20 Torr/Refining-10µ]
Element Spec Aimed Element Spec Aimed Check points/Control

Fe Balance Bal. Si <0.10 <0.040 Opening C/O=??

[Add graphite for C]
[16g O+24g C]
Ni 17.5-18.5 18.0 (17.5) Mn <0.15 <0.020

Co 7.5-8.5 8.0 Cr <0.10 <0.060 Add NiO, if C >20ppm

Mo 4.6-5.2 4.9 S <0.010 <0.001 Diff. RMs & NiCa for S.

S+Nica = CaS+Ni
Al 0.05-0.15 0.13 P <0.010 <0.004 [32 g S40g Ca]
[Add NiCa]
Ti 0.4-0.6 0.50 N2 <30 ppm <30 ppm

C <0.015 <0.0020 O2 <30 ppm Add- C Cr, Si, Mn ,Cu <0.05%;

Ca 0.050 Add 500ppm H2 < 2 ppm < 2 ppm Add Al, Ti after
confirmation of :
N, O < 20 ppm &
Zi 0.020 Add 200ppm Pb <2ppm, <2 ppm,
H < 2 ppm
 Preparation before start Melting
• To calculate the theoretical out put of every elements
(Specially Trace & Impurity elements) based on the
specification of different raw materials and quantity to be
used as per aimed composition of the process sheet.
[ Which qualify our Raw Material for this grade]
• Preparation of chart for raw materials are to be charged
into the furnace based on the aimed composition as per
process sheet.
• Preparation & inspection of crucible condition including
VIM accessories before start of melting.
• Blyth Iron( Pure Iron) pieces sizes 10 sq x 20-25cm L & shot
blasted ( Free from red oxide layer).
• Raw materials should be preheated to remove moisture, oil
etc. if possible.
 Metallurgy points of View:
• Small amounts of impurities can decrease the
toughness of alloy significantly. In particular S should
be kept as low as possible.
• Si & Mn must not exceed a combined level of 0.2%.
• The elements like P, Pb, Bi, O, N, H are all maintained
at low levels in good melting practice.
• Ingot sizes & shapes and Pouring Practice should be
selected to ensure sound ingots with minimum alloy
segregation.
Typical Vacuum Induction Melting schedule for Ni- & Co base alloys

Cold
Leak rate

Hot
Leak rate
 From Literature…
• The VIDP (Vacuum Induction Degassing and Pouring)is the most
important melting plant in the production of high-purity steels
(Maraging 250 & 300) for aircraft and aerospace industry.[VIDP
FURNACE at the Bohler Special Steel Plant in Kapfenberg, Austria]

• Those material grades are featured by a very low level of trace

elements such as oxygen, nitrogen and in many cases carbon.
• During vacuum melting pressure dependent reactions like
nitrogen removal, vacuum decarburisation(C) and vacuum-
deoxidation(O2) can proceed and control the content of those
trace elements.
• But thermodynamic equilibrium can’t be reached in VIDP
operating range of a pressure of approximately 10-5bar in
economical reasonable time.
Vacuum metallurgy is used to achieve following objectives:
a) Removal of dissolved gases( i.e. N, O, H );
b)Removal of undesired trace elements (Pb, Bi, etc) with
higher vapour pressure;
c)Prevention of oxidation reactions due to air(O,N,H)
contamination resulting in minor losses of reactive
elements;
d)Control of pressure dependent reactions such as
decarburization[C+O] where reaction product is
gaseous(CO) and can be removed without the
formation of non-metallic inclusions.
e)Highest cleanliness
f)Achievement of very closely compositional tolerances.
Following Phenomena happened during the process:
Slag/Metal Reactions:
• The usage of slag in vacuum induction furnaces is limited. The
geometry of common induction furnaces is disadvantageous due
to the low ratio of crucible diameter to crucible height.
Furthermore the typical bath agitation pushes the slag to the
crucible wall where heavy attack to the refractory lining occurs
and reactions between metal and slag, e. g. desulphurisation, are
restrained. To achieve lowest sulphur contents, desulphurisation
agents like Ca or Mg are in use.
Evaporation Reactions:
• Trace elements like Pb, Bi, Ag, Te, or Se fortunately can be
removed due to their high vapour pressure by vacuum
metallurgy. The VIDP furnace represents an excellent melting unit
where pressures of 10-2mbar and lower can be reached. Arsenic &
Tin can controlled through RM spec.
Gas Reactions:
• The advancement of vacuum technology in refining raw steel was entirely
based on Sievert’s Law, which states that the solubility of dissolved gases
in molten steel is affected by temperature, pressure & chemical
composition, and at a specific temperature the solubility of the gas phase
is directly related to the square root of its partial pressure.
• Vacuum treatment by VIDP allows to reduce the pressure about orders of
magnitude and ensures the reduction of dissolved gases like nitrogen
according to Sievert’s law.

