Spread Spectrum

Chapter 7
 Spread Spectrum
 Form of communication
 Can be used to transmit analog or digital data using an
ANALOG signal

 Idea: spread the signal over a wider

bandwidth to make jamming and interception
more difficult.
 First: Frequency hopping

 Recently: Direct Sequence

 Spread Spectrum
 Jamming: deliberate noise to block reception of
transmitted signals and to cause a nuisance at
the receiving station.
 Spread Spectrum
 First: Input is fed into a channel encoder
 Produces analog signal with narrow bandwidth around some
centre frequency=> first modulation
 Second: Signal is further modulated using a sequence of
digits
 Spreading code or spreading sequence (called PN)
 Generated by pseudo-random number generator
 => Effect of the second modulation is to increase
bandwidth of signal to be transmitted
 On the receiving end, the same code is used to
demodulate the spread spectrum signal
Spread Spectrum
 Spread Spectrum
 What can be gained from apparent waste of
spectrum?
 Can be used for hiding and encrypting signals

 Only a recipient who knows the spreading

code can recover the encoded information

 Several users can independently use the same

wider bandwidth with very little interference

(CDMA)
 Spread Spectrum
 Spread Spectrum
First: Frequency hopping

Recently: Direct Sequence

 Frequency Hoping

Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

What could you suggest??

0101 0100 0111 0010 1010 0101 01010
 Frequency Hoping Spread
Spectrum (FHSS)
 Signal is broadcast over seemingly random series of radio
frequencies
 Transmitter hopping from frequency to frequency at fixed

intervals Tc
 A receiver hopping between frequencies in synchronization

with the transmitter picks up the message

 Eavesdroppers hear only unintelligible bits
 Attempts to jam the signal on one frequency succeed only at
knocking out a few bits
 Frequency Hoping Spread
Spectrum (FHSS)
 Signal is broadcast over seemingly random series of radio
frequencies
 A number of channels allocated for the FH signal

 Width of each channel corresponds to bandwidth of

input signal (output of the first modulation)

 Signal hops from frequency to frequency at fixed
intervals Tc

Transmitter operates in one channel at a time for Tc
 During T , some number of bits are transmitted using
c
some encoding scheme
 After each T , a new carrier
c

frequency is selected
 Frequency Hoping Spread
Spectrum
 Channels sequence dictated by spreading code
 00 11 01 10
 How many channels (bands)

 Needed number of bits?

 What is the length of the spreading code?

 In the example,
 How many bands?
 What is the number of needed bits (k) to
generate the spreading code ?
 The transmission duration on every band
is Tc
Generate your own spreading code
Note that, in the spreading code, every
k bits decides one specific band
 Frequency Hoping Spread
Spectrum
 First modulation :
 For transmission, binary data are fed into a modulator

using some digital-to-analog encoding scheme (FSK) or

(BPSK).
 The resulting signal s (t) is centered on some base
d
frequency.
 Frequency Hoping Spread
Spectrum
 Second Modulation:
 A pseudonoise (PN), or pseudorandom number,

serves as an index into a table of frequencies;

this is the spreading code
 01 00 11 10

 Each k bits of the PN specifies one of the 2^k

carrier frequencies.
 The duration of each frequency hop is T
c

 At each successive interval Tc (each k PN bits),

a new carrier frequency c(t) is selected.
 Frequency Hoping Spread
Spectrum
 The frequency carrier specified by the code is
used to modulated the signal produced from the
initial modulator to produce a new signal s(t)
 s(t) is now centered on the selected carrier frequency.
 On reception, the spread spectrum signal is
demodulated using the same sequence of PN-
derived frequencies and then demodulated to
produce the output data.
FHSS Using MFSK
si t   A cos 2f i t 1 i  M

f i = f c + (2i – 1 – M)f d

f c = the carrier frequency

f d = the difference frequency
 M = number of different signal elements = 2 L
 L = number of bits per signal element
 Reminder: MFSK
 MFSK example with M = 4
 During Ts, 2 bit signal elements are transmitted
 M = 4, four different frequencies are used to encode the data
input 2 bits at a time.
 Each signal element is a discrete frequency tone around fc
 the total MFSK bandwidth is Wd = M fd .
 FHSS Using MFSK
 MFSK signal (with a bandwidth of Wd = M fd ) is translated to a new
frequency band every Tc seconds by modulating the MFSK signal with the
FHSS carrier signal
 T
c is the transmission duration on every FHSS band
 Remember that with FHSS, width of each channel corresponds to
bandwidth of input signal (output of the first modulation)
 For data rate of R:
 duration of a bit: T = 1/R seconds

 duration of signal element: T = LT seconds

s

 Tc  Ts - slow-frequency-hop spread spectrum

 Tc < Ts - fast-frequency-hop spread spectrum
 Thus, for the first pair of columns, governed
by PNpair
Each sequence 00, the
of columns lowest band
corresponds of
to the
Slow FHSS frequencies
selection of is used.
a frequency band based on a 2-
ForPN
bit the sequence.
second pair of columns, governed by
PN sequence 11, the highest band of
frequencies is used.
 Slow FHSS
 MFSK example with M = 4
 During Ts, 2 bit signal elements are transmitted
 Each pair of columns corresponds to the selection of
a frequency band based on a 2-bit PN sequence.
 Thus, for the first pair of columns, governed by PN
sequence 00, the lowest band of frequencies is
used.
 For the second pair of columns, governed by PN
sequence 11, the highest band of frequencies is
 Each 2 bits of the PN sequence is used to
select
We useone
an of the scheme
FHSS four channels.
with k = 2. That is,
Slow FHSS That
thereband
are 4 is
= held for a duration
2^k different of two
channels, each of
signalW
width elements,
d .
or four bits (Tc = 2 Ts = 4T).
The total FHSS bandwidth is Ws = 2^k Wd .
 Slow FHSS
 Here we have M = 4, which means that four different frequencies are
used to encode the data input 2 bits at a time.
 Each signal element is a discrete frequency tone, and the total
MFSK bandwidth is Wd = M fd .
 We use an FHSS scheme with k = 2. That is, there are 4 = 2^k
different channels, each of width Wd .
 The total FHSS bandwidth is Ws = 2^k Wd .
 Each 2 bits of the PN sequence is used to select one of the four
channels (bands).

That band is held for a duration of two signal elements, or four
bits (Tc = 2 Ts = 4T).
 In this case, however, each signal
Fast FHSS element is represented by two
frequency bands.
 Fast FHSS
 Again, M = 4 and k = 2.
 In this case, however, each signal element is
represented by two frequency bands tones.
 Again, Wd = M fd and Ws = 2^k Wd . In this
example (Ts = 2 Tc = 2T).
 In general, fast FHSS provides improved
performance compared to slow FHSS in the face
of noise or jamming.
 FHSS Performance
Considerations
 Large number of frequencies used
 Results in a system that is quite resistant to
jamming
 Jammer must jam all frequencies
 With fixed power, this reduces the jamming power
in any one frequency band
 Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS)
 Each bit in original signal is represented by multiple
bits in the transmitted signal using a spreading code
 Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS)
 Spreading code spreads signal across a wider
frequency band
 Spread is in direct proportion to number of bits used
 Therefore, a 10-bit spreading code spreads the signal
across a frequency band that is 10 times greater than a 1-
bit spreading code.

- The duration of each chip in the code is Tc<<T (the

information bit duration)
 Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS)
 One technique combines
digital information stream
with the spreading code bit
stream using exclusive-OR
(Figure 7.6)
 Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS)
 Try to apply the exclusive-Or between the data
input and the generated spreading code
Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS)
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS)
 Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS)
 What does an information bit of one cause?
 What does an information bit of zero cause?
 What is the bit rate of the resulting combination?
Compared to the information rate!
 Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS)
 Note that an information bit of one inverts the
spreading code bits in the combination, while an
information bit of zero causes the spreading code bits to
be transmitted without inversion.
 The combination bit stream has the data rate of the
original spreading code sequence, so it has a wider
bandwidth than the information stream.
 In this example, the spreading code bit stream is
clocked at four times the information rate.
 Reminder: Phase-Shift Keying
(PSK)
 Two-level PSK (BPSK)
 Uses two phases to represent binary digits

