MODULE 9

MATHEMATICAL
LOGIC
Prepared by:

Maiko H. Anicoy
MODULE OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, challenge yourself to:

1. illustrate and symbolize propositions;

2. distinguish between simple and compound propositions;
3. determine the truth values of propositions;
4. illustrate the different forms of conditional propositions;
5. illustrate different types of tautologies and fallacies;
6. determine the validity of categorical syllogisms;
7. establish the validity and falsity of real-life arguments using logical
propositions, syllogisms, and fallacies; and
8. determine the validity of an argument.
 LESSONS IN THIS MODULE

01 Logic Statement and Quantifiers

02 Truth Tables, Equivalent Statements, and

Tautologies

03 Conditional, Biconditional, Related

Statements, and Symbolic Arguments
Logic Statement and
Quantifiers
LOGICAL STATEMENTS AND
QUANTIFIERS

A proposition (or statement) is a declarative

sentence which is either true or false, but not
both. The truth value of the propositions is the
truth and falsity of the proposition.
DIRECTION: Determine which of the following are proposition and not a
proposition.

1. Manila is the capital of the Philippines. Proposition

2. What day is it? Not a Proposition
3. Help me, please. Not a Proposition
4. He is handsome. Proposition
LOGICAL STATEMENTS AND
QUANTIFIERS

A propositional variable is a variable

which is used to represent a
proposition. A formal propositional
variable written using propositional
logic notation, , , and are used to
represent propositions.
LOGICAL STATEMENTS AND
QUANTIFIERS

Logical connectives are used to combine

simple propositions which are referred as
compound propositions. A compound
proposition is a proposition composed of
two or more simple propositions connected
by logical connectives "and," "or," "if then,"
"not," and "if and only if”. A proposition
which is not compound is said to be simple
(also called atomic).
 OPERATIONS ON PROPOSITIONS

There are three main logical connectives such as

conjunction, disjunction, and negation. The following are
briefly discussed in this section. Note that T refers to true
proposition and F refers to false proposition.
 OPERATIONS ON PROPOSITIONS

CONJUNCTION
p q pq
The conjunction of the proposition p and q is
the compound proposition "p and q." T T T
Symbolically, pq, where is the symbol for
"and." If p is true and q is true, then pq is true; T F F
otherwise, pq is false. Meaning, the conjunction
of two propositions is true only if each
F T F
proposition is true. F F F
 OPERATIONS ON PROPOSITIONS

Common Words Associated with

Conjunction p q pq
T T T
p and q
T F F
p but q
p also q F T F
p in addition q F F F
p moreover q
EXAMPLE

2+6=9 and men are mammal. p q pq

T T T

p: 2+6=9 T F F
F T F
q: men are mammal.
F F F
Since "2 + 6 = 9", is a false proposition and the
proposition "man is a mammal" is true, the
conjunction of the compound proposition is
false.
EXAMPLE
Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion and p q pq
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the first female T T T
Philippine President. T F F
p: Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion F T F
q: Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the first female F F F
Philippine President.
In the proposition "Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion"
is true while the proposition "Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is
the first female Philippine President" is false therefore the
conjunction of the compound proposition is false.
EXAMPLE
Abraham Lincoln is a former US President and p q pq
the Philippine Senate is composed of 24 T T T
senators. T F F

p: Abraham Lincoln is a former US President F T F

q: Philippine Senate is composed of 24 senators. F F F

Since both the propositions "Abraham Lincoln is a

former US Philippine President" and "Philippine
Senate is composed of 24 senators" are both true,
thus the conjunction of the compound proposition is
true.
 OPERATIONS ON PROPOSITIONS

DISJUNCTION
p q p∨q
The disjunction of the proposition p, q is the
compound proposition "p or q." Symbolically, T T T
pq, where is the symbol for "or". If p is true or
q is true or if both p and q are true, then pq is T F T
true; otherwise, pq is false. Meaning, the
disjunction of two propositions is false only if
F T T
each proposition is false. F F F
 OPERATIONS ON PROPOSITIONS

