Chapter one: Vectors

1.1 Vectors and Scalar Quantities

• Scalars are physical quantities specified only in
magnitude
• Examples: distance (S), speed (v), mass (m), time (t),
energy (E), volume (v), temperature (T) etc

• Vectors are physical quantities that are specified by

both magnitude and direction
• Examples: displacement ( ⃗ ), velocity ( ⃗ ),
acceleration ( ⃗), force ( ⃗ ), Momentum ( ⃗) torque( ⃗)
etc
 Representation of vectors
• There are two ways to represent vectors
• Geometric (Graphical)
• Algebric (Analytic)
• Geometrically, vectors are represented by arrow where:
• the length of the arrow represents magnitude &
• the head of the arrow represents direction

• Algebrically, vectors are represented by a letter with an

arrow overhead ( ⃗ )or by bold face letters (A)
Example ⃗ , ⃗, ⃗ , ⃗
 1.2 Vector addition and subtraction
• There are two ways to add vectors
• Geometric/Graphical Method
• Algebric/Component Method
• Geometrically vectors are added by connecting them head
to tail.
• The resultant vector is the vector drawn from the tail of the
first vector to the head of the last vector.
Activity
• For the vectors shown in the figure below, draw
i) A+B ii) C+B iii) A+B+C
• Subtracting a vector is adding the opposite
⃗ − = ⃗ + (− )
 Parallelogram Method
• If two Vectors ⃗ and are connected tail to tail forming two
adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the resultant vector
= ⃗+
is represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram
 Triangle Method
• If two vectors ⃗ and are connected head to tail, the
resultant vector = ⃗ + is the missing sides of the
triangle.

• Cosine Law:- If two vectors ⃗ and are connected head

to tail forming an angle ,

• Sine Law
 Component Method of vector Addition
• Resolving a vector is splitting the vectors into components
the component of A along the x-axis
= =

= =

= +
• In component form
• For two dimensional case vector ⃗ can be written as
⃗= ̂+ ̂
• For three dimensional case
⃗= ̂+ ̂+
• If two vectors ⃗ and are given in component form as
⃗= ̂+ ̂+ and
= ̂+ ̂+
• Then
⃗+ = + ̂+ + ̂+( + )
 1.3 Multiplication of vectors
• If we multiply a vector by a scalar, the result is a vector quantity
• There are two ways to multiply vectors
• Scalar (dot) Product:- the dot product of two vectors ⃗ is
defined as

• The result of dot product is a scalar quantity

• If ⃗ are given in component form as
⃗= ̂+ ̂+ and = ̂+ ̂+
• then

• ̂. ̂ = ̂. ̂ = . =1 and ̂. ̂ = ̂. = ̂. =0
• Because
0 = 1 and cos90 = 0
• Vector (cross) product:- the cross product of two vectors
⃗ is defined as

• where is unit vector perpendicular to the plane of

⃗
• i.e if ⃗ = ⃗ × then ⃗ ⊥ ⃗ and ⃗⊥
• In component form,
̂ ̂
⃗× =

• ⃗× represents the area of a parallelogram whose sides are

⃗
 Suppose you are given two vectors = 2 ̂ + 4 ̂ + and
= 3 ̂ − 3 ̂ + , where is unknown constant. If the two
vectors are orthogonal, then the value of is (2014:35)
Given four vectors ⃗ = 2 ̂ − ̂ , = 4 ̂ − 2 ̂ , ⃗ = ̂ − ̂ ,
and = 2 ̂ + 3 ̂, which pair of these vectors are collinear ?
(2012:46)
If vector ⃗ is 6m in the x-direction and vector ⃗ is 8m in
the y-direction, What is the value of the vector ⃗ + ⃗ ?
(2009:27)
Given vectors ⃗ = 3 ̂ + ̂ and = 3 ̂ − ̂. What is the
angle between the vectors? (2009:28)
 Suppose ⃗ = 3 ̂ − 2 ̂ and = − ̂ − ̂ are two vectors in
the xy-plane. What is the value of a such that ⃗ + = 2 ̂ ?
(2004:4)
Suppose vectors ⃗ = 2 ̂ + ̂ =2 ̂+3 ̂+ ,
which of the following is unit vector perpendicular to both
vectors? (2001:2)
• Solution
 Chapter Two: Kinematics

2.1. Motion in one Dimension

• Kinematics:- It is the branch of mechanics that studies
motion of objects without cause
• Frame of reference:- A coordinate system from which the
motion of an object is being measured

2.1.1 Kinematic terms

• Distance: the length of the path followed by the object

• Displacement:- The shortest distance

• Average velocity:- displacement between two points divided
by the time interval
∆⃗ ⃗ − ⃗
⃗ = =
∆ −
• Instantaneous velocity:- It is the velocity at a particular
point or at a particular instant of time

∆⃗
⃗ = lim
∆ → ∆

• Average acceleration:- The change in velocity divided by

the time interval
∆⃗ ⃗ − ⃗
⃗ = =
∆ −
• Instantaneous acceleration:- acceleration of an object at
particular point
∆⃗
⃗ = lim
∆ → ∆
 2.1.2 Uniformly accelerated Motion
• For motion with constant acceleration, the average and
instantaneous accelerations are equal
∆⃗
=
∆
Let ⃗ = ⃗ = ∆ =
−
=

⟹ = + (1)
• For motion with constant acceleration

= (2)
• From the definition of average velocity
∆
= = ⟹ =
∆
⟹ = (3)
• Substituting equation (1) in equation (3) gives
+ +
=
2
⟹ = + (4)
• Solving for t from equation (1) and Substituting for t in
equation (3) gives
+ − −
= =
2 2
⟹ = + (5)
 Exercises
2.1 A car accelerates from an initial velocity u to a final velocity
v, during which it covers a displacement s. What is its
acceleration? (2014:36)

2.2 What is the magnitude of the resultant velocity for a bird

flying first at a speed of 10m/s north east and then flying south at
a speed of 8m/s? (2011:8)
2.3 A car travelling at 20m/s starts to speed up. After 5minutes its
speed is 144m/s. What is the acceleration of the car? (2013:37)
2.4 A driver of an automobile travelling at a constant speed of
20m/s suddenly applies a brake and the automobile comes to rest
in 2s after skidding for a certain distance. What is the length of
the skid distance? (2011:2)
 2.2 Motion in Two Dimension
2.2.1. Projectile motion
• Projectile motion is motion in a gravitational field under the
action of gravitational force.
• Neglecting air resistance the only force acting on the
projectile is downward gravitational force
 ℎ ( ) (UAM)
 Horizontal velocity  Vertical velocity
= = From equations of uniformly
accelerated motion
= + but = ,
=−
⟹ = −

 Horizontal displacement  Vertical displacement (y)

= = = + but
= , =−

⟹ = −
Maximum height and Horizontal range

The vertical velocity at any time t

= −
At the maximum height =0
0= −
⟹ = (time to reach maximum height)
• The vertical displacement at any time t
1
= −
2
• At the maximum height = ℎ,

1
ℎ= −
2

⟹ =
Range:- The maximum horizontal distance travelled by the
projectile
Total time of flight :- The duration of time from
launch to landing.
It is the total time for which the projectile is in air
• It is twice the time to reach maximum height

• The horizontal displacement at any time t

=
• when = , =

2
=

• From trigonometry 2 = 2

⟹
 Exercises (solution)
2.5) A boy throws a ball vertically upward with an initial speed
of 20m/s. Neglecting air resistance, which of the following is
true about the motion of the ball? (2012:48)
A) The time taken to reach the maximum height is 4s
B) Is velocity after 3s is 50m/s downward
C) Its maximum height is 20m
D) Its velocity after 1s is 30m/s, upward

2.6) If a long jumper athlete leaves the ground at an angle of

370 above the horizontal surface at a speed of 10m/s, how far
does he jump in the horizontal direction? (2007:6)
 2.2.2. Circular Motion
Uniform Circular motion
• Uniform Circular motion is motion of on a circular path at
a constant speed
• There are two ways in which the acceleration can occur
• because of change in magnitude of the velocity
• because of change in direction of the velocity
• For Uniform Circular motion, acceleration arises from
change in direction of the velocity
Centripetal (radial) acceleration:- acceleration that
occurs because of change in direction of the velocity
=
or =
=
=

⟹ = =
Radial force:- Force that causes radial acceleration. Its
direction is towards the center.
=
 Motion in a vertical circle
• When a body moves in a vertical circle, its speed decreases
as it moves to the top of the circle and increases as it moves
towards the bottom of the circle
• Consider a mass m attached to the spring of length L and
whirled in a vertical circle.

T is the tension in the string

= is always downward
• A) At the top
= + =
• The minimum speed for the mass to reach the top of the
circle is when = 0

⟹ =
• B) At the bottom
= − =
• C) At half way is along the tangent and it has no role
in centripetal acceleration

= =
 Exercise (solution)
2.7) A woman is rotating a bucket of water in a vertical circle of
radius 0.9m. The mass of the bucket and the water is 5kg. What
is the bucket’s minimum speed at the top of the circle if no water
is to spill out (2007:7)
2.8) A body is rotated with a uniform speed in a circle of radius
1m. What is the centripetal acceleration in m/s2 if it completes
12 rotations in 3 seconds? (2002:14)
2.9) An example of a body moving with constant speed but still
accelerating is: (2008:8)
A) A body moving on straight road
B) A body moving on straight railway track
C) A body moving on a circular path
D) A body falling in a viscous fluid
 Chapter Three: Angular Motion
Rotation:- Motion of an object about a fixed axis
• Rotational motion is described by
• angular displacement ,
• angular velocity , and
• angular acceleration
Angular displacement :- The angle through
which a rotating object turns about axis of rotation
• is measured in terms of degree, revolution and
radian

• The SI unit of is radian

• Angular velocity :- It is the rate of change of angular
displacement

• Angular acceleration :- It is the rate of change of

angular velocity

• The Linear and angular quantities are related as

 Motion with Constant Angular Acceleration

For motion with constant For motion with constant

linear acceleration angular acceleration
= +a = +

1 1
= + = +
2 2
= +2 = +2

+ +
= =
2 2
 Exercises (solution)
3.1) A wheel starts from rest and rotates with constant angular
acceleration to reach an angular speed of 12rad/s in 3s. What
is the magnitude of the angular acceleration of the wheel in
rad/s2 and the angle in radian through which it rotates in this
time interval respectively? (2004:Q28)

3.2) A fly wheel is rotating with an angular velocity of 2rad/s

and acted by an acceleration of ⁄ / . How long will it
take to complete three revolutions? (2008:Q20)

3.3) The angular position of a swinging door is described as

= 5 + 10 + 2 . What is the angular speed and
acceleration of the door at t=3s? (2002:31)
 3.3 Torque and Angular Acceleration
• Torque:- It is the turning effect of force. It is also called
moment of force
• Torque is the product of force and perpendicular
distance from the axis of rotation

= but =
= =
• When a torque acts on a rotating body, it produces
acceleration

• where I is called rotational inertia or moment of inertia

• For discrete particles , , … located at distances
, , … from the axis of rotation
= + + +⋯

• The SI unit of moment of inertia is kgm2

• The moment of inertia of a body depends on:
• mass of the body
• size of the body and
• the axis of rotation being considered
• The moment of inertia of some familiar bodies (when
the axis of rotation passes through the center of mass)
• Disk

Solid cylinder

Solid Sphere
Work done by the torque
• In linear terms, work done by the force
=
• Torque is the angular equivalence of force
• In angular case, when Torque turns the object
through an angular displacement

Rotational kinetic energy

• In linear case =
• Its rotational equivalence is
 Exercises (solution)
3.4) A disc of radius 0.1m and mass 0.1kg is set into motion by
a tangential force of 2N applied at the edge of the disc. If the
angular acceleration of the disc is 400rad/s2, the torque and
angular velocity at 2s are respectively (2012:39)
3.5) The particles shown in the figure below are connected by
rectangular rigid rods of negligible mass. The system rotates about
the Z axis with an angular speed of 6rad/s, what is the rotational
kinetic energy of the system? (2007:Q20)
 Angular Momentum
• If a particle of mass m moving with velocity ⃗ is at a
displacement ⃗ from the axis of rotation, then the
angular momentum is defined as

where ⃗ = ⃗
• If ⃗ is perpendicular to ⃗ the magnitude of is
= 90 =
• In rotational case, =
=
• For a point mass =
⟹
 Conservation of Angular Momentum
Angular impulse is the change in angular momentum of a
rotating body caused by a torque acting over a certain time
• In linear case the impulse =∆ = ∆
• Similarly, in rotational case, the angular impulse is

Conservation of angular momentum

• If the net torque acting on the body is zero, then the
angular momentum of the body remains constant
∆
i.e if = = 0
∆
∆ = − =0
=
⟹
 Exercises
3.6) A 1.5kg particle moves in the xy plane with velocity
⃗ = 4.2 ̂ − 3.6 ̂ / . What is the angular momentum when
its position vector is ⃗ = 1.5 ̂ + 2.2 ̂ ? (2005:Q26)
3.7) A solid horizontal cylinder of moment of inertia of 5kgm2
about a fixed vertical axis through its center rotates with an
angular speed of 7rad/s. A 0.25kg piece of putty is dropped
vertically onto a cylinder at a point 0.9m from the center of
rotation and sticks to the cylinder. What is the final angular
speed of the system? (2014:13)
3.8) A skater is spinning with an angular velocity 5rad/s.
When the skater has her arms close to her body, her moment
of inertia is 1.2kgm2. She puts her arms out and her angular
velocity decreases to 3rad/s. What is her moment of inertia
now? (text book)
 Chapter 4: Dynamics
• Dynamics:-The study of motion of objects with the
cause
• The common cause for the motion is force
• Effects of force:
• Change in speed
• Change in direction
• Change in shape
• 4.1 forces in Nature
• gravitational force
• Electromagnetic force
• Nuclear force
• Force is a vector quantity and its SI unit is Newton (N)
1 =1 /
 4.2 Newton’s Laws of motion
:- It describes the case when ∑ = 0
• Newton’s 1st Law of motion is also called the Law of
inertia
• An object remains in state of rest or uniform motion if
the net force acting on it is zero.

:- It describes the case when ∑ ≠ 0

• The net force acting on the object causes acceleration.
∑ ⃗
∑⃗= ⃗ ⟹ ⃗=
• Acceleration of the object is directly proportional to the
net force and inversely proportional to the mass
 (The law of action and reaction)
• The force exerted by object 1 on object 2 is equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to the force
exerted by object 2 on object 1

• Action and reaction forces

• are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
• always exist in pair
• act on different bodies
 Forces of friction
• Forces of friction:- force between two surfaces that
are in contact. It opposes the motion

• There are two types of friction forces

 : exists between two surfaces as long
as the object is at rest relative to the surface
=
• is the coefficient of static friction
• is normal force ( the perpendicular force exerted by
the surface on the object)
: exists between two surfaces when
they slide over each other.
=
• is the coefficient of kinetic friction
• Generally the maximum value of static friction is
greater than kinetic friction
. , > because >
 4.3. Applications of Newton’s Laws
To solve problems using Newton’s Laws
1) Draw free body diagram
• Specify line of motion
• Represent the object by particle
• specify all the forces acting on the object with their
proper direction
2) Resolve the forces into components to the
direction of motion and to the direction of
motion
3) Apply Newton’s Laws
 Exercises
4.1) A person pushes horizontally with a force of 220N on a
55kg crate to move it across the level floor. The coefficient of
kinetic friction between the crate and the floor is 0.35. Which
of the following is correct about the motion of the crate
(2014:38)
A) The magnitude of the frictional force on the crate is 77N
B) The magnitude of the acceleration of the crate is 7.43m/s2
C) The magnitude of the acceleration of the crate is 0.50m/s2
D) The magnitude of the frictional force on the crate is 178N
4.2) A 5kg mass pushed upward along an inclined plane of
inclination 300 with constant force F. If the acceleration of the
block for this motion is 1m/s2 and the plane is assumed to be
frictionless, what is the magnitude of the constant force F?
(2011:15)
4.3) A force F of magnitude 20N is applied to the block of
mass 2kg that lies on a rough horizontal surface as shown in
the figure. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the block
and the surface is 0.4. What is the magnitude of the
acceleration of the block? (2007:8)

4.4) Two masses 2kg and 3kg are attached to the ends of a
light string passing over a pulley, fixed at the top. What are the
tension in the string and the acceleration of the masses in terms
of g? (2001:18)
 Linear Momentum
• Linear momentum:- It is the product of mass and
velocity

• It is a vector quantity and Its SI unit is kgm/s

• From Newton’s 2nd law
∆
∑⃗= ⃗ but ⃗ = =
∆ ∆
∆
• ∑⃗= =
∆ ∆
(Impulse)
• Impulse:- Change in momentum in a short time interval
 Conservation of Linear momentum
• If the system is isolated, ∑ ⃗ = 0
⟹∆ = − =0

• Consider collision between two masses

• If the system is isolated

 Elastic and Inelastic collision
• Elastic collision: A collision in which both momentum and
kinetic energy are conserved
• Inelastic collision:- A collision in which momentum is
conserved but kinetic energy is not conserved.
• Head-on collision:- a collision in one dimension, where the
objects rebound on straight line paths that coincide with the
original direction of motion
• Glancing collision:- a collision in two dimensions,
where the objects rebound in the same plane but not
necessarily along the original line of motion
 4.5 Center of mass
• It is a point that acts as if all the masses of the body is
concentrated at that point.
• The point from which the force of gravity on the body acts.
• the point about which the turning effect of the force is zero
Center of mass of the particles
• Consider particles of masses and at distances and
from the center

for 2D case
 Exercises
4.5) A cart moving at a speed collides with an identical
stationary cart on an air track and the two stick together
after collision. What is their velocity after collision?
(2003:11)
4.6) A pool ball of mass 100g and velocity (5,–4)m/s
collides with a stationary pool ball of the same mass. After
the collision, one of the pool balls has a velocity (2,–3)
m/s. Find the velocity of the other pool ball.(text book)
4.7) Two particles collide and come to rest. The first
particle has mass 5kg and a velocity (8,–9)m/s before the
collision. The second particle has a mass of 2kg. Find the
velocity of the second particle before the collision. (text
book)
4.8) Find the distance of the center of mass of the system
shown in the diagram from a point A. The rod is massless.
(2008:15)
 4.6 Condition of Equilibrium
• A body is said to be in equilibrium if it is in state of rest
or uniform motion
• For an object to be in equilibrium

• Concurrent forces:- forces that pass through the same

point
• For concurrent forces, if ∑ ⃗ = 0, the object is said to be
in equilibrium
• Geometrically, if we draw concurrent forces head to tail
and they form closed shape the net force is zero
 Moment of force (torque)
• Moment of force:- it is force multiplied by
perpendicular distance from the point about which the
turning effect is being measured
• When measuring torque
– clock wise direction is taken as negative
– counter clockwise direction is taken as positive
• Coplanar forces:- set of forces that act in the same
plane
• If they act on a body they tend to produce turning
effect
 Types of Equilibrium
• Static equilibrium:- The equilibrium is said to be static if
the body is at rest and there is no net force or net torque
acting on it
• Dynamic equilibrium:- The equilibrium is said to be
dynamic if the body is moving with steady velocity and there
is no net force or net torque acting on it.
• Stable equilibrium:- If a small moment acts the object is
displaced from its equilibrium position but with the removal
of the force, it returns to its original equilibrium position
• Neutral equilibrium:- If a small moment acts the object is
displaced from its equilibrium position ; with the removal of
the force the object acquires a new equilibrium position
which is the same with the original equilibrium position

• Unstable equilibrium:- If a small moment acts the object is

displaced from its equilibrium position, and with the
removal of the force it will not return back to initial
equilibrium position

Rotational equilibrium:- A body is said to be in rotational

equilibrium if the net torque on the body is zero.
 Exercises
4.9)Two masses of and are balanced on a horizontal
stick of negligible mass pivoted at the center of the mass of the
system. If the distance from to the center of the mass is 3m
and the distance from the mass to the center of the mass is
1m, the ratio of to ( / ) is (2012:14)
4.10) The fulcrum of a uniform 20kg seesaw that is 4m long is
located 2.5m from one end. A 30kg child sits on the long end.
The weight of the person sitting at the other end in order to
balance the seesaw is (2012:2)
4.11) A 10m uniform ladder weighing 200N rests against a
frictionless wall. The ladder makes an angle of 530 with the
horizontal. If the ladder is just on the verge of slipping when a
600N fire fighter is 6m along the ladder from the bottom, what
is the coefficient of static friction between the ladder and the
ground? (2006:49)
4.12) A uniform 6m long and 600N beam rests on two supports
as shown. The force exerted on the beam by the right support is
(2008:12)
 Chapter Five: Work, Energy and Power
• Work done by a constant force

If = 90 , 90 = 0
⟹ =0

• Work is done by the component of the force parallel to

the direction of the displacement
• If ⃗ = ̂+ ̂+ ⃗= ̂+ ̂+
= ⃗. ⃗ =
 Work done by a variable force
• If the force is variable, we cannot use the equation
=
• But, If we can draw ⃗ − ⃗ graph,

• Example of variable force is spring force =

 Work-energy theorem
• Kinetic energy:- energy possessed by an object because
of its motion

