King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals

Mechanical Engineering Department

ME 452: Measurements and Lab Project

Second Semester 2020-2021 (201)

LECTURE 1

INTRODUCTION TO
MEASUREMENTS AND DESIGN OF
EXPERIMENT
 MEASUREMENTS
 What is measurement?

 Measurement is an act of assigning a specific value to a physical variable

or parameter (such as temperature, pressure, velocity, etc.).

T = 300 K P = 100 kPa V = 5 m/s

 Why do we need measurements?

 A measurement system is a tool used for quantifying the measured

variables.
 Control of the Process
 It is important to ensure that the output of the measurement device is a
reliable indication of the true value of the measured variable (calibration).
 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
 For a successful engineer, and before taking any measurements it is better
to go through the following steps in the test plan:

1. Parameter design
 Determine the required measurements.
 Determine the parameters that will affect the results.

2. System and tolerance design

 Select a measurement technique, equipment, and test procedure based on
some tolerance limits for error.

3. Data reduction design

 Plan how to analyze, present, and use the anticipated data.
 STAGES OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

 Basically such a system consists of part or all of four general stages:

(1) Input (sensor/transducer) stage,

(2) Signal-conditioning stage,

(3) Output stage, and

(4) Feedback-control stage.

 STAGES OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
 Input (stage/transducer) stage

 Sensor: they are devices that detect/measure physical quantity (for example
temperature, sound) and sends signal (often electrical energy) for
processing to a processor.
 e.g. Thermistor: Their resistance changes with temperature resulting in
change of voltage which is sent to a processor.

 Transducer: they are devices that convert one form of energy into another.
 Sensors are a type of transducers.
 For example, vibration signals are measured using accelerometer which
has an output in form of voltage.
 STAGES OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
 Signal Conditioning Stage
 Exists to improve the quality of the output of a measurement system. It is
particularly important when the primary transducer has a very low output.

 A very common type of signal processing element is the electronic

amplifier, which amplifies the output of the primary transducer, thus
improving the sensitivity and resolution of measurement. For example,
thermocouples have a typical output of only a few millivolts.

 Other types of signal processing elements are filters.

 STAGES OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

 Terms Related to Filters:

 Cutoff frequency: is the frequency beyond which the filter will not pass
signals.

 Low-Pass Filter: low frequencies are passed, high frequencies are attenuated.

 High-Pass Filter: high frequencies are passed, low frequencies are attenuated.

 Band-Pass Filter: only frequencies in a frequency band are passed.

 Band-Stop Filter: only frequencies in a frequency band are attenuated.

 STAGES OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

 Output Stage

The output stage indicates or records the value measured. This might be a
simple readout display, a marked scale, or even a recording device such as a
computer disk drive.

 Feedback-Control Stage

This stage contains a controller that interprets the measured signal and makes
a decision regarding the control of the process.

This decision is based on the magnitude of the signal of the sensed variable,
usually whether it exceeds some high or low set point.
 CHOOSING APPROPRIATE MEASURING
INSTRUMENT
The selection of appropriate measuring instrument is based on some criteria:

1. Specification of the instrument

 Accuracy: involves how close you come to the correct result.
 Precision: involves how consistent a series of values are with each
other.
 Resolution: is the smallest change in input that can be measured with
certainty by a device.
 Sensitivity: is defined as ratio of change in output to change in input
which causes it.
2. Environmental conditions
 Least sensitive to external conditions.
 Disturbance cause to the measuring process by the measuring system
(e.g. pressure loss).

3. Cost restraints
 ACCURACY AND ERROR

 The accuracy of a measurement indicates the closeness of agreement

between an experimentally determined value of a quantity and its true
value.

 The error is the difference between the experimentally determined value

and the true value.

Total Error

Bias Precision
(Systematic) Error (Random) Error
 ACCURACY AND ERROR

 Bias Error

 The bias error is the difference between the mean (average) value of the
readings, and the true value of that variable.

 Precision Error

 The precision error is the error that observed as the scatter of the data when
repeated measurements are made for fixed test conditions.

 The precision error (random error) has different values for each
measurement.
 ACCURACY AND ERROR

 Different types of instrument errors

(1) Zero-offset error (2) Sensitivity error

(3) Nonlinearity error (4) Hysteresis error

 CALIBRATION

 Calibration: is the comparison of measurement values delivered by a

device under test with a known input value.

 The known value used for the calibration is called the standard.

 Such a standard could be another measurement device of known accuracy, a

device generating the quantity to be measured such as a voltage, sound
tone, or a physical artefact, such as a meter ruler.

 Calibration establishes the relationship between the input and output

values.
 CALIBRATION

 Calibration Curve

 Alternatively, a calibration curve can be used to develop a functional

relationship (an equation known as a correlation) between input and
output.
 A correlation will have the form y=f(x) and is determined by applying
curve fitting techniques to the calibration curve.

 The correlation can then be used in later measurements to find out the
unknown input value based on the output value, the value indicated by the
measurement system.
 CALIBRATION

 Calibration Curve