Common Words Associated with

Disjunction p q p∨q
T T T
p or q
T F T
F T T
F F F
EXAMPLE
2+6=9 or Manny Pacquiao is a boxing p q p∨q
champion T T T
T F T
p: 2+6=9 F T T
q: Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion.
F F F

Note that the proposition "2 + 6 = 9" is false while

the proposition "Manny Pacquiao is a boxing
champion" is true; hence the disjunction of the
compound proposition is true.
EXAMPLE
Philippine Senate is composed of 24 senators or p q p∨q
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the first female T T T
Philippine President. T F T
p: Philippine Senate is composed of 24 senators q: F T T
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the first female Philippine F F F
President.
Since proposition "Philippine Senate is composed of
24 senators" is true and the proposition "Gloria
Macapagal Arroyo is the first female Philippine
President" is false, therefore the disjunction of the
compound proposition is true
EXAMPLE
Abraham Lincoln is a former US President or p q p∨q
man is a mammal. T T T
T F T
p: Abraham Lincoln is a former US President
F T T
q: man is a mammal
F F F

Given that both propositions "Abraham Lincoln is a

former US President" and "man is a mammal" are
both true, thus the disjunction of the compound
proposition is true.
 OPERATIONS ON PROPOSITIONS

NEGATION

The negation of the proposition p is denoted by- p ∼p

p, where is the symbol for "not." If p is true, ∼p
is false. Meaning, the truth value of the T F
negation of a proposition is always the reverse
of the truth value of the original proposition.
F T
 OPERATIONS ON PROPOSITIONS

Common Words Associated with

Negation
p ∼p
not p T F
It is false that p...
F T
It is not the case that p...
EXAMPLE
The following are propositions for p, find the
corresponding ∼p. p ∼p
a. 3+5=8.
b. Sofia is a girl. T F
c. Achaiah is not here. F T
ANSWER:

a. 3+58.
b. Sofia is not a girl.
c. Achaiah is here.
 OPERATIONS ON PROPOSITIONS
CONDITIONAL

The conditional (or implication) of the proposition

p and q is the compound proposition "if p then q. p q p→q
Symbolically, p → q, where is the symbol for "if
then." p is called hypothesis (or antecedent or T T T
premise) and q is called conclusion (or
consequent or consequence). The conditional T F F
proposition p → q is false only when p is true and F T T
q is false; otherwise, p → q is true. Meaning p → q
states that a true proposition cannot imply a false F F T
proposition.
 OPERATIONS ON PROPOSITIONS
Common Words Associated with
Conditional
p q p→q
If p, then q.
p implies q. p only if q. T T T
p therefore q. T F F
p is stronger than q.
F T T
p is sufficient condition for q.
F F T
 OPERATIONS ON PROPOSITIONS
Common Words Associated with
Conditional
p q p→q
q if p.
q follows p. T T T
q whenever p. T F F
q is weaker than p.
F T T
q is a necessary condition for p.
F F T
EXAMPLE
p q p→q
If vinegar is sweet, then sugar is sour.
T T T
T F F
p: If vinegar is sweet
F T T
q: sugar is sour
F F T

Since the propositions "vinegar is sweet" and the

"sugar is sour" are both false, therefore the
conditional of the compound proposition is true.
EXAMPLE
p q p→q
2+5=7 is a sufficient condition for
T T T
5+6=1.
T F F
p: 2+5=7 F T T
q: 5+6=1. F F T

Note that "2+5=7 " is true and "5+6=1" is false,

thus the conditional of the compound
proposition is false.
 OPERATIONS ON PROPOSITIONS
BICONDITIONAL

