Chemistry and

Chemicals are
Everywhere

College of Natural and Computational Sciences

Department of Chemistry
Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology
(chem.4122)

By: Abdulkadir U.
 CHAPTER-ONE
Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology
What do we mean by Environment????
 Environment is what surroundings us !!

 It is the sum total of all social, economical, biological , physical and chemical
factors which constitute the surroundings of humans, who are both the creators and
molders of the environment.

 The word Environment is derived from a French word “Environ” which means
surrounding
Natural Environment: air, water,
soil, land, forest, wildlife, flora ,fauna,
Environment is of etc
two types:
Man-Made Environment:
industrialization, agricultural field,
deforestation, urbanization, building
April 23, 2024 2
dams, etc.
 Cont’d…
Two main components of Environment

Biotic Components-Living Abiotic

components of the system
such as: Components- Non-living
microbes, plants, animals and things
human beings. eg. Air, water, soil, rocks

Autotrophs/ producers-green plants and

bacteria's
Heterotrophs/consumers-animals
(herbivorous, carnivorous, omnivorous), fungi
and some bacteria.

April 23, 2024 3

 Cont’d…
 among the; terrestrial,
 atmoEnvironmental science: is the science of the complex
interactions that occur spheric,

 aquatic,

 living, and anthropological environments.

 It includes all the disciplines, such as chemistry, biology, ecology,
sociology, and government that affect or describe those interactions.

 Chemistry is defined as the science of matter, it deals with;

the air we breathe,

the water we drink,

the soil that grows our food, and vital life substances and processes.
Environmental chemistry: deals with the, origins,
 transport,
 reactions,
 effects, and
 fates of chemical species in the water,
air, earth, and
 living environments and the influence
of human activities….
Environmental toxicology: deals with the effects of environmental
toxicants on health and the environment.
 Cont’d…
 Environmental toxicants are agents
released into the general environment that
can cause adverse effects on the health of
living organisms, including humans,
animals, and plants.
 The study of environmental toxicology is
thus concerned with how environmental
toxicants, through their interaction with
humans, animals, plants, and influence
the health and welfare of those
organisms.
 Environmental chemistry: dominant by the collection of data on
residues of synthetic compounds in biota, but there was little understanding of the
mechanisms, how the residues accumulated, or their biological effects
 Properties of Environmental Chemical
Species
 A very wide range of chemicals species present in the each sphere of
environments and are broadly classified into:
 A) Chemical that causes human toxicity:
 There are many chemicals which affect typical human being and pose
serious effect.
Eg. Pb, Cd and Hg are well known for their adverse effects of human health at
high level of exposure.
 Have no essential role in human body i.e based on exposure these metals are
considered as non-essentials.
 Environmental exposure of these chemicals cause cancer; especially benzene
which release from the vehicle emission and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbon and chlorinated dioxin from combustion of fossil fuel.
 Cont’d…
B) Chemical which causes damage to non human biota but are not believed to
human at current level of exposure:
Many elements and compounds are categorized in group and affect plants and
animals seriously, and indirectly can affect human health.
Eg. Cu and Zn are essential trace element for human and environmental exposures very
rarely present at risk to health, Toxic to plant growth at high level, ►Polychlorinated
biphenyl disrupt the reproduction and growth of wild life species.
C) Chemicals not directly toxic to human:
 These are not toxic other biota at current environmental concentrations but
capable of causing environmental damage
 The prime example is chloro fluorocarbon (CFCs), which found wide spread to
the environment and causing major disruption to the chemistry of stratosphere
Environmental Transformation and
Degradation
Transformations may make the chemical either more or less toxic, depending on
the reaction involved.
Degradation involves the breakdown of a chemical into smaller molecules
Environmental transformation includes all environmental processes leading to
the transformation of a parent compound into transformation products (TPs).
Environmental processes which lead to TPs are often divided into BIOTIC and
ABIOTIC processes and
occur in freshwater or marine aquatic ecosystems.
The major factor of environmental degradation is human (modern
urbanization, industrialization, overpopulation growth, deforestation, etc.)
and
 Cont’d…
 Abiotic transformations may include chemical oxidations or reductions in
aerobic or anaerobic environments, respectively.
 Biotic transformations may be carried out by bacteria and fungi in the
environment, or may take place within the bodies of plants and animals .

The process of biodegradation:

 Bacteria cell containing enzymes take up chemicals
 Chemicals bind to suitable enzyme (enzyme-complex)
 Enzyme chemical-complex reacts, producing transformation product
 Products released from enzyme
 Sorption in the soil many influence in the process above
 Production of new or additional enzymes capacity
 Growth of total microbial population and thus biodegradation capacity
 Cont’d…
MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Pollution of Air, Water and Land/ earth- the major media
Environmental pollution refers to the degradation of the quality

and quantity of natural resources

Hazardous Chemicals and Wastes

Land Degradation
Loss of Biodiversity
Ozone Depletion
Climate Change
Loss of natural and cultural resources
 Cont’d…
AIR POLLUTION- the introduction of any chemical, physical or biological agent
into an atmosphere that has potential to cause adverse impacts/effects.
 the emission of any impurity into the air, such as smoke (including tobacco smoke),
dust, residues, solid particles, gases, mists, fumes, odours and radioactive
substances.

All types of air pollution can be divided into two basic types:

I- Primary Air Pollutants: are emitted directly into the atmosphere.

Eg. Pollen, Dust, Fly ash, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

II- Secondary Air Pollutants: are formed within the atmosphere by chemical
reactions involving precursors that are emitted into the atmosphere.
 Ozone, a primary component of “smog” formed by sunlight-driven reactions
involving volatile organic compounds (VOC) and nitrogen oxide precursors,
Sulfuric acid droplets, Salts such as (NH4)2SO4…etc.
i. Inorganic Gases: O3, SO2, NO, NO2, CO , H2S, HCl, NH3
ii. Organics: Hydrocarbons including those that form photochemical smog:
 Odorous organic sulfur compounds, Organohalides
 Amines and other organonitrogen compounds
 Organo-oxygen compounds including aldehydes and ketones
iii. Photochemical Smog: Smog particles, Ozone, Organic oxidants (PAN),
Aldehydes
Sources of air pollutants and their
effects…
 Cont’d…
Water pollution: the release of substances into subsurface, groundwater or
lakes, streams, rivers, and oceans, to the point where the substances interfere
with beneficial use of the water or with the natural functioning of ecosystems.

 In addition to the release of

substances, such as

chemicals or microorganisms,
water pollution may also include
the release of energy, in the form
of radioactivity or heat, into
bodies of water.
Cont’d…
 Cont’d…
LAND POLLUTION: Land pollution refers to the deterioration of the earth’s

surfaces at and below ground level.

 The cause is the accumulation of solid and liquid waste materials that

contaminate groundwater and soil.

 These waste materials are often referred to as municipal solid waste (MSW),
which includes both hazardous and non-hazardous waste.
SOIL EROSION: is a gradual process of movement and transport of the upper

layer of soil (topsoil) by different agents particularly;

 water, wind, and mass movement – causing its deterioration in the long term.
 Soil is typically divided into layers called horizons.
 Many important chemical and biochemical reactions occur in soil.

 Soil is subject to water and wind erosion, and one of the earliest environmental
movements,
 Cont’d,,,
Land Pollution: Plastic bag and general waste dump beside communal toilets on
riverbank
 Cont,d…
Persistent Organic Pollutants (Pops): are toxic organic compounds
that are resistant to most of the degradation processes in the environment, and
therefore they tend to persist in the environment, thus bioaccumulating in
organisms and biomagnifying along the food chains and food webs in ecosystems.
 POPs pose a risk of causing adverse effects to human and wildlife health in
particular and the environment in general.
 POPs consists of pesticides such as:
 dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane (DDT),

 hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), and hexachlorobenzenes (HCBs),

 industrial chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and

unintentional by-products of industrial processes such as:

 polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDDs/PCDFs) and

 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

 Cont’d…
Hazardous Chemicals and Wastes: are substances that poses a hazard to
human health or the environment when improperly managed.
 A chemical waste is considered hazardous if it is listed on a Federal or State
regulations list, if it exhibit a characteristics:
Ignitable: generally are liquids with a
flash point below 60°C (140°F).
Corrosive: generally aqueous wastes
with a pH of 2 or less or 12.5 or greater.
Reactive: are wastes that are unstable,
explosive, and capable of detonation or react
violently with water.

Toxic: a chemical that poses a hazard to

health or the environment.
 Cont’d…
Toxicology: is the study of the adverse effects of chemicals or physical agents on
living organisms.
 A toxicologist: is a scientist that determines the harmful effects of agents and the
cellular, biochemical, and molecular mechanisms responsible for the effects.
 Forensic toxicology: is a branch of toxicology which aligns with other disciplines
such as analytical chemistry, pharmacology, clinical chemistry, contributing to
medico-legal investigations of adverse effects like death, poisoning and drug
abuse.
 Clinical toxicology: in the study of adverse effects of agents and drugs in human
beings, and the study of how to treat, ameliorate, modify, or prevent the adverse
effects.
 Molecular Toxicology: the interaction of toxic agents with biological systems at
the molecular and cellular levels; and the development of countermeasures and
 Cont’d…

 Regulatory toxicology: is science developed, evaluated, and applied in regulatory decision

making.
 Ecotoxicologists: help to protect the environment and existing ecosystems for future generations.

Eg. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for licensing drugs, (EPA) for registering pesticides
 Toxicant, toxin, and poison are often used interchangeably in the literature; however, there are
subtle differences
 Toxicity: The degree to which a substance (a toxin or poison) can harm humans or animals.

 Acute toxicity involves harmful effects in an organism through a single or short-term exposure.

 Subchronic toxicity: is the ability of a toxic substance to cause effects for more than one year
but less than the lifetime of the exposed organism.
 Chronic toxicity: is the ability of a substance or mixture of substances to cause harmful effects
over an extended period, usually upon repeated or continuous exposure, sometimes lasting for the
entire life of the exposed organism.
 Cont,d…
Biodiversity loss: refers to the decline or disappearance of biological diversity,
 understood as the variety of living things that inhabit the planet,

 its different levels of biological organization and their respective genetic variability,

 as well as the natural patterns present in ecosystems.

Cont’d….
 MATTER AND CYCLES OF MATTER
Cycles of matter: are called biogeochemical
cycles, because they include both biotic and
abiotic components and processes.
 Components that hold matter for short periods
of time are called exchange pools, and
components that hold matter for long periods
of time are called reservoirs.
The Water Cycle
Water is essential for life
Water continually moves from the Earth’s
surface to the atmosphere and back in a
process known as the water cycle.
Transpiration- evaporation from leaves of
plants.
 Cont’d…
Cycling of Carbon: One of the ways that nature recycles matter is through the
carbon cycle.
 The carbon cycle is a cycling through the global environment.

 Carbon is a chemical element and a key component of many systems in the

biosphere, from acting as part of the earth's thermostat to being one of the key
elements in photosynthesis, which is when plants make sugars for energy.

 In order for the ecosystem to function properly, all parts

need an adequate supply of carbon.
 One of the biggest reservoirs of carbon is the atmosphere,
which is about 0.038% carbon dioxide.
 carbon molecules that are in our body have been cycling
on the earth since it was formed and will continue to do so
as we exhale each breath, returning CO2 back to the
atmosphere.
 Cont’d…
Carbon is dissolved in surface water and groundwater as HCO 3 - or molecular CO2(aq).

A very large amount of carbon is present in minerals (CaCO 3).

Photosynthesis fixes inorganic C as biological carbon{CH 2O}, which is a consituent of

all life molecules and react biochemically with O 2, to regenerate carbon dioxide and

produce energy, occur biochemically in an organism through aerobic respiration.

Carbon is fixed as petroleum and natural gas, with a much larger amount (the organic

matter in oil shale, crude oil, fossil fuels, coal, and lignite, represented as C xH2x).

Manufacturing processes are used to convert hydrocarbons to xenobiotic compounds

with functional groups containing halogens, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, or sulfur.

Photosynthetic algae are the predominant carbon-fixing agents in water; as they consume

CO2 to produce biomas and pH of the water is raised enabling precipitation of CaCO 3

and CaCO3.MgCO3.
 Cont’d…
Nitrogen cycle: an element essential to life and found in proteins that make up the structures
of all cells.

 Nitrogen is also present as a gas in the atmosphere, found in molecular form of (N 2)

 Nitrogen moves back and forth between the atmosphere and living things in a complex
process known as the nitrogen cycle.