(Equilibrium Constant) KN
• Unfortunately, the reaction shown above can be inhibited by surface
active elements like O and S and can take along time to reach equilibrium
at very low pressures due to kinetic limits. CO-boiling and stirring of the
melt enhances the removal of nitrogen.
• By placing the molten steel bath under vacuum, the hydrogen
concentration can be reduced to less than 2 ppm.
Deoxidation/Decarburisation Via Gas Phase:
• Deoxidation or decarburisation takes place through the formation of carbon
monoxide(CO) according to the following equation:
[C+ O]  ( CO )
• As the reaction product is gaseous, the oxygen-content is directly
proportional to the CO-partial pressure (pCO).

• Reduced pressure by vacuum treatment allows to reach lowest C and O-

contents without the formation of non-metallic inclusions. Figure 1 shows
the theoretical equilibria of the C-O-reaction in dependence of the pressure.

• The relatively vigorous, but controlled, portion of the boiling process results
in the greatest CO removal. Concurrently, a slight nitrogen loss is realized
because of scavenging associated with the CO bubbles, and a slight sulphur
reduction may occur during the CO super saturation stage via sulfur dioxide
(SO2) evolution.
Fe-C-O System
Limitations
• Decarburisation/deoxidation due to CO-formation is a pressure
dependent reaction as explained in Figure 1 –the lower the
pressure the lower the product of carbon and oxygen activity
a[C]*a[O] according to the thermodynamic theory.
• But in reality the decarburisation/deoxidation in vacuum
plants stops at carbon and oxygen contents corresponding to
pressures in the range of 0.001 to 0.1bar [10-3 to 10-1
bar]although the vacuum pressure is much less.
• Vacuum deoxidation/decarburisation is limited by nucleation and
bubble formation and oxygen supply by reduction of refractory
material.
• The removal of nitrogen is high, if the CO-reaction is in progress
but decreases to very low rates without CO-bubbling.
 Effect of alloying elements on the properties of steels:
The advantages of adding alloying elements to steel include:
(i) increase of the maximum tensile strength,
(ii) availability of thick sections of steels with high hardness throughout the
section,
(iii) more controllable quenching with minimum risk of shape distortion or
cracking,
(iv) improved impact resistance at high temperature range,
(v) improved corrosion resistance, and
(vi) improved high temperature performance.
Alloying elements can go into solid solution in the Fe, enhancing the strength.
Elements which go into solid solution include Si, Mo, Cr, Ni, and magnesium
(Mg).
Alloying elements which stabilize austenite include Mn, Ni, Co, and Cu. These
increase the range over which austenite is stable.
Alloying elements which tend to stabilize ferrite include Cr, W, Mo, V, and Si.
They reduce the amount of C soluble in the austenite and thus increase the
volume of free carbide in the steel at a given C content.
The alloying elements in the steels can be found as:
(i) in the free state,
(ii) as inter-metallic compound with iron (Fe) or with each other,
(iii) as oxides, sulphides, and other non-metallic inclusions,
(iv) in the form of carbides, or
(v) as a solution in iron.
As to the character of their distribution in steel, alloying
elements can be divided into two groups.
The first group of elements does not form carbides in steel.
Examples are Ni, Si, Cu, cobalt(Co), aluminum (Al), and
nitrogen (N2).
The second group of elements forms stable carbides in steel.
Examples are Cr, Mn, W, V, Ti, Zr, and niobium (Nb).
Some basic principles with respect to the effect of the alloying
element’s addition on the steel are:
(i) Ni has reduced carbide forming tendency than Fe and dissolves in
the alpha ferrite,
(ii) Si combines with oxygen (O2) to form non-metallic inclusions or
dissolves in the ferrite,
(iii) Most of the Mn in alloy steels dissolves in the alpha ferrite and any
Mn which form carbides result in (Fe,Mn)3C,
(iv) Cr spreads between the ferrite and carbide phases with the spread
depending on the amount of C and other carbide generating
elements present,
(v) W and Mo form carbides if sufficient C is present which has not
already formed carbides with other stronger carbide forming
elements,
(vi) V, Ti, and Nb are strong carbide forming elements and are present in
steel as carbides, and
(vii) Al combines with O2 and N2 to form Al2O3 an AlN.
 Effect of following elements on the properties of Maraging Steel:

For example: Ni, Co, Mo, Al, Ti, Ca, Zr, B on steel.
Aluminium [0.13%]
• Al is widely used as a deoxidizer. It can control austenite grain growth in reheated steels and is
hence added to control grain size. It is the most effective alloying element in controlling grain
growth prior to quenching. As a deoxidizer, upto0.05 % Al can be added to steel. For increasing
fine grain characteristics or sub-zero impact properties, upto 0·1 % of Al can be added.
• In precipitation hardening steels, Al is used to form the inter-metallic compounds which
increase the strength in the aged condition.
Boron[30ppm]
• It is added to fully killed steel to improve hardenability. B treated low C steels are produced to a
range of 0.0005 % to 0.003 %. Whenever B is substituted in part for other alloying elements, it is
to be done only with hardenability in mind since the lowered alloying content can be harmful for
some applications. The addition of around 0.003 % of B ensures increased hardenability to
steels in the quenched and tempered condition. [Further, it has been found that the addition of
0·003 % of B to low C, 0·50 % Mo steel in the normalized condition doubles the yield strength
and gives a 30 %increase in tensile strength, but the advantage due to B is only small when Mo
is less than 0.35 %. It causes difficulty in hot working]. As much as 2 %can be added to steels used
in nuclear engineering.
Calcium[500ppm]
• Ca in the form of calcium silicide/NiCa is sometimes added to steel as a deoxidizer and
degasifier. Ca additions are made during steelmaking for refining, deoxidation,
desulphurization, and control of shape, size and distribution of oxide and sulphide
inclusions. Ca is not used as alloying element since its solubility in steel is very low.
Carbon[By removal to achieve <20ppm]
• C has a major effect on steel properties.
• C is a strong austenite former and strongly promotes an austenitic
structure. It also significantly increases the mechanical strength. C reduces
the resistance to inter-granular corrosion(IGC).
• In the ferritic stainless steels, C strongly reduces both toughness and
corrosion resistance.
• In the martensitic and martensitic-austenitic steels, C increases hardness
and strength.
• In the martensitic steels, an increase in hardness and strength is generally
accompanied by a decrease in toughness and in this way C reduces the
toughness of these steels.
Zirconium[200ppm]
• Zr can be added to killed high strength low alloy steels to achieve
improvements in inclusion characteristics. Zr causes sulphide inclusions to
be globular rather than elongated thus improving toughness and ductility
in transverse bending. It acts as a deoxidizing element in steel and
combines with the S.
Nickel[18%]
• Ni increases strength, and improves toughness. It is used for strength, corrosion
resistance, and toughness.
• Maraging steels are a class of high-strength steel with low C content and the use of
substitutional (as opposed to interstitial) elements to produce hardening from formation
of Ni martensites. The name maraging has resulted from the combination of ‘Martensite
+ Age hardening’. Maraging steels contain 18 % Ni, along with amounts of Mo, Co, Ti, and
Al, and almost no C.
• These alloy steels can be strengthened considerably by a precipitation reaction at a
relatively low temperature.
• Maraging steels are strengthened by inter-metallic compounds such as Ni3Ti and Ni3Mo
which precipitate at around 500ᵒC.
• When the Ni is sufficient to produce austenite, the steels become non-magnetic, ductile,
tough, and workable, with a drop in strength and elastic limit.
• Maraging steels have fulfilled a high tensile strength requirement in aero and space
fields.
Titanium[0.50%]
• Ti is used to retard grain growth and thus improve toughness. It is also used to achieve
improvements in inclusion characteristics. It causes sulphide inclusions to be globular
rather than elongated thus improving toughness and ductility in transverse bending.
• In precipitation hardening steels, Ti is used to form the inter-metallic compounds which
are used to increase the strength.
Molybdenum[4.9%]
• It is carbide former, and prevents brittleness. It maintains the steel strength
at high temperatures. Air-hardening steels always have 1 % or more of Mo.
• Mo adds greatly to the penetration of hardness and increases toughness
of an alloy steel.
• It causes steel to resist softening at high temperatures, which defeats the
purpose of hot working. If the alloy steel has below 0.02% Mo, then steel
can be hot worked with little difficulty.
Cobalt[8%]
• Co increases strength and hardness, and permits quenching at higher
temperatures.
• It raises the red hardness of the steel and this is the reason 5 % to 10 % of
Co is added to certain types of high speed steels, developed for the specific
purpose of cutting exceptionally hard materials.
• Gaseous Level to be maintained below: N2, O2 <20 ppm; H2<2ppm.
Residual Elements:
• Like Pb(0.0005%), Bi(0.0001%), As(0.03%), Sn(0.04%), Cu(0.15%) in steel adversely affects its hot
workability.
 THANK Q

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