Essential University Physics

Fourth Edition, Global Edition

Chapter 3
Motion in Two and Three
Dimensions

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Learning Outcomes
3.1 Describe position in two and
three dimensions, using vectors.
3.2 Represent velocity and
acceleration as vectors.
3.3 Relate velocities in different
reference frames.
3.4 Analyze motion in two
dimensions.
3.5 Predict the motion of
projectiles subject to gravity.
3.6 Describe circular motion as
accelerated motion.
Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved
Vectors
• A vector is a quantity that has
both magnitude and direction:
– In two dimensions, it takes two
numbers to specify a vector.
– In three dimensions, it takes
three numbers.
– A vector can be represented
by an arrow whose length
corresponds to the vector’s
magnitude.
• In contrast, a scalar is a quantity,
such as temperature, to which we
do not assign a direction.
Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved
Vectors: Position and Displacement
• Position is a vector quantity:
– An object’s position is specified
by giving its distance from an
origin and its direction relative
to each axis.
!
– Here r1 describes a point 2.0 m
from the origin at a 30° angle to
the axis.
!
• A displacement vector, Dr ,
represents a change in position:
– It points from the tip of the initial
position vector to the tip of the
final position vector.
Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved
Vectors: Addition (1 of 2)
• To add vectors graphically, place the tail of the second
vector at the head of the first vector:
– Their sum is then the vector from the tail of the first
vector to the head of the second vector.
! ! !
– Here r2 is the sum of r1 and Dr :
! ! !
r2 = r1 + Dr

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Vectors: Addition (2 of 2)
• Vector addition is commutative and associative.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Multiplication and Subtraction
• To multiply a vector by a scalar, multiply the vector’s magnitude
by the scalar:
– For a positive scalar, the direction is unchanged.
– For a negative scalar, the direction reverses.
• To subtract vectors, add the negative of the second vector to
the first:
! ! ! !
A - B = A + ( -B )
! ! !
In the figure, we see that r2 = r1 + Dr
! ! !
Thus, we conclude that Dr = r2 - r1

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Vector Components
• It is convenient to express
vectors using components.
• In the Cartesian plane, we
specify the components as
Ax and Ay—the projections
of the vector onto the
directions of the x-axis and
y-axis, respectively.
• Alternatively, we specify the
magnitude of the vector, A,
and its standard angle, θ.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Unit Vectors
• Unit vectors have a magnitude of 1
and no units:
– They’re used to specify direction
in compact mathematical
representations of vectors.
– Unit vectors in the x, y, and z
directions are designated iˆ, ˆj , and kˆ.
– Any vector in two dimensions can be
written as a linear combination of
iˆ and jˆ.
– Any vector in three dimensions can
be written as a linear combination of
iˆ, ˆj , and kˆ.
Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved
Vector Arithmetic with Unit Vectors
• To add vectors, add the individual components:
! !
If A = Ax iˆ + Ay jˆ and B = Bx iˆ + By jˆ, then
! !
(
A + B = ( Ax + Bx ) iˆ + Ay + By jˆ )
! !
(
Similarly, A - B = ( Ax - Bx ) iˆ + Ay - By jˆ )
• To multiply by a scalar, distribute the scalar, that is, multiply
the individual components by the scalar:
! !
If A = Ax iˆ + Ay jˆ, then cA = cAx iˆ + cAy jˆ

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Velocity and Acceleration Vectors
• Velocity is the rate of change of position:
– The average velocity over a time interval Dt is the change
in the position vector divided by the time.
– Here dividing by Dt means multiplying by the scalar 1/ Dt :
!
! Dr
v =
Dt
• Instantaneous velocity is the time derivative of position:
! !
! Dr dr
v = lim =
Dt ® 0 Dt dt
• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity:
! !
! Dv ! dv
Average : a = Instantaneous : a =
Dt dt
Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved
Velocity and Acceleration in Two
Dimensions (1 of 2)
!
• An acceleration a acting for time Dt produces a velocity
change:
! !
Dv = a Dt

– The change adds vectorially to give the new velocity:

! ! !
v = v 0 + a Dt
• The new velocity depends on the magnitude of the
acceleration as well as its direction:

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Velocity and Acceleration in Two
Dimensions (2 of 2)
! ! ! !
a and v collinear: a and v perpendicular: In general: both speed
only speed changes only direction changes and direction change

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Relative Motion (1 of 2)
• Velocity is always relative to some coordinate system, which
establishes a frame of reference:
– For instance, a person walking at 4 km/h toward the rear of
the airplane is moving at 996 km/h relative to the earth when
the airplane is flying at 1000 km/h relative to the earth. What
are the two frames of reference here?
• We will often need to relate measurements made in different
frames of reference:
!
– If an object moves with a velocity v ¢ relative
! to one frame of
reference and that frame moves at V relative to a second
reference frame, then the velocity of the object relative to
the second frame is given by:
! ! !
v = v¢ +V
Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved
Example
A jetliner flies at 960 km/h relative to the air. It’s going from Houston to Omaha,
1290 km northward. At cruising altitude a wind is blowing eastward at 190 km/h.
In what direction should the plane fly? How long will the trip take?