The biconditional of the proposition p and q p q p↔q

is the compound proposition "p if and only if
q". Symbolically, pq, where is the symbol for T T T
"if and only if." If p and q are true or both
T F F
false, then pq is true; if p and q have opposite
truth values, then pq is false. F T F
F F T
 OPERATIONS ON PROPOSITIONS
Common Words Associated with
Biconditional
p q p↔q
p if and only if q. (p iff q)
p is equivalent to q. T T T
p is necessary and sufficient for q T F F
F T F
F F T
EXAMPLE
p q p↔q
2+8=10 if and only if 6-3=3.
T T T
T F F
p: 2+8=10 F T F
q: 6-3=3 F F T

Since the statements "2+8=10" and the "6-3=3"

are both true, therefore the conditional of the
compound proposition is true.
EXAMPLE
p q p↔q
Manila is the capital of the Philippines is
equivalent to fish live in the moon. T T T
T F F
p: Manila is the capital of the Philippines F T F
q: fish live in the moon F F T

Note that "Manila is the capital of the

Philippines" is true proposition while "fish live
in the moon" is false, thus the conditional of the
compound proposition is false.
EXAMPLE
p q p↔q
8-2=5 is a necessary and sufficient for 4+2 = 7. T T T
T F F
p: 8-2=5
q: 4+2 = 7 F T F
F F T

Given that "8 -2 = 5" and "4 + 2 = 7" are both

false, thus the conditional of the compound
proposition is true.
MODULE’S QUIZ NO. 1

Access the link below to answer the quiz no. 1.

https://forms.gle/W4rxrQF7WEnpS1xh7
Constructing Truth Tables
 TRUTH TABLES

This section shows the construction of compound propositions

through truth tables which referred as standard table form. Let
us construct the truth table for each of the following
proposition:
a.
b.
c.
SOLUTION
𝑝∨ ∼𝑞
T T
T F
F T
F F
SOLUTION
𝑝 → (𝑝 ↔ 𝑞)
T T
T F
F T
F F
 SOLUTION
(𝑝 →𝑞) ⋁ (𝑞 ⋀ ∼ 𝑟 )
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F
 EQUIVALENT STATEMENTS
Two propositions are said to be logically equivalent (or equivalent) if they have the
same truth value for every row of the truth table, that is is a tautology. Symbolically,
EXAMPLE: Show that the following are equivalent.
 SOLUTION
𝑝 ∧ ( 𝑞 ∨𝑟 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ( 𝑝 ∧𝑞 ) ∨ ( 𝑝 ∧𝑟 )
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F
 SOLUTION
𝑝 → 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 → 𝑝

T T
T F
F T
F F
 TAUTOLOGIES
There are three important classes of compound statements namely tautology, contradiction, and
contingency.
TAUTOLOGY. It is a compound statement that is true for all possible combinations of the truth
values of the propositional variables also called logically true.

CONTRADICTION. It is a compound statement that is false for all possible combinations of

the truth values of the propositional variables also called logically false or absurdity.

CONTINGENCY. It is a compound statement that either be true or false, depending on the truth
values of the propositional variables are neither tautology nor a contradiction.
Conditional, Biconditional,
Related Statements, and
Symbolic Arguments
 CONDITIONAL, BICONDITIONAL, AND
RELATED STATEMENTS
There are different ways to express the conditional
proposition The conditional proposition can be expressed in
three variations using the logical connectives and

Name Statement
Conditional
Converse of
Inverse of
Contrapositive of
 CONDITIONAL, BICONDITIONAL, AND
RELATED STATEMENTS
EXAMPLE. Given the conditional proposition “If Achaiah
goes to school, then Sofia will go home.” Determine the
converse, inverse, and the contrapositive of the proposition.

SOLUTION:
Let : Achaiah goes to school.
: Sofia will go home.
 CONDITIONAL, BICONDITIONAL, AND
RELATED STATEMENTS
SOLUTION:
Let : Achaiah goes to school.
: Sofia will go home.

Converse : If Sofia will go home, then Achaiah goes to

school.
Inverse Achaiah does not go to school, then Sofia will
not go home.
Contrapositive : If Sofia will not go home, then Achaiah does
not go to school.
 SYMBOLIC ARGUMENTS

A proof is an argument from hypotheses (assumptions) to a conclusion.

Each step of the argument follows the laws of logic and rule of inference.
In mathematics, a statement is considered valid if it is accompanied by a
proof. Proof is one of the important things that make mathematics
different from other discipline. It is not easy to establish proofs; there is
no single guideline for proofs and it is not just following rules,
memorizing formulas, or even looking at some examples in text.
 SYMBOLIC ARGUMENTS

Most of the rules of inference are from tautologies. Since a tautology is a

statement which is "always true," it is used in drawing conclusions. Logic
proofs usually begin with premises – statements that are allowed to be
assumed, while conclusion is the statement that needs to be proven. The
idea is to make use of the premises using rules of inference until we arrive
at the conclusion. The arguments can be written in symbolic form which
will be discussed in the following examples.
 SYMBOLIC ARGUMENTS

Modus Law of Modus Disjunctive

Ponens Syllogism Tollens Syllogism

STANDARD FORM OF FOUR VALID ARGUMENTS

 SYMBOLIC ARGUMENTS
Modus Ponens
a) Sofia wins Php 20,000,000 lotto.
b) If Sofia wins Php 20,000,000 lotto, then Achaiah will put up a business.
c) Therefore, Achaiah will put up a business.

Law of Syllogism
a) If 18 is divisible by 6, then 6 is divisible by 3.
b) If 6 is divisible by 3, then 18 is divisible by 3.
c) Therefore, if 18 is divisible by 6, then 18 is divisible by 3.
 SYMBOLIC ARGUMENTS
Modus Tollens
a) If Manny Villar is elected Philippine President, then Erap Estrada will
pledge as cabinet secretary.
b) Erap Estrada did not pledge as cabinet secretary.
c) Therefore, Manny Villar was not elected Philippine President.
Disjunctive Syllogism
a) Gregorio's pencil is in his bag or it is on his table.
b) Gregorio's pencil is not in his bag.
c) Therefore, Gregorio's pencil is on his table.
 FALLACIES

Logical Fallacies refers to faulty reasoning in logic of an argument. It is

advantageous to know logical fallacies in order to avoid them in an
argument. There are different types of fallacies that we might use to
present our position. The following are the list of common types of
fallacies with their corresponding examples.
 FALLACIES
1. Appeal to Authority (or Argumentum Ad Verecundiam). It is an argument that
occurs when we accept or reject a claim merely because of the sources or
authorities who made their positions on a certain argument.

Example 1: The government should not impose death penalty. Many

respected people, such as the former Secretary of Justice, have publicly
stated her opposition to it.

Example 2: Floyd Mayweather signs autographs with Parker pen, so

evidently Parker pen is the most reliable pen on the market.
 FALLACIES

2. Appeal to Force (or Argumentum Ad Baculum). It is an argument which

attempts to establish a conclusion by threat or intimidation.
Example 1: You will support my idea and tell the others that I am
right; because if you don’t, I will do everything for you to lose your job.

Example 2: If you don't believe in God, you won't go to heaven.

 FALLACIES
3. Appeal to Ignorance (or Argumentum Ex Silentio). It is an argument
supporting a claim merely because there is no proof that it's wrong.

Example 1: Since time people have been trying to prove that God
exists. But no one has yet been able to prove it. Therefore, God does not
exist.

Example 2: If you can't say that there aren't Martians living in Mars,
so it's safe for me to accept there are
 FALLACIES
4. Appeal to Pity (or Argumentum Ad Misericordiam). It is an argument that
involves an irrelevant or highly exaggerated appeal to pity to get people to
accept a conclusion by making them feel sorry for someone.

Example 1: Mark has worked hard on his research project, and he

will be depressed if he fails. For these reasons, you must give him a passing
grade.

Example 2: The city engineer is a vital part of this city. If he is sent to

prison, the city and his family will suffer. Therefore, you must find in your
heart to forgive him.
 FALLACIES

5. Appeal to the People (or Argumentum Ad Populum). It is an argument that the

opinion of the majority is always valid.

Example 1: Most Filipino like soda. Therefore, soda is good.

Example 2: Everyone I know is voting for Juan dela Cruz, so he's

probably the best choice for mayor.
 FALLACIES
6. Argumentum Ad Hominem (Latin for "to the man"). It is an attack on the
character of a person of his opinions or arguments. It is a tactic used by an
adversary when they do not have a logical counter-argument.

Example 1: Don't listen to Peter's assertions on instruction, he's a

simpleton.

Example 2: You can't believe that Presidential candidate is going to

lower taxes. He's a liar.
 FALLACIES
7. Circular Argument (or Petitio Principii). If a premise of an argument
presupposes the truth of its conclusions; meaning, the argument takes for
granted what it's supposed to prove.

Example 1: Senator Chiz Escudero is a good communicator because

he speaks effectively.

Example 2: God exists because the Holy Bible says so. The Holy
Bible is true. Therefore, God exists.
 FALLACIES

8. Equivocation. It is an argument used in two or more different senses/meanings

within a single argument.

Example 1: Giving financial support to charity is the right thing to do.

So, charities have the right to our finances.

Example 2: Some real numbers less than any number. Therefore,

some real numbers are less than itself.
 FALLACIES

9. Fallacy of Division. A reasoning which assumes that the characteristic of a

group is also the characteristic of each individual in the group.

Example 1: University of the Philippines is the best university in the

country. Therefore, every student from UP is better than any other
university in the country.

Example 2: Your family is crazy. That means that you are crazy, too.
 FALLACIES

10. False Dilemma. It is an argument which implies one or two outcomes is

inevitable and both have negative consequences, but actually there could be
more choices possible.

Example 1: If you don't vote for this candidate, you must be antichrist.

Example 2: You either broke the glass door, or you did not. Which is
it?
 FALLACIES
11. Hasty Generalization. It is an argument that a general conclusion on a certain
condition is always true based on insufficient or biased evidence.

Example 1: A MacBook broke after a month, so there must be

something wrong in the manufacture of MacBook.

Example 2: My cousin said that mathematics subjects were hard, and

the one I'm enrolled in is hard, too. All mathematics
classes must be hard.
 FALLACIES
12. Red Herring. It is an argument which introduces a topic related to the subject
at hand. It is diversionary tactic to avoid key issues, often way of avoiding
opposing argument rather than addressing them.

Example 1: Some politicians may be corrupt, but there are corrupt

police, corrupt lawyers, and even corrupt leaders of the church. There are
also many honest police officers. Therefore, let's put corrupt politicians in
perspective.

Example 2: I know I forget to clean the toilet yesterday. But nothing I

do pleases you
 FALLACIES
13. Slippery Slope (or snowball/domino theory). It is an argument which claims a
sort of chain reaction, usually ending in some extreme and after ludicrous will
happen, but there's really not enough evidence for such assumption.

Example 1: If high school students are given 15 minutes rather than 5

minutes break between classes, they'll just start skipping classes.

Example 2: If I fail Algebra, I won't be able to graduate. If I don't

graduate, I probably won't be able to get a good job, and may very well end
up like a beggar.
 FALLACIES
14. Strawman Fallacy. It is an argument that misrepresents position of the
opponent in an extreme or exaggerated form or attacking the weaker and
irrelevant portion of an argument in order to make it appear weaker than it
actually is. The objective is to refute the misrepresentation of the position,
and conclude that the real position has been refuted.

Example 1: Congressman who does not support the proposed

national minimum wage increase hates the poor.

Example 2: A mandatory helmet law for motorcycle drivers could

never be enforced. You can't issue tickets to dead people.