A cos2f c t 
 binary 1
sd t   
A cos2f c t   
 binary 0

 A cos2f c t 
 binary 1


binary

Rather than representing A cos 2with
data f c t1and binary 0
0, it is more convenient for
our purpose to use +1 and -1 to represent the two binary digits
 DSSS Using BPSK
 BPSK signal can be written as ,
sd(t) = A d(t) cos(2 fct)
 A = amplitude of signal
 f = carrier frequency
c
 d(t) = discrete function [+1, -1],
+1 refers to bit 1 and -1 refers to
bit 0
 DSSS Using BPSK
 To produce DSSS signal, Multiply BPSK signal,
sd(t) = A d(t) cos(2 fct)
by c(t) [PN sequence that takes values +1, -1] to get
s(t) = A d(t)c(t) cos(2 fct)
 A = amplitude of signal
 fc = carrier frequency
d(t) = discrete function [+1, -1]
 At receiver, incoming signal multiplied by c(t)

Since, c(t) x c(t) = 1, incoming signal is recovered
 s(t) c(t)= A d(t) c(t) c(t) cos(2 fct) = sd(t)
 DSSS Using BPSK
 Try to find s(t)
DSSS Using BPSK
 DSSS Using BPSK
 The spectrum of the data signal is
Could you
express sd(t)!!

What is the bandwidth of the

data signal?
 DSSS Using BPSK
 The spectrum of the spread signal is

What is the bandwidth of the

spread signal?

Knowing that T = k Tc, What is

the relationship between both
bandwidth?
 Code-Division Multiple Access
(CDMA)
 Multiplexing technique used with spread
spectrum
 Basic Principles of CDMA
 D = rate of data signal
 Break each bit into k chips

Chips are a user-specific fixed pattern
 What is the chip rate?
 Chip data rate of new channel = kD
 CDMA Example
 If k=6 and code is a sequence of 1s and -1s <c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6>
 For a ‘1’ bit, A sends code as chip pattern
 <c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6>
 For a ‘0’ bit, A sends complement of code
 <-c1, -c2, -c3, -c4, -c5, -c6>
 Receiver knows sender’s code and performs electronic decode
function

 <d1, d2, d d4,

Sud3,  dd5,
1 cd6>
1  d=2received
 c 2  d 3chip
 c3pattern
 d 4  c 4  d 5  c5  d 6  c 6
 <c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6> = sender’s code
 u refers to the user
 CDMA Example
 User A code = <1, –1, –1, 1, –1, 1>
 What is the pattern to be send to communicate a 1 bit?
 What is the pattern to be send to communicate a 0 bit?
 User B code = <1, 1, –1, – 1, 1, 1>
 Receiver receiving with A’s code

Su dIf User
d1Ac1sends
 d 2 ‘1’
c 2bit,
 d 3What
 c3 isdthe
4 resulting
c 4  d 5 ScA5(d)
 d 6  c6



If User A sends ‘0’ bit: What is the resulting SA(d)

If User B sends ‘1’ bit: What is the resulting SA(d)
 CDMA Example
 User A code = <1, –1, –1, 1, –1, 1>
 To send a 1 bit = <1, –1, –1, 1, –1, 1>
 To send a 0 bit = <–1, 1, 1, –1, 1, –1>
 User B code = <1, 1, –1, – 1, 1, 1>
 To send a 1 bit = <1, 1, –1, –1, 1, 1>
 Receiver receiving with A’s code
 (A’s code) x (received chip pattern)
 User A ‘1’ bit: 6 -> 1
 User A ‘0’ bit: -6 -> 0
 User B ‘1’ bit: 0 -> unwanted signal ignored
CDMA Example

 If the Data message is

1101 what should be
sent by every user??
 Draw it!
 CDMA Example
 Receiver knows sender’s code and performs electronic
decode function
Su d   d1 c1  d 2  c 2  d 3  c3  d 4  c 4  d 5  c5  d 6  c6
 <d1, d2, d3, d4, d5, d6> = received chip pattern
 <c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6> = sender’s code
 u refers to the user
 Let's suppose the receiver is actually interested
in user A signal and see what happens.??
 CDMA Example
 A sends 1

 A sends 0

 So if SA produces a +6, we say that we have received a 1 bit

from A; if SA produces a -6, we say that we have received a 0 bit
from user A; otherwise, we assure that someone else is sending
information or there is an error.
 CDMA Example
 what happens if user B is sending and we try to receive it
with SA, that is, we are decoding with the wrong code, A's.

 Thus, the unwanted signal (from B) does not show up at all.

 You can easily verify that if B had sent a 0 bit, the decoder would
produce a value of 0 for SA again.
 CDMA Example
 If the decoder is linear and
 if A and B transmit signals sA and sB, respectively, at the
same time, then
 SA(sA + sB) = SA(sA) + SA(sB) = SA(sA)
 The decoder ignores B when it is using A's code.
 The codes of A and B that have the property that
 SA(cB) = SB(cA) = 0 are called orthogonal.
END
Appendix
CDMA for Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum
Categories of Spreading
Sequences
 Spreading Sequence Categories
 PN sequences
 Orthogonal codes
 For FHSS systems
 PN sequences most common
 For DSSS systems not employing CDMA
 PN sequences most common
 For DSSS CDMA systems
 PN sequences
 Orthogonal codes
PN Sequences
 PN generator produces periodic sequence that
appears to be random
 PN Sequences
 Generated by an algorithm using initial seed
 Sequence isn’t statistically random but will pass many
test of randomness
 Sequences referred to as pseudorandom numbers or
pseudonoise sequences
 Unless algorithm and seed are known, the sequence is
impractical to predict
Important PN Properties
 Randomness
 Uniform distribution
 Balance property
 Run property
 Independence
 Correlation property
 Unpredictability
Linear Feedback Shift Register
Implementation
Properties of M-Sequences
 Property 1:
 Has 2n-1 ones and 2n-1-1 zeros
 Property 2:
 For a window of length n slid along output for N (=2n-1)
shifts, each n-tuple appears once, except for the all zeros
sequence
 Property 3:
 Sequence contains one run of ones, length n
 One run of zeros, length n-1
 One run of ones and one run of zeros, length n-2
 Two runs of ones and two runs of zeros, length n-3
 2n-3 runs of ones and 2n-3 runs of zeros, length 1
Properties of M-Sequences
 Property 4:
 The periodic autocorrelation of a ±1 m-
sequence is

 1 τ  0, N, 2N, ...
R    1
 otherwise
 N
Definitions
 Correlation
 The concept of determining how much similarity one
set of data has with another
 Range between –1 and 1
 1 The second sequence matches the first sequence
 0 There is no relation at all between the two sequences
 -1 The two sequences are mirror images
 Cross correlation
 The comparison between two sequences from different
sources rather than a shifted copy of a sequence with
itself
Advantages of Cross Correlation
 The cross correlation between an m-sequence and
noise is low
 This property is useful to the receiver in filtering out
noise
 The cross correlation between two different m-
sequences is low
 This property is useful for CDMA applications
 Enables a receiver to discriminate among spread
spectrum signals generated by different m-sequences
Gold Sequences
 Gold sequences constructed by the XOR of two
m-sequences with the same clocking
 Codes have well-defined cross correlation
properties
 Only simple circuitry needed to generate large
number of unique codes
 In following example (Figure 7.16a) two shift
registers generate the two m-sequences and these
are then bitwise XORed
Gold Sequences
Orthogonal Codes
 Orthogonal codes
 All pairwise cross correlations are zero
 Fixed- and variable-length codes used in CDMA
systems
 For CDMA application, each mobile user uses one
sequence in the set as a spreading code
 Provides zero cross correlation among all users
 Types
 Welsh codes
 Variable-Length Orthogonal codes
Walsh Codes
 Set of Walsh codes of length n consists of the n
rows of an n ´ n Walsh matrix:
 Wn W2 n 
 W1 = (0) W2 n   
 Wn Wn 
 n = dimension of the matrix
 Every row is orthogonal to every other row and to
the logical not of every other row
 Requires tight synchronization
 Cross correlation between different shifts of Walsh
sequences is not zero
Typical Multiple Spreading
Approach
 Spread data rate by an orthogonal code
(channelization code)
 Provides mutual orthogonality among all users
in the same cell
 Further spread result by a PN sequence
(scrambling code)
 Provides mutual randomness (low cross
correlation) between users in different cells
Frequency Hoping Spread
Spectrum