• If work is done on the object and the only change is its

speed, work done is equal to change in kinetic energy
=∆ = −
• From Newton’s 2nd Law
• = but =
−
⟹ =
2
1 1
= −
2 2
⟹
 Exercises
5.1 The speed of a mass is increased by two fold. By what
factor does the kinetic energy change? (2004:6)
5.2 A car weighing 500kg, working against a resistance force
of 500N, accelerates from rest to 20m/s in 100m. What is the
work done in this process and what is the final kinetic energy
of the car?
5.3 A man pushes a trolley loaded with goods with a force of
40N a distance of 25m. The mass of the loaded trolley is 75kg.
What is the net work done on the trolley, if the coefficient of
kinetic friction is 0.8 ( = 9.8 / )
5.4 How much work is required to change the speed of a
1000kg car from 5m/s to 8m/s? (1998:20)
5.6 An object under the action of a force ⃗ = 3 ̂ + 4 ̂ was
found to be displaced by ⃗ = 5 ̂ . What is the work done on
the object? (1996:39)
 5.3 Conservation of energy
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed it can only be
changed from one form to another.
• Mechanical energy:- It is the sum of potential energy and
kinetic energy.
= +
• If mechanical energy is conserved, + =
⟹
• Mechanical energy is conserved if work is done by
conservative forces
• examples-gravitational force, spring force
• Mechanical energy is not conserved if work is done by none-
conservative forces
• example friction force
 5.4 Conservative and dissipative forces
• Conservative forces
• Work done by conservative
forces is path independent
• Work done along a closed
path is zero
• Mechanical energy is
conserved
• ∆K + ∆U = 0
• Examples gravitational
force, Spring force
• Dissipative forces
• Work done by non-
conservative forces is path
dependent
• Work done along a closed
path is different from zero
• Mechanical energy is not
conserved
- ∆ +∆ ≠0
- ∆ +∆ =−
• example friction force
 Exercises
5.7) A pendulum shown in the figure below has 2.5m length and
mass m. When it passes point A, its mass has a speed of 2m/s
(neglect air resistance). The height of the pendulum at
displacement positions B and C is (2013:26)
5.8) A 1kg mass is attached to a spring of stiffness constant
100N/m. What is the maximum displacement of the mass
from its equilibrium position if its speed is 3m/s at the
equilibrium point? (2004:18)
5.9) A block of mass 1.6kg is attached to a horizontal spring
that has a force constant of 2000N/m. The spring is
compressed 2cm and then released from rest. At what speed
will the block pass through the equilibrium position if a
constant friction force of 10N retards its motion from the
moment it is released? (2006:50)
5.10) A ball of mass m is dropped from a height h above the
ground as shown in the figure (A) Neglecting air resistance,
determine the speed of the ball when it is at a height y above the
ground.
 Power
• Power is the rate at which work is done or energy is expended
∆
=
∆
But ∆ = ⃗ . ∆ ⃗
⃗. ∆ ⃗
⟹ = = ⃗. ⃗
∆
• Its SI unit is Watt where
1 = 1 /1
Exercises
5.11) A crane raises 75kg of bricks from the ground to a height
of 45m in 52s at a constant speed. The average power of the
crane is
5.12) A spring with a spring constant of 300N/m is stretched
20cm in 2seconds. What is the power applied to stretch the
spring? (2009:11)
 Chapter six
Oscillations and waves
• Oscillation is a backward and forward motion about
equilibrium position.
• Equilibrium position is the position of an oscillating
body when it is at rest
• Oscillation is also called vibration or periodic motion
or harmonic motion
• Examples of Oscillations
– Vibration of atoms within molecules
– Oscillation of charges to produce EM waves
– Vibration of vocal cords to produce sound waves
• If the oscillation of an object is periodic about
equilibrium position it is called simple harmonic
motion (SHM)
• For simple harmonic motion,
– acceleration of an object is proportional to the magnitude
of the displacement but opposite in direction

• Restoring force:- A force that tries to restore the

system to its equilibrium position.
• Examples of simple harmonic motions
– Simple pendulum
– mass spring system
 Graphical representation of SHM
• If we plot the displacement-time graph for simple harmonic
motion, the variation is sinusoidal and it can be described in
terms of
• we use sine wave if the oscillator is initially at equilibrium
• We use cosine wave if the oscillator starts at the maximum
• Period (T):- The time interval for one complete oscillation
• Amplitude (A);- Maximum displacement from equilibrium
position

• Frequency (f):- The number of complete cycles per second.

It is the inverse of period
1
=
• The SI unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz)
• If the oscillation is sinusoidal, the displacement x at any
time (t) can be described as
2 2
= =
• where A is the amplitude of oscillation
• T is the period
• Displacement In terms of frequency
= 2 = 2
• Angular frequency :- It is the rate of change of angular
displacement
= ⟹ = =2
2
⟹ =2 =
• Displacement In terms of angular frequency
= =
Displacement, velocity and acceleration in SHM

• If the oscillator is at
equilibrium at = 0,
the displacement can
be represented as
• =
∆
• = =
∆
• =
∆
• = =
∆
• =−
• ⟹ =−
Relationship Between velocity and displacement
for simple Harmonic motion
• = ⟹ = (1)
• = = ⟹ = (2)
• Multiplying both sides of (1) by and adding with (2)
gives
+ = +
= +
• From trigonometry + =1
⟹ + =
⟹ =± −
• At equilibrium = 0 ⟹ = =±
• At the maximum displacement from equilibrium position,
=± ⟹ =
⟹ =0
 Period of mass spring system
• Consider a block of mass m attached to the end of a spring, with
the block free to move on a horizontal, frictionless surface as
shown in the figure below.
• The restoring force acting on the mass is
=−
• From Newton’s 2nd Law of motion =
− = ⟹ = (a)
• From equation of simple harmonic motion
=− (b)
• Equating (a) and (b) gives
−
− =

= ⟹ =

• But, = ⟹ = ⟹ =2
 Period of a simple Pendulum
• Consider a bob of mass m attached to the spring of length L,
and displaced from the equilibrium position as shown in the
figure below Approximations
– Pivot is frictionless
– air resistance is neglected
– mass of the string is negligible
– The angle is small
• The bob moves on a circular path of radius
L. If the displacement of the bob is along x
=
• The net force along the direction of motion
of the bob is

∥ =− =
• The negative sign indicates that the direction of restoring force
is always towards equilibrium
⟹ =−
• But, for small angle , ≈
⟹ =−
• Substituting = gives
=− (a)
• From equations of simple harmonic motion,
=− (b)
• Equating (a) and (b) gives
− =− ⟹ = ⟹ =

• But, = ⟹ =

⟹ =2
 Energy of a simple Harmonic Motion
• In the absence of the damping force, the energy of an oscillator is
conserved, and the oscillation is said to be simple Harmonic (SHM)
• For an oscillator under simple Harmonic
Motion,
• Kinetic energy at any time t is =
• Potential energy at any time t =
• Then the total energy becomes
1 1
= + = +
2 2
• At equilibrium, = 0 and =
1
= =
2
• At maximum displacement from equilibrium
position, = 0 and =
1
= =
2
• Since energy is conserved
1 1 1
+ =
2 2 2
 Forced oscillation and resonance
• Free oscillation:- When a body is displaced from its
equilibrium position and allowed to oscillate without any
external force acting on it. The oscillator then oscillates at its
natural frequency.
• Forced or derived oscillation occurs when a periodic driving
force acts on the oscillator
• Periodic driving force:- A force of constant frequency acting
on an oscillator; the oscillator then oscillates at the frequency
of the driving force.
• If the frequency of the periodic driving force is equal to the
natural frequency of the oscillator, energy is transferred to the
oscillator and the amplitude of oscillation is very large. This
phenomenon is called resonance.
• The natural frequency of the oscillator is also called
resonance frequency
Resonance
 Damped oscillation
• Damping force:- Resistive force that oppose the motion of the
oscillator by acting in the opposite direction to its velocity
• Air resistance and friction are examples of damping force
• The damping force is given by
=−
– where b is the damping coefficient
– v is velocity of the object through the medium
Damping types
• Under damping:- Damping that allows the oscillator to move
back and forth through equilibrium position with decreasing
amplitude until it comes to rest.
• This is the case when the maximum value of the damping force
is less than the maximum value of the restoring force
. <
• Over damping:- damping that prevents oscillation entirely and
only allows the oscillator to return slowly to its equilibrium
position
• This is for the case when the maximum value of the damping force
is greater than the maximum value of the restoring force
. >
• Critical damping:- it occurs when the damping coefficient reaches
a critical value such that
=
2
where is the natural frequency of the oscillator
• In this case the oscillator approaches the equilibrium position in a
shortest possible time interval without oscillation
 Wave Motion
• Wave:- Periodic disturbance that travels from one place to another
• A wave transfers energy from the source to another place but not
particles
• Waves can be classified as:
Mechanical wave
• Electromagnetic wave
• Mechanical Waves require material medium for both production
and propagation
• Examples Sound waves, Water waves, Waves on string
• Electromagnetic waves are produced by accelerating charges
which in turn produce electric and magnetic fields which oscillate
perpendicularly
• EM waves do not require material medium for propagation
• Examples - Radio waves, x-rays, visible light
 Transverse and longitudinal waves
• Waves can also be classified as transverse and longitudinal
waves
• Transverse wave:- A wave in which direction of oscillation of
the medium is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
the wave
• Examples :-Water waves, EM waves, Waves on string

• Wave length ( ):- The distance between consecutive crests or

troughs
• Longitudinal wave:- a wave in which direction of
oscillation of the wave is parallel to the direction of
propagation of the wave
• Example Sound wave

• Wave speed ( ):-The wave speed of a wave with

frequency and wave length is
=
 Wave Equation
• For a transverse wave, the vertical displacement (y) of a
particle in a medium at a particular time t can be related to
the horizontal displacement (x) of the wave
• If a wave travels to the right with speed v
= − = −
but, =

= −2 or =
2 2
= −

Let k = wave number = angular frequency

• If the wave travels to the left = +

 Wave behavior
Reflection of Waves
• Reflection of waves is defined as the change of direction of
propagation of a wave when it meets a boundary.
• All types of waves follow the law of reflection, which states
that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
Refraction of Waves
• A wave refracts when it travels from one medium to another.
• As the wave enters a different medium, its speed changes and
the wave bends in one particular direction
• The relationship between the angle of incidence, angle of
refraction and the wave speed in each medium is given
by Snell’s Law
= =

• As the wave passes from one medium to another, if the

speed decreases
– the refracted ray bends towards the normal
– the wavelength decreases
– the frequency remains constant
 Diffraction of Waves
• Diffraction is the spreading out of waves as they pass through an
aperture or around objects.
• Diffraction either causes a wave to bend as it passes by a barrier,
or allows the wave to spread out as it passes through an
opening.
• Waves with longer wavelengths are easier to diffract than waves
with shorter wavelengths.
• Diffraction occurs when the size of the aperture or obstacle is of
the wavelength of the wave or smaller
 Interference of Waves
• Constructive interference:- The production of large oscillation by
the superposition of two waves that are in phase with each other
• Destructive interference:- the cancelling out of oscillation caused by
the superposition of two waves that are in anti-phase

• In phase:- When two waves pass through the equilibrium point at the
same time. This is when the angular difference between them is 00.
• Anti-phase:- When the phase difference between the waves is
 Exercises
1) A particle that undergoes simple harmonic motion has a period of
0.4s and an amplitude of 12mm. The maximum velocity of the
particle is (2003:44)
2) A wave has a speed of 50m/s and a wavelength of 25,000m. What
is the frequency of the wave? (2005: 3)
3) A given minimum point (through) of a sinusoidal wave is
traveling 480cm along a rope in12s. If the oscillator that generates
the wave completes 48 vibrations in 30s what is the wavelength of
the wave? (2007: 31)
4) A 0.35kg mass attached to the end of the spring oscillates 2.5times
per second with amplitude of 0.15m. Which of the following is true
about the motion of the mass? (2012:23)
A) The acceleration when it is 0.1m from the equilibrium is
25m/s2
B) The velocity when it is 0.1m from the equilibrium is 3m/s
C) The total energy of the system 97J
D) The velocity when it passes through the equilibrium is
2.355m/s
 Chapter Seven
Heat and Thermodynamics
• Heat: the transfer of energy between two systems because
of temperature difference. It is measured using calorimeter
and its SI unit is joule
• Temperature: It is the measure of hotness or coldness of a
body. Temperature is measured using thermometer and it
SI unit is Kelvin (K)
• The heat capacity (C) of a substance is defined as the
amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of
that substance by 1°C or (1K). If heat Q produces a change
∆T in the temperature of a substance, then
= ∆
• The specific heat capacity (c) of a substance is the heat
capacity per unit mass.
• if energy Q transferred by heat to mass m of a substance
changes the temperature of the sample by ∆ , then the
specific heat of the substance is
= =
∆
• Rearranging the equation gives

Change of state
• There are three phases of matter (solid, liquid and gas)
• Triple point: the temperature and pressure at which the three
phases of a substance coexist
• Phase change: occurs when a substance changes from one
phase to another.
• Two common phase changes are from solid to liquid
(melting) and from liquid to gas (boiling)
• During phase change there is no change in temperature
• Latent heat the amount of heat energy released or
absorbed by a substance during a change of state that
occurs without a change in temperature
• The heat energy required to change the phase of a given
mass m of a pure substance is
=
• where L is called latent heat of the substance
• Based on the type of phase change latent heat can be:
• Latent heat of fusion is the term used when the phase
change is from solid to liquid
=
• Latent heat of vaporization is the term used when the
phase change is from liquid to gas
=
 7.5 Thermodynamics
• Thermodynamics is the study of energy conversion between
heat and other forms of energy.
• Thermodynamics is derived from Greek words
• Therme- heat
• Dynamics- Power
• Thermodynamics describes phenomena on large scale
through measurement of macroscopic variables such as
volume, pressure and temperature.
• Thermal Equilibrium
• Temperature:- The measure of average random kinetic
energy of particles in a body.
• Thermal equilibrium:- The condition in which two bodies
are at the same temperature and there is no transfer of energy
between them.
• Zeros Law of thermodynamics:- Two bodies that are
separately in thermal equilibrium with a third body must be in
thermal equilibrium with each other.

• Zeros law is used to calibrate thermometer

• The SI unit of absolute temperature scale is defined to be
Kelvin
• Absolute Zero (0K):- The temperature at which all the
random motion of the particles ceases
• Kelvin and temperature scales are related as
= + 273.15
 1st law of thermodynamics
• Internal energy (U) of a system is the sum of the random
distribution of kinetic energy and potential energy of the
molecules within the system.
• Work done on a system increases its internal energy
• Heating the system also increases its internal energy
• Since energy is conserved
∆ = ∆ + ∆ (1st law of thermodynamics)
• 1st Law of thermodynamics states that the increase in internal
energy of the system is equal to the sum of the heat entering
the system and work done on the system.
+∆ represents work done on the system
• If work is done by the system
∆ =∆ −∆
 Thermodynamic Processes
• Isolated system:- A system that does not interact with its
surroundings and its internal energy remains constant
. ∆ =0
• Insulated system:- A system that does not allow transfer of
energy by heating
. ∆ =0
• Isobaric Process:- A process for which the pressure of the
gas remains constant • For Isobaric process
∆ = ∆
• but =
• ⇒ ∆ = ∆ = ∆
where
• ∆ = ∆
• Isochoric process: A process in which the volume of the
system remains constant
• i.e for isochoric process
∆ =0 ⇒∆ = ∆ =0
• 1st Law of thermodynamics becomes
∆ =∆
• Isothermal process:- A process that occurs at constant
temperature
. ∆ =0
• 1st Law of thermodynamics becomes
∆ =∆
∆ − ∆ =0 ⇒ ∆ = ∆
• Adiabatic process:- A process in which there is no transfer
of heat in and out of the system
. ∆ =0
⇒∆ =− ∆
 P-V curve for thermodynamic Processes

a) Adiabatic expansion b) Isothermal expansion

c) Isobaric Process d) Isochoric process
Entropy and second law of thermodynamics
• Consider a gas confined to the left part of the container by a
partition

• If the partition is removed, the gas spontaneously expands to

the right part of the container

• Disorder increases
• Entropy: It is the measure of the amount of disorder
 Reversible and irreversible processes
Reversible process:- a process that can be reversed to its initial state
with out change on the surroundings
• For the process to be reversible:
• there should be no energy transfer
• the system should always be at equilibrium state
• there is no change in the entropy of the system
i.e ∆ = 0
• No natural process is perfectly reversible
• But, some very slowly occurring infinitesimal processes can be
approximated as reversible
• Example very slowly occurring isothermal process
Irreversible Process:-a process that cannot be reversed to its
initial state without energy transfer.
• All most all natural processes are irreversible
• For irreversible processes entropy always increases
• Consider three particles confined to the left part of the
container by a partition as shown in the figure below
 2nd Law of thermodynamics
• 2nd Law of thermodynamics states that:
• No process is possible in which there is an overall
decrease in the entropy of the universe
. ∆ ≥0
• ∆ =0
• ∆ >0
 Entropy in terms of energy
• Entropy can also be describes in terms of energy
• Energy is quantized and the smallest possible energy is
= ℎ called quanta
• energy exists as a packet of quanta ℎ , 2ℎ , 3ℎ …
• Consider two particles A and B with energies =2 =1
• If the particles are thermally insulated by a fixed partition,
there is no exchange of energy
• In general, if the energy (quanta) is held by a small number of
particles, possible arrangement (distribution) of the energy is
small
• If the same number of quanta is held by a large number of
particles, possible arrangement (distribution) increases
• entropy increases
 Heat engine and 2nd Law of
thermodynamics
• Heat engine:- A device used to convert heat energy into
useful mechanical work
• Heat source:- a body that supplies heat
• Heat sink:- a body which absorbs heat from other body
with which it is in thermal contact
• For the heat engine to do mechanical work both heat
source and heat sink are required
• Heat sink is require to draw heat energy from the heat
source
• When a hot body is in
thermal contact with a cold
body
• heat energy transfers from
hot body to cold body
• entropy of the hot body
decreases
• Entropy of the cold body
increases
• There is an overall increase
in the entropy of the system
(hot source +Cold sink)
• consider an engine connected to
hot body and there is no heat sink
• heat engine takes heat energy from
heat source and converts into
mechanical work
• Entropy of the hot body decreases
• There is an over all decrease in the
entropy of the system (Hot
source+engine)
• This violets second law of
thermodynamics
• This process is impossible
 • Consider a hot body, an engine and a
cold sink connected as shown below
• energy transfers from heat source to
cold sink
• Part of this energy is converted to
mechanical work by heat engine
• entropy of hot body decreases
• entropy of cold body increases
• There is an over all increase in the
entropy of the system
• This process is possible
2nd Law of thermodynamics states that:
• A complete conversion of heat energy from the heat
source into work is not possible
• There is no heat engine which is 100% efficient
 Chapter Eight: Electrostatics
• Electrostatic is the study of stationary charges (charges at
rest)
Properties of charges
• There are two types of charges-positive and negative charges.
• Positive charges are charges on protons in the nucleus
• Negative charges are charges in electron around the nucleus
• Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other
• Atoms are electrically neutral-they contain the same number
of protons and electrons
• Charge is conserved. In the methods of charging, charges may
transfer from one body to the other but they are neither
created nor destroyed
• Charge is quantized. any charge Q is an integral multiple of
fundamental charge (e), which is the charge on electron or
proton
=± ℎ = 1.6 × 10
 Coulomb’s Law
• Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other
• Coulomb’s Law: The force of attraction or repulsion between
the charges is directly proportional to the product of the
magnitude of the charges and inversely proportional to the
separation (r) between them
∝ ⃗ = ̂
where the proportionality constant
• = = 9 × 10 /
• = 8.85 × 10 /
• permittivity of free space is the measure of how easy it is for
electric field to pass through the vacuum
• Superposition principle: If more than two charges are present,
the resultant force on particle 1, due to charged particles 2, 3 and
4 is
⃗ = ⃗ + ⃗ + ⃗
Similarities and differences between and
• both have inverse square relationship with separation ∝
• can be attractive or repulsive but is always attractive
• is stronger than
8.2 Electric field
• Electric field: A region around a charged object where another
charged object will experience a force
• Electric field strength :- The electric field strength at a point in
space is electric force per unit test charge placed at that point.
The test charge is commonly considered as a small positive charge
particle.
⃗
=
• Let Q be the source charge and be the test charge
_________________ __________________
1 ⃗ 1
⃗= ̂ ⟹ = = ̂
4 4
 8.3 Electric field lines
• Electric field lines (lines of force): lines representing an
electric field in a region of space. The direction of the
field lines is the direction of the force on a small positive
test charge.
Properties of electric field lines
• Field lines are directed away from positive charge and
toward the negative charge
• field lines never cross each other
• the closer the field lines, the stronger the field
• at neutral points where the fields cancel each other, there
are no field lines
Electric field lines around different objects
 Charge movement in a uniform E
• Consider a charge q moving in a uniform electric field as
shown below
• The electric force on the charge is
⃗=
• If q is positive it moves in the
direction of the field
• If q is negative it moves in the
direction opposite to the field
• The electrostatic force accelerates
the charge
⃗= ⃗

= ⃗ ⇒ ⃗=
 8.4 Electric potential (V)
• In order to move a positive charge in the direction opposite to
electric field, work must be done on the charge.
• Electric potential (V) at a point (r) is defined as the work done
per unit charge in moving the charge from infinity to that point
with in an electric field
∆
( )=
• Electric potential at infinity is considered to be zero
• Electric potential is a scalar quantity
• The SI unit of electric potential is volt(v)
1
1v =
1
• For a single point charge, the electric potential at a distance r
from the charge is
( )=
4
• If Q is negative, V is also negative
 Equipotential
• Equipotential: a line or surface joining points with the same
potential.
• Equipotential lines are perpendicular to electric field lines
• For a uniform field equipotential lines are parallel lines
• For a radial field, equipotential lines are concentric circles

Equipotential
lines
Relationship between Electric field and
electric potential
• Consider a uniform field
between two oppositely
charged plates.
• Work done to move the
charge along line r is
= =
q
⇒ =

• But =

⇒ =
 Electric potential energy (U)
• Work done in moving the charge against electrostatic field is
equal to the change in electric potential energy of the charge
∆ = ∆ =∆
• where ∆ is the change in electrical potential energy
• At a particular point r
= ( )
• Consider uniform field between two plates shown in the figure
blow
• As a charged particle move from A to B, ∆ = 0
because ∆ = 0
• As the charged particle move from B to C against the
field, it gains potential energy, and
• As it moves C to B the direction of the field, it loses
potential energy
• For a point charge Q, the potential at a distance r is
( )=
4
• The potential difference between two points
is
1 1
∆ = − = −
4
• Then, the change in electrical potential energy becomes
∆ = ∆ = −
• Capacitor: - A device used to store electric charges
• It is formed by the combination of two conductors
separated by dielectrics (insulators)
• Capacitance (C):- the capacity of the capacitor to
store charges
• It is the ratio of the charge on each capacitor to the
potential difference between them
=
• The SI unit of capacitor is Farad (F)
1
1 =
1
=
• The electric field from two oppositely charged parallel plates is
= ℎ =

• The potential difference between the plates is

= = (a)

• From the definition of capacitance = ⇒ = ( )

• Equating (a) and (b) =

• ⇒ = (for air filled parallel plate capacitor)

• If a dielectric material of permittivity is placed between the plates
of a capacitor
=