 Bacteria play critical roles in cycling nitrogen between

the atmosphere and living things.
 Certain species of bacteria are able to take in N 2 gas,

from the atmosphere and convert it to ammonia, NH 3

and process is known as nitrogen fixation.
 Nitrogen fixation is required to convert nitrogen from
the air (N2) into a biologically usable form (NH3).
 Only bacteria are able to carry out this very important
 Cont’d…
Phosphorus Cycle: is the biogeochemical cycle in which phosphorus moves through rocks,
water, and living things.
 The atmosphere does not play a significant role in the cycling of phosphorus, because
phosphorus and phosphorus-based compounds are not gases at the typical ranges of
temperature and pressure found on Earth.
 Phosphorus cycles quickly through living things, but very slowly through the abiotic

components of ecosystems, making the overall phosphorus cycle one of the slowest

biogeochemical cycles.
 Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants,
animals, and other organisms.
 Organic molecules that contain phosphorus include
DNA, RNA, ATP, and the phospholipids that make
up cell membranes.
 Phosphorus is also found in human bones and
teeth, and it helps the human body maintain acid-
base homeostasis.
 Chapter-2
Aquatic Chemistry and Water Pollution
 Water- a precious natural resource the world have on this planet.

 a natural occurring and abundant substance that exists in solid, liquid, and gas forms

on the planet Earth.

 Water chemistry plays an important role in the health, abundance and diversity of the

aquatic life that can live in a stream.

 Excessive amounts of some constituents (nutrients) or the lack of others (dissolved

oxygen), can result in degraded conditions and harm aquatic life.

 Water bodies can be fully characterized by the three major components: hydrology,

physico-chemistry, and biology.

 A complete assessment of water quality is based on appropriate monitoring of these components.

1. Nonpoint source: cannot be traced to a single site of discharge (atmospheric deposition, agricultural /

industrial / residential runoff) and 2. Point source: specific location (drain pipes, ditches, sewer lines).
 Cont’d…
Hydrology is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and management
of water on Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources, and
drainage basin sustainability.
 A practitioner of hydrology is called a hydrologist.

 Hydrologists are scientists studying earth or environmental science, civil or

environmental engineering, and physical geography.
 Using various analytical methods and scientific techniques, they collect and
analyze data to solve water related problems such as environmental
preservation, natural disasters, and water management.
 Hydrology subdivides into surface water hydrology, groundwater hydrology
(hydrogeology), and marine hydrology.
 Domains of hydrology include hydrometeorology, surface hydrology,
hydrogeology, drainage-basin management, and water quality.
 Cont’d…
 Physical chemistry testing generates data required to attain regulatory compliance, support

research and development, product development and technical support.

Physico-chemical measurements on aqueous solutions:

 pH, Dissociation Constant, TDS, TSS, EC, Turbidity,…

 The physical parameters
 Viscosity , Stability in organic solvents
include: color, taste,
 Hydrolysis as a function of pH, Conductivity odor, temperature,
 Redox potential, Corrosion studies turbidity, solids, and
electrical conductivity.
 Viscosity (inherent and intrinsic viscosity)  chemical parameters
 Freezing Point and Boiling Point can include: pH, acidity,
alkalinity, chlorine,
 Vapour Pressure, Surface Tension
hardness, dissolved
 Density and Specific Gravity oxygen, and biological
 Refractive Index, Optical Rotation oxygen demand.
 The Properties of water (a unique substance)
 Water has a number of unique properties that are essential to life.
 Some of the special characteristics of water include its polar character, tendency to form hydrogen
bonds, and ability to hydrate metal ions and so on.

Property Effects and Significance

Excellent solvent Transport of nutrients and waste products, making biological
processes possible in an aqueous medium
Highest dielectric constant High solubility of ionic substances and their ionization in solution

Higher surface tension than any other liquid
Transparent to visible and longer wavelength fraction
of ultra violate light
Maximum density as liquid at 4°C
Higher heat of evaporation than any other material
Higher latent heat of fusion than any other liquid
except ammonia
Higher heat capacity than any
other liquid except ammonia
Controlling factor in physiology; governs drop and surface
phenomena
Colorless, allowing light required for photosynthesis to reach
considerable depths in bodies of water
Ice floats; vertical circulation restricted in stratified bodies of
water
Determines transfer of heat and water molecules between the
atmosphere and bodies of water
Temperature stabilized at the freezing point of water
Stabilization of temperatures of organisms and geographical
regions
 Water Molecule
 Water’s properties can best be understood by considering the structure and
bonding of the water molecule.
 1st water molecule is made up of 2H atoms bonded to an
O2 atom.
 The three atoms are not in a straight line; they form bent
angle of around 105°.
‣ 2nd Hydrogen bonds are a special type of bond that can form
between the hydrogen in one water molecule and the
oxygen in another water molecule.
‣ This bonding takes place because O2 has a partial negative

charge and H2 has partial positive charge.

‣ Hydrogen bonds hold the H2O together in large groups.

‣ Hydrogen bonding also aids in retaining extremely small
particles called colloidal particles suspension, in water.
‣ H2O is an excellent solvent; thus is the basic transport
 AQUATIC LIFE
The living organisms (biota) in an aquatic ecosystem may be classified as either
autotrophic or heterotrophic.
Autotrophic: organisms utilize solar or chemical energy to fix elements from
simple, nonliving inorganic material into complex life molecules that compose
living organisms.
 Algae: are the most important autotrophic aquatic organisms because they
are producers that utilize solar energy to generate biomass from CO 2 and
other simple inorganic species.
Heterotrophic: organisms utilize the organic substances produced by autotrophic
organisms as energy sources and as the raw materials for the synthesis of their
own biomass. Eg. Fungi, animals, some bacteria's, parasites,….
 Cont’d,…
Decomposers (or reducers): are a subclass of the heterotrophic organisms and
consist of chiefly bacteria and fungi, which ultimately break down material of
biological origin to the simple compounds originally fixed by the autotrophic
organisms.

The ability of a body of water to produce living material is its productivity and
Excessive productivity results in:
 decay of biomass produced,

 consumption of dissolved oxygen and

 odor production, a condition called eutrophication.

 Factor affecting aquatic life
Eutrophication: characterized by increased algal growth, with an increased incidence of
toxic cyanobacteria blooms.

 Aquatic life is strongly influenced by the physical and chemical properties of the body of
water in which it lives.

The three main physical properties affecting aquatic life's are:

Temperature: Very low water temperatures result in very slow biological processes,
whereas very high temperatures are fatal to most organisms.
Transparency: transparency of water is particularly important in determining the growth of algae.
Turbulence: is an important factor in mixing processes and transport of nutrients and
waste products in water.
 Some small organisms (plankton) depend upon water currents for their own mobility.

Dissolved oxygen (DO): Oxygen deficiency is fatal to many aquatic animals such as fish.
 The presence of oxygen can be equally fatal to many kinds of anaerobic bacteria.
 Cont’d…
Biochemical oxygen demand(BOD): refers to the amount of oxygen utilized when
the organic matter in a given volume of water is degraded biologically.

CO2 is produced by respiratory processes in water and sediments and can also
enter water from the atmosphere.

is required for the photosynthetic production of biomass by algae and in some

cases is a limiting factor.

High levels of CO2 produced by the degradation of organic matter in water can
cause excessive algal growth and productivity.

The salinity of water also determines the kinds of life forms present.

Marine life obviously requires or tolerates salt water, whereas many freshwater
organisms are intolerant of salt.
 Typical Water Use and Classifications
All classifications of surface waters and groundwater are according to their current
and intended uses. Typical classifications are:
1. Recreational:
Class 1- primary contact: These are surface waters that are suitable or intended to
become suitable for prolonged and intimate contact with the body, or for recreational
activities where the ingestion of small quantities of water is likely to occur. Eg.
swimming, rafting, kayaking, water skiing, etc.
Class 2- secondary contact: Surface waters that are suitable or intended to become
suitable for recreation in or around the water, which are not included in the primary
contact subcategory, e.g., shore fishing, motor yachting, etc.
2. Aquatic Life: Surface waters that are suitable for the protection and maintenance
of vigorous communities of aquatic organisms and populations of significant aquatic
species are grouped under this category.
 Cont’d…
Class I-Cold water aquatic life: Currently capable of sustaining a wide variety of cold water biota
(considered to be the inhabitants, including sensitive species of water in which don’t exceed 2 °C), or
 Could sustain such biota if correctable water quality conditions were improved.

Class II-Warm water aquatic life: currently capable of sustaining a wide variety of
warm water biota (considered to be the inhabitants, including sensitive species, of water
in which exceed 20°C), or
 Could sustain such biota if correctable water quality conditions were improved.

3. Agriculture: surface waters that are suitable for irrigation of crops and that are not
hazardous as drinking water for livestock.

4. Domestic water supply: surface waters that are suitable for potable water
supplies.
 After receiving standard treatment (coagulation, flocculation,
sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection) with chlorine or its equivalent-
will meet federal and state drinking water standards.
 Cont’d…
5. Wetlands: These are surface water and groundwater that supply wetlands.
 defined as areas that are saturated by surface or groundwater at a frequency and
duration sufficient to support, and under normal circumstances do support, a
prevalence of vegetation and organisms typically adapted for life under saturated
soil conditions.

6. Groundwater: Subsurface waters in a zone of saturation that are/can be brought

to the surface of the ground or to surface waters through wells, springs, seeps, or
other discharge areas.
Characteristics of Water Quality Parameters
Physical Characteristics:

Temperature: Basically important for its effect on other properties, e.g. speeding up of
chemical reactions, reduction in solubility of gases, amplification of tastes and odours, etc.

Taste and odour: Due to dissolved impurities, often organic in nature, e.g. phenols and
chlorophenols and are subjective properties which are difficult to measure.
 Cont’d…
Colour: Even pure water is not colourless; it has a pale green-blue tint in large volumes.
 It is necessary to differentiate between true colour due to material in solution and apparent
colour due to suspended matter.
 many consumers object to a highly coloured water on aesthetic grounds and coloured waters
may be unacceptable for certain industrial uses, e.g. production of high-grade art papers.

Turbidity: The presence of colloidal solids gives liquid a cloudy appearance which is
aesthetically unattractive and may be harmful.

 Turbidity in water may be due to clay and silt particles, discharges of sewage or industrial

wastes, or to the presence of large numbers of microorganisms.

Solids: be present in suspension or in solution and they may be divided into organic matter and
inorganic matter.

 Total dissolved solids (TDS) are due to soluble materials whereas suspended solids (SS) are

discrete particles which can be measured by filtering a sample through a fine paper.

 Settleable solids are those removed in a standard settling procedure s

 Cont’d…
Electrical conductivity: The conductivity of a solution depends on the quantity of dissolved
salts present and for dilute solutions it is approximately proportional to the TDS content.

Radioactivity: Measurements of gross β and γ activity are routine quality checks.

 Naturally occurring radon (an α emitter) can be a possible long-term health hazard with
some ground waters.

Chemical Characteristics :- tend to be more specific in nature than some of the physical
parameters and are thus more immediately useful in assessing the quality of the water.
 It is useful at this point to set out some basic chemical definitions.

Hydrogen ion in water: The intensity of acidity or alkalinity of a sample is measured on the
pH scale which actually indicates the concentration of hydrogen ions present.
 Water is only weakly ionized, @equilibrium: H2O ↔H + + OH-

+ - -14 o
Thus [H ] [OH ] = K = 1.01 X 10 mole/L at 25 C
 Cont’d…

Oxygen demand: Organic compounds are generally unstable and may be oxidized
biologically or chemically to stable, relatively inert, end products.
 An indication of the organic content of a waste can be obtained by measuring the amount
of oxygen required for its stabilization using:
 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) - a measure of the oxygen required by
microorganisms whilst breaking down organic matter;
 Chemical oxygen demand (COD)- chemical oxidation using boiling potassium
dichromate and concentrated H2SO4.

WATER ACIDITY AND CARBON DIOXIDE IN WATER

Acid-base phenomena in water involve loss and acceptance of H + ion.
Many species act as acids in water by releasing H+ ion, others act as bases by
accepting H+, and the water molecule itself does both.

An important species in the acid-base chemistry of water is HCO 3, which may act
 Cont’d…
HCO3 - →CO3 2- + H+
HCO3- + H+ →CO2 (aq) + H2O

 Acidity as applied to natural water and wastewater is the capacity of the water to
neutralize OH-; it is analogous to alkalinity, the capacity to neutralize H +.

 Acidity generally results from the presence of weak acids (CO 2), sometimes includes

others, H2PO4-, H2S, proteins, and fatty acids and Fe 3+, may also contribute to acidity.

Water Quality
 Water quality determines the ‘goodness’ of water for particular purposes.

 Water quality is determined by physical, chemical and microbiological properties of

water.

 By testing water over a period of time, the changes in the quality of the water can
be seen.
 Water quality parameters
Physical Characteristics of Water: are temperature by touch, color, floating debris, turbidity and

suspended solids by sight, and taste and odur by smell.

Temperature: affects the important physical properties and characteristics of water: thermal capacity,

density, specific weight, viscosity, surface tension, specific conductivity, salinity and solubility of

dissolved gases etc.

 Chemical and biological reaction rates increase with increasing temperature.

 Reaction rates usually assumed to double for an increase in temperature of 10 °C.

 The temperature of water in streams and rivers throughout the world varies from 0 to 35 °C.

Color: Color in water is primarily a concern of water quality for aesthetic reason.

 Colored water give the appearance of being unfit to drink, even though the water may be perfectly

safe for public use.

 can indicate the presence of organic substances, such as algae or humic compounds.

 used as a quantitative assessment of the presence of potentially hazardous or toxic organic materials

in water.
 Cont’d…
of suspended solids on standard glass-fibre filters.
 Cont’d…
SALINITY: is a measure of the dissolved salts in the water.
 Salinity is usually highest during periods of low flows and increases as water
levels decrease.
 Salinity is measured as either TDS which measures the amount of dissolved salts in the
water, or as EC which is the property of a substance which enables it to serve as a
channel or medium for electricity.

Water type EC (μs/cm) TDS (mg/L)

Pure rainwater < 15 < 10

Freshwater rivers 0 - 800 100 – 1,000

Brackish water 1,600 – 4,800 1,000 – 3,000

Saline water > 4,800 > 3,000

Seawater 51,500 35,000

 Cont’d…
pH: is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of water.
 It is usually measured by using a colorimetric test - litmus paper changes colour with
increased acidity or alkalinity.
 pH varies naturally within streams as a result of photosynthesis.

 Extreme values of pH can cause problems for aquatic fauna.

Dissolved Oxygen (DO): oxygen in water is required by aquatic fauna for survival.

Oxygen enters water as a result of two processes:

I. Diffusion - diffusion of oxygen into water is accelerated when the water turbulence is increased
(moving through rapids and waterfalls) and when there is a strong wind blowing.

 Oxygen will diffuse into cold water at a higher rate than it will into warm water.

II. Photosynthesis - during daylight hours, aquatic plants use the sun’s energy to create energy

they can use for growth.

 A by-product of this process is oxygen which is released into surrounding water.

Define: BOD, Photosynthesis, Nutrients, Organic Materials, Radionuclides, Hardness, Major Anions-Ass-I
 Water pollution
 can be studied much more effectively with a sound background in the
fundamental properties of water, aquatic microbial reactions, sediment-water
interactions, and other factors involved with the reactions, transport, and effects
of these pollutants.
 is any chemical, biological, or physical change in water quality that has a
harmful effect on living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses.
 Currently, waterborne toxic chemicals pose the greatest threat to the safety of
water supplies in industrialized nations.
 cleaning polluted water should be a concern of every citizen.

 Understanding the sources, interactions, and effects of water pollutants is

essential for controlling pollutants in an environmentally safe and economically
acceptable manner
 TOXICANTS AND THEIR IMPACTS
Class of pollutant Significance
Trace Elements Health, aquatic biota, toxicity
Heavy Metals Health, aquatic biota, toxicity
Organically bound metals Metal transport
Radionuclides Toxicity
Inorganic pollutants Toxicity, aquatic biota
Asbestos Human health
Algal nutrients Eutrophication
Acidity, alkalinity, salinity (in excess) Water quality, aquatic life
Trace organic pollutants Toxicity
Polychlorinated biphenyls Possible biological effects
Pesticides Toxicity, aquatic biota, wildlife
Petroleum wastes Effect on wildlife, esthetics
Sewage, human and animal wastes Water quality, oxygen levels
Biochemical oxygen demand Water quality, oxygen levels
Pathogens Health effects
Detergents Eutrophication, wildlife, esthetics
Chemical carcinogens Incidence of cancer
Sediments Water quality, aquatic biota, wildlife
Taste, odor, and color Esthetics
 Cont’d…
Major sources of water pollution
 Agriculture: Sediment, fertilizer, pesticides, bacteria
 Industries: Organic and inorganic chemicals hazardous
 Mining: Eroded sediments and runoff of toxic chemicals
 Municipal, Natural, Land fill, Underground storage tank and storm water.
Types of Pollutants

Oxygen-demanding wastes: Organic wastes that can be decomposed by aerobic bacteria.

 Degrade water quality by depleting water of dissolved oxygen; reduction in aquatic
populations.
 Source: animal waste, feedlots, etc.

Water-soluble inorganic chemicals: are acids, salts, and compounds of toxic metals (lead
and arsenic)
 Affected water in unfit to drink and is harmful to aquatic life.

 Damages nervous system, liver, kidneys, skin cancer.

 Cont’d…
Inorganic Plant Nutrients: include water-soluble nitrates and phosphates
 Causes overgrowth of algae which leads to the depletion of dissolved oxygen and the death
of fish
 Sources- runoff from fertilizers, manure

Organic chemicals: include gasoline, oil, plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergents,
medicines
 Threaten human and aquatic life; impacts nervous system.

 Can cause cancer in humans

Sediment/ Suspended Matter: include insoluble particles of soil and other solids released by
erosion.
 Sediments cloud water and disrupt aquatic food webs

Thermal pollution: Caused by the heat absorbed by the water used to cool nuclear power plants.
 This water is returned to natural environment warm.

 Lowers dissolved oxygen levels Causes an abrupt change in temperature- thermal shock
 Cont’d…
Persistent organic pollutant(POPs): known as "forever chemicals" are
organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical,
biological, and photolytic processes.
 Because of their persistence, POPs bioaccumulate with potential adverse impacts
on human health and the environment.
 The effect of POPs on human and environmental health was discussed with
intention to eliminate or severely restrict their production
 Many POPs are currently or were in the past used as pesticides, solvents,
pharmaceuticals, and industrial chemicals.

Inorganic pollutants: include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, carbides, and

salts of inorganic cations: carbonates, cyanides, cyanates, and thiocyanates.
 Chapter-3
Atmospheric Chemistry and Air pollution
Atmospheric chemistry is a branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the
Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied.

It is a multidisciplinary approach of research and draws on environmental chemistry,

physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology and
other disciplines.

The composition and chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere is of importance for several
reasons, primarily b/c of the interactions b/n the atmosphere and living organisms.

The composition of the Earth's atmosphere changes as result of natural processes such as
volcano emissions, lightning and bombardment by solar particles .
problems which have been addressed include acid rain, ozone depletion, photochemical
smog, greenhouse gases and global warming.

atmospheric chemistry has an impact on atmospheric dynamics, meteorology, climate.

 Cont’d…
What is Special about Atmospheric Chemistry?
 temperature range -80°C ... +30°C and pressure range 0...1000 mbar
 mixture of many reactive species are there

 energy input from the sun and day - night changes

 large inhomogeneities in time and space

 system is not in equilibrium

 impact of transport and biological impacts

 impact of sources, sinks and impact of oceans

 impact of human activities

 The atmosphere consists of the thin layer of mixed gases covering
the earth’s surface.
 Exclusive of water, atmospheric air is 78.1% (by volume) nitrogen,
21.0% oxygen, 0.9% argon, and 0.03% carbon dioxide.
 Formation of Earth
 With the rise of the sun, the cloud of gas and dust started to collapse- as gravity pulled
everything together.

 Small particles bound by the force of gravity, into larger particles.

 These particles turned into large burning balls of gas and molten-
liquid that cooled and condensed to take on solid form.
 about 4.5 billion years ago, they began to turn into the planets that
we know today as Earth, Mars, Venus, Mercury, and other outer
planets.
 Earth’s Atmosphere
 To the best of our knowledge, Earth is the only planet capable of supporting life.

 The atmosphere are a protective envelope,

 It plays a key role in maintaining life.

 Earth’s atmosphere has five layers that vary in composition, temperature,

altitude and pressure.
 Chemical reactions that occur in the atmosphere help to maintain a balance
among the different atmospheric gases.
 Earth is constantly being bombarded with radiation and high-energy particles
from outer space.
 The short-wavelength, high-energy ultraviolet (UV) radiation is the most
damaging to living things.
 Cont’d…
Life is possible primarily because two processes (Photo-dissociation and
Photoionization), which occur in the thermosphere and the exosphere, shield
us from most of this radiation.

Photodissociation: is a process in which high-energy ultraviolet solar radiation

is absorbed by molecules, causing their chemical bonds to break.

The amount of atomic oxygen in the atmosphere increases with increasing

altitude.

photoionization: is absorbs high-energy solar radiation, which occurs when a

molecule or atom absorbs sufficient energy to remove an electron.

 most of this harmful radiation

does not reach Earth’s surface
(life can exist).
 Cont’d…
 The atmosphere is divided into several layers on the basis of temperature;

1. Troposphere: is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere.

 It extends from Earth's surface to an average height of about 12 km, although this altitude actually varies
from about 9 km at the poles to 17 km at the equator, with some variation due to weather.
 The troposphere is bounded above by the tropopause, a boundary marked by stable temperatures.
 Cont’d…
 Tropospheric (ground-level ozone) – what we breathe – is
formed primarily from photochemical reactions between two
major classes of air pollutants (VOC) and (NOx).
 Under sunlight, VOCs react with NOx emitted mainly from
vehicles, power plants and industrial activities to form ozone
 which in turn helps the formation of fine particulates.
 The accumulation of ozone, fine particulates and other gaseous
pollutants results in smog that reduces visibility.
 Photochemical smog is produced by VOCs, (Sources: from
gasoline, paints, and many cleaning solvents and NOx).
 Cont’d…

 Characteristics: has the highest density, greatest air pressure, nearly all water
vapor, and a temperature range 62°F (17°C) to -60°F (-51°C), contains about 85% of
the atmosphere's total mass, nearly all water vapour exists and essentially all weathers
occur.
 Cont’d…

Tropopause: is the boundary zone (transition layer) between the troposphere and
the stratosphere.
 is characterized by little or no change in temperature when altitude increases.
 contains roughly 80% of the mass of Earth's atmosphere.
 T0 ranges 15˚C at sea level to an average of -56˚C at its upper boundary.
 is denser than all its overlying atmospheric layers
 50% of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km
 It is primarily composed of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%) with only small
concentrations of other trace gases.
 Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it
is the layer where almost all weather is in this region
 Cont’d…
Stratosphere: starts just above the troposphere and extends to 50 km (31 miles) high.

 The ozone layer, which absorbs and scatters the solar ultraviolet radiation is in

this layer, (suitable for plane to fly), used for radio waves and broadcast

satellites.

 is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather.

Importance of Ozone
 protects us from ultraviolet
radiation.
 shield to absorb the UV rays, and
 keep us from damage at the Earth's
surface
 Cont’d…
Mesosphere: just above the stratosphere and extends to 85 km (53 miles) high.

 is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around −85 °C.

 Meteors burn up in this layer

 contains ~0.1% of air mass over the Earth

 temperature decreases as altitude increases.

 The exact upper and lower boundaries of the mesosphere vary with latitude and

with season (higher in winter and at the tropics, lower in summer and at the

poles), but

 the lower boundary is usually located at altitudes from 50 _ 65 km above sea

level and the upper boundary ( mesopause-coldest) is usually from 85 _100 km

 The term near space is sometimes used: refer to altitudes within the
 Cont’d…
Thermosphere: above the mesosphere and extends to 600-1,000 km high.

 Aurora and satellites occur in this layer.

 layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor.

 atomic oxygen (O), (N), and helium (He) are the main components of air

 protects us from the sun's most harmful radiation, x-rays and some of its

ultraviolet rays

 Its temperature changes with solar activity.

 UV rays cause ionization and the temperature increases with altitude here due to

absorption of solar radiation

 has the highest level of absorption of high energy solar radiation, making it the

hottest.
 Cont’d…
Ionosphere: is an abundant layer of electrons and ionized atoms and molecules
that stretches from about 48 km (30 miles) above the surface to the edge of space at

about 965 km (600 mi), overlapping into the mesosphere and thermosphere.

 This dynamic region grows and shrinks based on solar conditions and divides

further into the sub-regions

 The ionosphere is a critical link in the chain of Sun-Earth interactions.

 This region is what makes radio communications possible.

Exosphere: is the upper limit of our atmosphere.

 It extends from the top of the thermosphere up to 10,000 km (6,200 mi).

 It contains many ions and free electrons (plasma).

 ions are created when sunlight hits atoms and tears off some electrons.
 Cont’d…
The atmosphere is a protective blanket which nurtures life on the earth and

protects it from the hostile environment

It is the source of CO2 for plant photosynthesis and of O2 for respiration.

It provides N2 that nitrogen-fixing bacteria and ammonia-manufacturing plants

use to produce chemically-bound nitrogen and

an essential component of life molecules.

The atmosphere transports water from the oceans to land and act condenser in a

vast solar-powered still.

It has been used as a dumping ground for many pollutant materials, which

causes: ►damage to vegetation and materials,

►shortens human life, and

 Gaseous Oxides in the Atmosphere
 Oxides of carbon, sulfur, and nitrogen are important constituents of the
atmosphere and are pollutants at higher levels.

 Of these, CO2 is the most abundant.

 It is a natural atmospheric constituent, and it is required for plant growth.

 However, the level of CO2 in the atmosphere, now at about 360 ppm by volume,
is increasing by about 1 ppm/year.

 This increase in atmospheric CO2 may well cause general atmospheric

warming-“greenhouse effect,” with potentially very serious consequences for the
global atmosphere and for life on earth.
 CO, can be a serious health threat because it prevents blood from transporting
oxygen to body tissues.
 Hydrocarbons and Photochemical Smog
The most abundant hydrocarbon in the atmosphere is methane (CH4 ), released
from underground sources as natural gas and produced by the fermentation of
organic matter.
Methane is one of the least reactive atmospheric hydrocarbons and
is produced by diffuse sources
participate in the formation of pollutant photochemical reaction products is
minimal.
The most significant atmospheric pollutant hydrocarbons are the reactive ones
produced as automobile exhaust emissions.
In the presence of NO, under conditions of temperature inversion low humidity,
and sunlight:
 CH4 produce undesirable photochemical smog

 Obscuring visibility of particulate matter, ozone, and poisonous organic

 Important terms describing atmospheric particles

Term Meaning
Aerosol Colloidal-sized atmospheric particle
Condensation aerosol Formed by condensation of vapors or
reaction gases

Dispertion aerosol Formed by grinding of solids,

atomization of liquids or dispersion of
dusts
Fog High level of water droplet
Haze Decreased visibility due to the presence
of particles
Mists Liquid particles
Smoke Particles formed by incomplete
combustion of fuels
 Air pollution
is the atmospheric pollutants, particulates or biological materials that cause discomfort,
disease or death to humans, harm to other living organisms (food crops), or damage to
the natural environment or the built environment

It can result from both human (anthropogenic) action and natural events.

Natural events that pollute the air include forest fires, volcanic eruptions, wind erosion,
dispersal of pollen, evaporation of organic compounds and environmental radioactivity

Artificial sources are those which are created by man (thermal power plants, vehicular
emissions, Fossil fuel burning, agricultural activities etc..).

Both the sources of air pollution and severity of exposure vary across and within
countries.

Levels of pollution can be influenced by a number of things:

 local landscape features and surroundings;

 local and regional sources of pollution; and

 seasonal variations and prevailing weather conditions.

 Classification of Air Pollutants
 Depending on the form of pollutants present in the environment, they are
classified as: Primary pollutants and Secondary pollutants
 Sources and Common Effects Of Air Pollutants
CO: It is a colourless, odourless gas that is poisonous for animals.
 It is formed by incomplete combustion of carbon containing fuels.

Health effects: reduced ability of red blood cells to carry oxygen to body cells and tissues.
 This leads to headache and anemia and at high levels it causes irreversible brain damage and death.

NO2: It is a reddish-brown irritating gas that causes photochemical smog.

 In the atmosphere, it gets converted into nitric acid (HNO3) and caused by burning fossil fuels in

industries and power plants.

Health effects: lung irritation and damage trees, lakes, soil and ancient monuments and fabrics.

SO2: is a colourless and irritating gas that is formed by combustion of sulphur containing fossil fuels (coal

and oil).
 In the atmosphere it is converted into Sulphuric acid which is a major component of acid deposition.

Health effects: breathing problems for healthy people, reduced visibility and acid deposition on trees, lakes, soils and
monuments leading to their deterioration and adverse effect on aquatic life.
 Cont’d…
O3: is a highly reactive gas with an unpleasant odour occurring in the stratosphere where it
protects mankind from the harmful ultra-violet rays that comes from the Sun.
 However on earth, it is a pollutant and moderates the climate

 It occurs on earth due to reaction between Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and
Nitrogen Oxides.

Photochemical smog: is a brownish smoke that frequently forms on clear, sunny days
over large cities with significant amounts of automobile traffic.
 is mainly due to chemical reactions among NOx and HCs in the presence of sunlight.

The harmful effects of smog occur mainly in the areas :

 Human health and comfort,

 damage to materials,

 effects on the atmosphere, and toxicity to plants.

 The exact degree to which exposure.

 Free Radicals
 Photochemical reactions, which are induced by intense solar radiation, play a
very important role in determining the nature and ultimate fate of a chemical
species in the atmosphere.
 an atom or molecule containing one or more unpaired electrons in valance shell
or outer orbit and is capable of independent existence.

 By photo-ionization, energetic electromagnetic radiation in the atmosphere may

produce atoms or groups of atoms with unpaired electrons called free radicals.
 Free radicals are quite reactive; they are generally have short lifetimes.
 lose energy through radiation without having to react with another species.
 It is important to distinguish between high reactivity and instability.
 A totally isolated free radical or atom would be quite stable.
 Cont’d…
free radicals and single atoms from diatomic gases tend to persist under the

rarefied conditions of very high altitudes because they can travel long distances

before colliding with another reactive species.

However, electronically excited species have a finite, generally very short

lifetime because they can lose energy through radiation without having to react

with another species.

Hydroxyl and Hydroperoxyl Radicals in the Atmosphere

Hydroxyl radical, HO•_ is the single most important reactive intermediate

species in atmospheric chemical processes.

It is formed by several mechanisms.

At higher altitudes it is produced by photolysis of water:

 Cont’d…
H2O + hυ →HO•+ H
 In the presence of organic matter,
hydroxyl radical is produced in
abundant quantities as an
intermediate in the formation of
photochemical smog.

 HO• is made by the photolysis of:

HONO + hυ→HO•+ NO

O3 + hυ(λ< 315 nm) →O* + O2

O* + H2O →2HO•

CH4 + HO• →H3C•+ H2O

CO + HO• →CO2 + H
 GREENHOUSE GASES AND GLOBAL WARMING
 The Earth is surrounded by a thin layer of gasses we call
greenhouse gases.
 These gases are what make up our atmosphere.
 The thickness of the atmosphere and the concentration of its gases
influence the surface temperature on any planet.
 These gases produce a “greenhouse effect” by allowing incoming
solar radiant energy to penetrate to the earth’s surface while
reabsorbing infrared radiation emanating from it.
 Levels of these “greenhouse gases” have increased at a rapid rate
during recent decades and are continuing to do so.
 Cont’d…
What’s the difference b/n GW and CC?
GLOBAL WARMING CLIMATE CHANGE
 Is the increase of the Earth’s  Is the long-term changes in climate,
average surface temperature due to including average temperature and
a build-up of greenhouse gases in precipitation.
the atmosphere.  It recognizes that the average surface
 Global warming refers to an temperature may increase, the
increase in the Earth’s average regional or local temperature may
temperature decrease or remain constant.
 Climate is the average weather
conditions over time.
 Cont’d..

Pollution
Pollution
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 OZONE DEPLETION IN THE STRATOSPHERE
The stratospheric ozone (O3 ) serves as a shield to absorb harmful
ultraviolet radiation in the stratosphere:
 protecting living beings on the earth from the effects of excessive
amounts of such radiation

The main cause of ozone depletion and the ozone hole is

manufactured chemicals, especially:
 halocarbon refrigerants,

 solvents, and propellants,

 foam- blowing agents (chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), HCFCs, halons),

referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS)
 Cont’d..

Absorption of electromagnetic radiation by ozone converts the radiation’s energy to

responsible for the temperature maximum encountered at the boundary between the
and the mesosphere at an altitude of approximately 50 km. The reason that the
maximum occurs at a higher altitude than that of the maximum ozone concentration
the fact that ozone is such an effective absorber of ultraviolet light, so that most of
is absorbed in the upper stratosphere where it generates heat and only a small fractio
 O
O O O

O
O O O

O
O O
O
O O


 Cont’d…
 Ozone layer depletion causes increased UV radiation levels at the
Earth's surface, which is damaging to human health.
 Ozone is the prime ingredient of smog in our cities and other areas
of the country
 Negative effects include increases in certain types of:
 skin cancers,
 eye cataracts and immune deficiency disorders
 cause acute respiratory problems
 aggravate asthma
 UV rays also affect plant growth, reducing agricultural productivity.
 Cont’d…
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs); they are small molecules that contain chlorine,
fluorine and carbon atoms.
 Usually there are only 1-2 carbon atoms.

 are sometimes called Freons (that was their trade name for DuPont)

 most common CFCs are: CFC-11, CFC-12, CFC-113

 HCFCs are CFCs that contain hydrogen.

 This makes them more reactive to the OH radical, decreasing their

tropospheric lifetime.
 HCFCs (“soft CFCs”) destroy less stratospheric ozone than CFCs (“hard
CFCs”), because a smaller fraction of HCFCs “survive” to reach the
stratosphere.
 Acid Rain
Acid Rain refers to the deposition of acidic components in either wet or dry
forms

Defined by the pH of the liquid, either <7 or >7

Natural acid rain can be caused by volcanic emissions and biological processes

“Clean” rain has a natural acidity of about 5.2 on the pH scale due to water
reacting with carbon dioxide in the air to form carbonic acid

H2O (l) + CO2 (g) → H2CO3 (aq)

2 H2O (l) + H2CO3 (aq) <–> CO32− (aq) + 2 H3O+ (aq)

 The industrial revolution greatly increased the amount of acid in the atmosphere.

 These acids accelerate the rate of “weathering” of both natural and man-made
materials.
Human emissions of sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides contribute to the
acidification of rain
Emissions began during the industrial
revolution, remaining unchecked until
the 1970s
Burning coal is extremely cheap and
efficient but dirty, releasing sulfur
dioxide which becomes sulfuric acid in
the atmosphere
Areas downwind of power plants
receive heavy acid rain
Smoke stacks built to counteract direct
deposition of sulfuric acid only spread
the problem
 Prevention
 Coal burning power plants use Flue gas desulfurization
 requiring a reaction tower that extracts the sulfuric acid by
reacting it with lime or limestone slurry and

 Reduction in automotive emissions cuts down on NOx

 Emissions trading put into practice to put economic incentive into

cleaning industrial activities
 Many electricity companies offer solar packages to their
customers that require no installation and low costs.
 CONTROL MEASURES
The atmosphere has several built-in self cleaning processes (dispersion, gravitational settling,

flocculation, absorption, rain-washout) etc to cleanse the atmosphere.

However, control of contaminants at their source level is a desirable and effective method

through preventive or control technologies.

Source control:

 Using unleaded petrol and fuels with low sulphur and ash content

 Encouraging people to use public transport, walk or use a cycle as opposed to private vehicles

 Ensure that houses, schools, restaurants and playgrounds are not located on busy streets

 Plant trees along busy streets as they remove particulates, carbon dioxide and absorb noise

 Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outside the city preferably on the

downwind of the city.

 Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbon monoxide and

hydrocarbons
 Control measures in industrial centers
 Emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by each and every industry

 Incorporation of air pollution control equipment in design of plant layout must be made mandatory

 Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere for pollutants should be carried out to know the emission
levels.

Equipment Used To Control Air Pollution

I. Ensuring sufficient supply of oxygen to the combustion chamber and

adequate temperature so that the combustion is complete

II. Use mechanical devices such as scrubbers, cyclones, bag houses and

electro-static precipitators in manufacturing processes.

 All methods retain hazardous materials that must be disposed safely.

 Wet scrubber can additionally reduce sulphur dioxide emissions.

III. The air pollutants collected must be carefully disposed.

 The factory fumes are dealt with chemical treatment.