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Relative Motion (2 of 2)
• Example:
– A jetliner flies at 960 km/h
relative to the air in a wind
blowing eastward at 190 km/h.
In what direction should the
plane point to track
northward?
– The vector diagram identifies
the quantities in the equation
and shows that the angle is
11° west of north:
! ! !
v = v¢ +V

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Constant Acceleration
• With constant acceleration, the equations for one-dimensional
motion apply independently in each direction.
– The equations take a compact form in vector notation.
– Each equation stands for two or three separate equations:
! ! !
v = v 0 + at
! ! ! !
r = r0 + v 0t + 21 at 2

– For example, in two dimensions, the x- and y-components

!
of the position vector r can be written as:

x = x0 + v x 0 t + 1
2
ax t 2
y = y 0 + v y 0t + 1
2
ay t 2

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Got it?
An object is moving initially in the +x-direction. Which of the following
accelerations, all acting for the same time interval, will cause the greatest
change in its speed? In its direction?
(a) 10î m/s2
(b) 10ĵ m/s2
(c) 10î + 5ĵ m/s2
(d) 2î – 8ĵ m/s2

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Projectile Motion
• Motion that is predominately influenced by gravity is known as
projectile motion.
• Neglecting air resistance, the acceleration of a projectile near Earth’s
surface is directed downward and has a magnitude of g = 9.8 m / s2.
– Equations for projectile motion, in a
coordinate system with y axis vertically
upward are as follows:
v x = v x0
v y = v y 0 - gt
x = x0 + v x 0 t
y = y 0 + v y 0t - 21 gt 2

– Horizontal and vertical motions are

independent.
Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved
Projectile Motion: Example
• A ball moving horizontally at 4.0 m/s rolls off a table and falls
0.70 m to the floor. How far does the ball land from the base of
the table?
– We use the basic projectile equations:
x = x 0 + v x 0t
y = y 0 + v y 0t - 21 gt 2
– Set vx0 = 4.0 m/s; vy0 = 0; x0 = 0; y0 = 0.70 m; y = 0.
– Starting with the second equation, we obtain:
2y 0 (2)(0.70 m)
t= = 2
= 0.38 s
g (9.8 m / s )
x = v x 0t = (4.0 m / s)(0.38 s) = 1.5 m
Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved
Projectile Trajectories
• The trajectory of an object in projectile motion is a parabola, unless the
object has no horizontal component of motion.
– Horizontal motion is – Equation for the trajectory:
unchanged, while vertical
g
motion undergoes y = x tan q0 - x 2

downward acceleration: 2v 02 cos2 q0

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Conceptual Example
A child sits upright in a wagon
which is moving to the right at
constant speed as shown. The
child extends her hand and
throws an apple straight upward
(from her own point of view),
while the wagon continues to
travel forward at constant speed.
If air resistance is neglected, will
the apple land (a) behind the
wagon, (b) in the wagon, or (c) in
front of the wagon?

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Example
v0
An object is thrown horizontally from the top of
a building of a height y with an initial speed of
v0 = 16.0 m/s. Simultaneously, a stone is y
thrown with an initial speed of vs0 at an angle of
37° with respect to the horizontal axis, as vso
shown in the Figure. Both stones hit the ground
at the same time and at the same point.

a) What is the horizontal range of the

projectiles?

b) What is the height of the building, y?

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Uniform Circular Motion
• When an object moves in a circular path of radius r at constant
speed v, its acceleration has magnitude:
v2
a=
r
• The acceleration vector points
toward the center of the circle.
• Since the direction of the
acceleration keeps changing, this
is not constant acceleration:
– Constant acceleration in two
dimensions implies a
parabolic trajectory.
Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved
Nonuniform Circular Motion
• When an object moves on a circular path with changing
speed, its acceleration
! has both radial and tangential
! !
!
components: ar is perpendicular to v while at is parallel to v
– The figure shows a car braking as it rounds a curve:

! ! !
a = ar + at a= at2 + ar2

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Summary
• In two and three dimensions, position, velocity, and acceleration
become vector quantities. !
! dr
– Velocity is the rate of change of position: v =
dt
!
! dv
– Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity: a =
dt
• In general, acceleration changes both the
magnitude and direction of the velocity.
• Projectile motion results from the constant
acceleration of gravity.
• In uniform circular motion, the
acceleration has magnitude v 2 / r
and points toward the center of the
circular path.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Copyright

This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is

provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their
courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of
any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will
destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work
and materials from it should never be made available to students
except by instructors using the accompanying text in their
classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these
restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and
the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials.

Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved