Dr. Gambari, A. I.

E-mail: gambarii@yahoo.com
Website: www.gambariisiaka.com
Blogsite: www.drgambari.com

SYSTEM DESIGN

A Lecture Presented at University of Ilorin for Educational

Technology Postgraduate Students, held on 20th
November, 2013
 Objectives

 At the end of this presentation, you should be able to:

 Define system
 Indentify some attributes of a system
 Explain some terminologies associated with a system
 Briefly discuss the historical background of a system
 Enumerate types of system

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 Definition of a System
 According to the Webster's New World Dictionary
(Second edition, the term refers to:
(1) a group of things or parts working together or
connected in some ways, so as to form a whole (e.g. a
solar system, a school system, and system of highways).
(2) A set of principles, rules, etc linked in an orderly way 'to
show a logical Plan (e.g, an economic system).
(3) An established way of doing something, method, and
procedure.
(4) Related series of natural objects or element (e.g. river).

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 Cont…

 Ackoff, (1960) defined it as 'any entity, conceptual or

physical that consist of independent but interrelated
part.

 Silvern, (1965) defined it as the organization of an

orderly whole clearly showing the interrelationship of the
parts to each other and the whole itself.

 Similarly, Kaufman defined it as the sum total of

separate parts working independently and in interaction
to achieve previously specified objectives.

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 Cont…

 In addition, Betalanty (1968) popularly known as the

father of systems approach defined it as a complex of
interacting elements f1…f2…f3……..fn

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 Cont…

 Ogwo (1996) defined a system as a set of interrelated and

sometimes directly interdependent things, principles or
parts that work severally and jointly within a given
setting for the attainment of a definite goal or set of
goals. Ordinarily, there are five principal spheres in the
systems paradigm and they include the
 environment (Supra system),
 system (which bears the subsystems),
 input,
 output,
 Feedback and adjustment.

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 Cont…

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 Instructional System

 A system itself is made up of components which are

referred to as subsystems. In Fig. 2, the systems of an
instructional system include:
 the learner;
 the teacher people (support staff),
 content,
 media,
 methods,
 evaluation procedure and so on.

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 Cont…

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ATTRIBUTES OF A SYSTEM
 Attributes of a System

(1) A system is an organised, complex unitary whole.

(2) It is made up of several elements, parts or subsystems.
(3) The parts are interdependent and functionally related.
(4) Every system is organised to accomplish a goal
(function).

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 Cont…

(5) A system could be natural, artificial or both at once.

 Examples of natural systems include Solar system,
Ecosystem, and Body system.
 Examples of artificial (i.e. man-made) systems include
audio-recording, car, aeroplane, computers, etc.
 Examples of natural-cum-man-made systems include
hydroelectric power, oil-mining processes and water
supply system.

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 Cont…

(6) A system may be physical or conceptual. This is borne

out clearly in Ackoff's definition above.
(7) A stem is relative. What is considered as a system by one
person may be considered as a subsystem by another
person or even by the same person at different times
depending on his area of interest. This shows that
systems have arbitrary boundaries.

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 Cont…

 For example, Nigeria as

a:
 geographical entity may
be singled out (among
other nations)
 political,
 economic,
 social, cultural and
education elements as
its subsystems.

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 Educational System

INPUT OUTPUT
OUTPUT

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 Instructional System

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 Cont…

(8) Systems are multidimensional Whilst a system

could be as large and complex as the entire universe,
another system could be as small as an atom.

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TERMINOLOGIES
 Terminologies

 Terminologies
(i) Input
(ii) Output
(iii) Throughput (process)
(iv) Subsystem
(v) Supra system
(vi) Peer system
(vii) Multisystem

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 Cont…

(i) Input - This is a collective term which refers to

everything that the system receives from its environment
for its sustenance. No system exists in a vacuum.
 Every system exists in an environment or is established
by the environment in order to satisfy certain
environmental requirements, demands or expectations.
According to Banathy, the constraints under which the
system is to operate constitutes parts of the input.
 Other examples of input include persons, information,
energies, and finance among others.

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 Cont…

(ii) Output - This is another collective term which refers to

whatever the system sends back into the environment. It
is this output which enables the system to meet the
expectations, requirements, and demands of its
environment. In short, output represents system's
product.
(iii) Through-put - This refers to the process component of
a system. The school system below helps to illustrate this
better
 Input
 Output
 Through put
Fig. 5: School System
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 Fig. 5: School System

Input Through put Output

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 (iv) Subsystem - This refers to a component, element or
segment of a system, for instance, if an atom is
considered as a system, the subsystems include proton,
neutron and electron.
(v) Supra-system - This refers to the bigger system which
surrounds the system. In other words, it is the outside
environment from where the system obtains information,
energy and other means of sustenance.
(vi) Peer system - These represent the systems within a
suprasystem. Here, we are concerned with the
relationship among the systems within the suprasystem.

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 Cont…

 According to Banathy, the relationship among the peer

system can be of three kinds:
 hierarchical,
 Centralized, and
 equalitarian.
 A hierarchical relationship implies that one system is
subordinate to the other in centralized relationship, one
system plays a central role and the other systems are
related to it and are arranged around it.
 In equalitarian relationship, none of the peer systems
plays a dominant central role. Some systems can be
structured.
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 Cont…

 Fig. 6: System relationship Source; Banathy (1973)

 If we are examining "a" as a system, the ''A' is the supra system in

which it exists; "b", "c" are its peer systems and ‘a 1,’ ‘a2’ and ‘a3’
are its subsystems.
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 Cont…

(vii) Multisystem - exists when a supra system consists of

several but related systems. See the explanation under
Fig. 6 above.

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TYPES OF SYSTEM
 Types of Systems

 One simple way of classifying systems is to group them as

follows: (i) Natural (ii) Man-made and [ii) Natural-cum-
man-made systems.
 Based on educational concepts we shall concern
ourselves with the following classification:
(i) Open vs closed systems
(ii) Simple vs complex systems
(iii) Macro vs micro system
(iv) Physical vs non-physicalsystems.
(v) Deterministic vs probabilistic systems
(vi) Dynamic vs static systems
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 Open vs Close System

 A system is closed if its boundaries are sealed off from its

environment in such a way to forestall interaction
between the system and its environment.

 A system is open if its boundaries have breaks which

enable the system to interact with its environment. The
bigger the breaks the more open the system and the more
inputs it has to cope with. For practical purposes, one
cannot speak of completely dosed or completely open
systems.

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 Cont…

 A totally open system on the other hand implies totally

unstable, unpredicatable and random input and output.
This means the absence of specified and stated
requirements, demands, resources and other factors that
define what the system is.
 One example of an open system is the educational system
with input and-output channels.

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 Simple vs Complex System

 Simple vs Complex System

 By far, the main determinant of simplicity or complexity
of a system is the input. The more varied and complex
the input, the more complex the system and its input.
Conversely speaking, the less varied the input, the less
varied the output.

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 Cont…

 Macro vs Micro System

 The words-macro (large) and micro (small) are relative.
Macro systems are more complex than the micro ones.
We may describe the Nigerian educational system (at the
Federal Level) as macro while at the state or local
government level, it is micro.

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 Physical vs Non-physical system

 Physical vs Non-physical system

 Physical systems are concrete and observable while the
nonphysical ones are conceptual (theoretical) i.e. process
or methodological approach.

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 Deterministic vs Probabilistic System

 Deterministic vs Probabilistic System

 Deterministic systems are sometimes referred to as
mechanistic systems. Their behaviour can be determined
precisely with high degree of certainty (precision). An
example is the electrical system whose behaviour can be
predicted with high degree of certainty as opposed to
probabilistic system (e.g. educational system) whose
behaviour will depend upon the , information available
at a given time.

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 Dynamic vs Static System

 Dynamic vs Static System

 In static systems, there is a state of equilibrium, but in
dynamic system, there is a shift from a state of
equilibrium to a steady state. When the opposing
variable in a system are in balance, the system is in a
state of equilibrium. A steady state represents the notion
for maintaining the orderliness of the system in the face
of energy or information stresses.

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 Instructional vs Learning System

 Though the terms instruction and learning are easily

distinguishable, instructional system is sometimes
referred to as learning system.
 According to Inyang Abia (1988: 34) instructional system
may be defined as a deliberately organized combination
of people, equipment (devices), materials, procedures,
and the curriculum which interact cooperatively to
achieve a pre determined goal. It is a set of interacting
components functioning together to facilitate learning.

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 Cont…

 Learning system
 Davis, Alexander, and Yelon (1974 : 303) defined a
learning system as an organized combination of people,
materials, facilities, equipment and procedures which
interact to achieve a goal. The two definitions above
clearly show why instructional system is also referred to
as learning system.

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EVALUATION
 Evaluation

1. What is a system?
2. Examine the characteristics and types of systems
3. By means of diagrams only illustrate the following
(a) Suprasystem
(b) Subsystem
(c) Multisystem
(d) Input
(e) Output
(f)Peer System
(g) Throughput (Process region)

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 INTRODUCTION

Definition of key concepts in ID:

 Instruction
 Design (ID)
 System
 Model
 Instructional Design
 Instructional System
 Instructional System Design (ISD) Model

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 INTRODUCTION

Instructional
Design

1 2
a set of events that a creative pattern
facilitate learning or
a rational, logical,
sequential process
Clarifying intended to solve
the problems
terms

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 What is design?

A systematic planning and

ideation process prior to
the development of
something or the execution
of some plan to solve a
problem.

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 Traditional Design
 Topic for students to learn about
 A variety of activities to help them
learn.
 Test on the topic

The traditional approach to education was viewed as piecemeal. ID attempted to integrate

all the components of the instructional process into a system.

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 What is a System?

 Akanbi (1988) defined a

system as any object, event or
a procedure that is made up of
parts which are working both
independently and co-
operatively to fulfill a common
purpose.

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 Cont…

 A system is a set of interrelated and sometimes directly

interdependent things, principles or parts that work
severally and jointly within a given setting for the
attainment of a definite goal or set of goals (Ogwo, 1996)

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 Types of system

 natural system, e.g:

 The solar system,
 body system (digestive, nervous, circulatory, excretory,
respiratory systems) are natural systems. and
synthetic/man made system.

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 Cont...

 Synthetic/man made system:

 a telegraph,
 computer,
 Automobiles,
 a motor car and a driver make up a system,
 an analyst and computer is a system;
 a teacher in classroom;
(all of them are man-made systems, also called man-
machine system).

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 Sub-system

 A system itself is made up of components which are

referred to as subsystems.
 The systems of an instructional system include the
learner; the teacher people (support staff), content,
media, methods, evaluation procedure and so on.
 In a system, a change in one component or subsystem
will affect the effectiveness and efficiency of the entire
system. Systems are therefore very dynamic and
pragmatic.

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 Supra-system

 The suprasystem refers to the environment within which

a system locates or functions. It includes conditions or
factors that are relevant to the system, but are not within
the control span of the managers of the system. For
example, the social factors in the community, budgetary
allocation, and so on.

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 Aspect sof a System

 A system has three main aspects - purpose, process and

content
 The Purpose: Systems are built from parts or
components also called subsystems, and the sum of these
is the content of the system.
 The Content: The content of system is organized for the
accomplishment of a specific purpose.
 The Process: The operations and functions in which
components are engaged in order to accomplish the
purpose of the system add up to the process of the
system.

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 Cont...

 Systems can be identified by their purpose; Purpose tells

us what has to be done; it determines the processes that
have to be undertaken. The purpose of a system is
realized through processes in which interacting
components of the system engage in order to produce a
predetermined output. Purpose gives direction to the
whole system. It determines the process required, and the
process will imply the kinds of component/subsystems
that will make up the system.

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 Application of System Approach

 Application of systems approach to instructional design

involves five basic stages namely:
- analysis phase
- designing phase
- development phase
- Implementation phase
- Evaluation phase

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 What is Instructional System?

 instructional system may be defined as a deliberately

organized combination of people, equipment (devices),
materials, procedures, and the curriculum which interact
cooperatively to achieve a pre determined goal. It is a set
of interacting components functioning together to
facilitate learning (Inyang, 1988)

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 What is Instructional Design?

 Instructional Design is the systematic process of translating

general principles of learning and instruction into plans for
instructional materials and activities.
 … is the process by which instruction is improved through
the analysis of learning needs and systematic development
of learning materials. Instructional designers often use
technology and multimedia as tools to enhance instruction. (
http://www.instructionaldesign.org)
 … is how learning theory is linked to practice in instruction
preparation.

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 Cont…

Instructional Design is a
systematic process, based
on philosophy and learning
theory, for analyzing,
designing, developing,
implementing, and evaluating
instruction

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 Cont…

 Instructional Design is the systematic development of

instructional specifications using learning and
instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction.

 It is the entire process of analysis of learning needs and

goals and the development of a delivery system to meet
those needs.

 It includes development of instructional materials and

activities; and tryout and evaluation of all instruction
and learner activities.

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 System Approach to Instruction

 Ramo (1973 : 15) defined systems approach as a

technique for the application of a scientific approach to
complex problems.
 It concentrates on the analysis and design of the whole,
as distinct from the components or the parts.
 It insist upon looking at a problem in its entirely, taking
into account all the facets and all the variables, and
relating the social to the technological aspects.

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 Cont...

 Ogunranti, Ihongbe, Babatunde, Akanbi, and Egwin

(1981) noted that the system approach to instruction is
an attempt to conceive of the teaching-learning process
as an event consisting of several elements (teacher,
learner, media, methods, content, evaluation) which are
all cooperatively interacting to promote efficiency and
effectiveness.

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 Roles of Instructional Design

 Systematic process of instructional design enables you

to:
 Identify a performance problem
 Determine the goals and objectives
 Define your learners and their needs
 Develop strategies to meet needs and goals
 Assess learning outcomes
 Evaluate if goals, objectives, and needs are met

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 Why Instructional Design?

 This systematic approach ensures:

 There is a need for training.
 The learning events are well-designed.
 Quality training materials are developed.
 Learning events are implemented using appropriate
strategies or approaches.
 Learning events are evaluated to ensure that
learning has taken place.

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 She is working on new ways to
teach the kids next week and
next year. She is drawing
upon her knowledge of
something called
instructional design in her
thinking.
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 Instructional Design is a Process
1. Where are we going?
2. How do we know
when we have
arrived?
3. How do we get there?

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 ID Major Activities

1. Perform an instructional analysis to

determine “where we are going.”
2. Develop an instructional strategy to
determine “how we’ll get there.”
3. Develop and conduct an evaluation to
determine “how we’ll know when we’re
there.”

When these parts are articulated we can create a model.

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 What is a Model?
 Models, like myths and metaphors,
help us to make sense of our world.
 They are used to explain complex
systems

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What are Instructional Design Models?

 Prescriptive set of procedures for developing

instructional materials
 A method for the organization and
management of the process

Philosophy of curriculum + Learning

theory + Instructional design =
Learning

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INSTRUCTIONAL
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
DESIGN
MODEL
MODEL
 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODEL

What is Instructional Design Model ?

 Procedural and conceptual models. Based on theory

(learning theory, systems theory) or practice (company,
military, software development).
 Give us structure and meaning to a problem.

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 Elements of ID Models

Selected Characteristics Classroom Orientation Product Orientation System Orientation

Typical output One or a few hours of Self-instructional or instructor- Course or entire
instruction delivered package curriculum
Resources committed to Very low High High
development
Team or Individual Individual Usually a team Team

ID skill/experience Low High High/very high

Emphasis on development or Select Develop Develop

selection
Amount of analysis Low Low to medium Very high

Technological complexity Low Medium to high Medium to high

Amount of revision Low to medium Very high Medium to high

Amount of distribution None High Medium to high

from Branch & Gustafson (1997)

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EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES OF
OF ID
ID MODEL
MODEL
 EXAMPLES OF ID MODEL

 ADDIE Model
 ASSURE Model
 Dick & Carey Model
 Hannafin & Peck Model
 Waterfall Model
 Rapid Prototyping Model
 Hypermedia Design Model
 Multimedia Design Model
 Lesson Plan Model
 Kemp’s Instructional Design model
 Gerlach and Ely Model, etc
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 EXAMPLES OF ID MODEL

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 Jerrold Kemp Design Model

 takes a holistic approach to instructional design.

 Virtually all factors in the learning environment are
taken into consideration
 including subject analysis, learner characteristics,
learning objectives, teaching activities, resources
(computers, books, etc.), support services and evaluation.
 The process is iterative and the design is subject to
constant revision.
 This model is a more advanced one to design by and the
most comprehensive for web-based course development.

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 ADDIE MODEL

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 ASSURE Model

 Heinich, Molenda, Russell & Smaldino

 Classroom orientation
 Note the selection of materials instead
of development

Image from http://vig-fp.prenhall.com/bigcovers/0137132395.jpg

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 ASSURE MODEL

A Analyze Learners
S State Objectives
S Select Strategies (Methods), Technology,
Media & Materials
U Utilize Technology, Media & Materials
R Require Learner Participation
E Evaluate & Revise

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 WATERFALL MODEL

Waterfall Model (Traditional) Waterfall Model (Modified)

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 Dick & Carey Model

 Systems orientation
 Widespread use in
corporate & military

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 Hypermedia Design Model

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 Morrison, Ross & Kemp (MRK) Model

 Classroom orientation
 It has been modified over time

Images from http://www.borders.com.au/book/designing-effective-instruction/337124/ 84

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 Morrison, Ross & Kemp (MRK) Model

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 Rapid Prototyping Model
 Originated in manufacturing
 ID hijacked from software
development
 Focused on development
primarily
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 Types of prototypes
 Look-and-feel: colors, effects,
gross screen layouts
 Media: use of sound effects,
narration, 3D illustrations,
video, etc.
 Navigation: move through
sections, access support
(glossary, calculator, etc.)
 Interactivity: content,
activities, feedback
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 Design
(product specs
& treatment)

Develop
Review
prototype

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jharun@utm.my 88
 Gerlach-Ely Design Model

 is a prescriptive model that is well suited to higher

education.
 It is meant for novice instructional designers who
have knowledge and
 expertise in a specific context.
 The model includes strategies for selecting and
including media within instruction.
 It also handles the allocation of resources.

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jharun@utm.my 90
 LESSON PLAN MODEL
(i) Needs Assessment
(ii) Determination of Constraints.
(iii) Derivation of General Objectives
(iv) Derivation of Specific Objectives
(v) Administration of a Pre-test
(vi) Selection of Learning Experiences
(vii) Selection of Method
(viii) Selection of Media
(ix) Implementation of instruction
(x) Evaluation
(xi) Feedback

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 LESSON PLANNING MODEL
Select
Determine Learning
Constraints Experiences

Needs Specify Administer Select Implement

Evaluate
Assessment Objectives Pretest Method Instruction

Derive
General Select
Objectives Media

Feedback

Ogunlanti, Ihongbe, Babatunde, Akanbi, & Egwin, (1981)

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 APPLICATION OF ISD

 Distance Education
 Teacher Education
 Special Education
 Guidance and Counseling
 Skill Training and Materials production
 Curriculum Development, Innovations, and Evaluation
 Educational Management and Administration
 Lesson Planning
 Vocational -Technical Education, etc.

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APPLICATION OF ADDIE
MODEL
 FIVE ESSENTIAL PHASES IN ADDIE MODEL

 Analysis
 Design
 Development
 Implementation
 Evaluation

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 ESSENTIAL PHASES

Can you list all the essestial

phases in ID Model ???

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 ANALYSIS PHASE

 This phase is the basis for all other phases in the instructional
design process. To identify barriers or constraints:
 Who is the audience and what are their characteristics?
 Identification of the desired outcome or behaviour.
 What types of learning constraints exist?
 What are the delivery options?
 What are the pedagogical considerations?
 What is the timeline for course completion?
 What exactly is the (performance) problem?
 How do you know there is even a problem?
 Why is it a problem?

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 DESIGN PHASE

 How will the content be organized?

 How will it be presented to learners?
 What delivery format will be used?
 What types of activities and exercises will be included?
 How will learners' accomplishments be measured?

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 DEVELOPMENT PHASE

 Focus on generating the course documents and materials

used by faculty, trainers and participants during the
delivery of the course.
 All materials, resources, technologies, tests etc. are
developed
 Outputs of this phase include competency-based learning
guides and checklists, pre- and midcourse questionnaires,
computer based learning/training, web page, trainer’s
notes, presentation plans, assignment sheets, case studies,
etc.

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 IMPLEMENTATION PHASE

 Materials are distributed to learners

 A procedure for training the facilitators is developed e.g.
The facilitators’ training should cover the course
curriculum, learning outcomes, method of delivery, and
testing procedures.
 A procedure for training the learners is developed e.g.
how to use new tools (study guide, software or
hardware), and learner registration.
 The books, equipment, tools, CD-ROMs and software
are in place, & the learning application or Web site is
functional.

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 EVALUATION PHASE

 The evaluation phase consists of two parts:

 Formative evaluation is present in each stage of the
ADDIE process, e.g. SAE
 The summative evaluation determines the adequacy of
the distributed materials in achieving the course
objectives and provides opportunities for feedback from
the users, e.g. TMA or Semester Exam

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 ADVANTAGES OF ISD

 It provides one of the best methods of combining content

and resources to optimize learning.
 It provides one of the best procedures for exposing the
learner to instructional tasks, experiences, packages and
so on.
 The requirements for clearly stated objectives for a
system will control and guide the planning, design, and
development of a learning system.
 It ensures that all relevant variables in an instructional
situation are given proper and adequate consideration

jharun@utm.my 102
 Cont…

 It encourages the adoption of self correcting strategies in

the management of instruction.
 It provides opportunities for improving upon the system
and the performance of the system operations.
 It allows for a continuous wholistic perception of the
instructional programme (or system) instead of the
piecemeal view of the traditional approach.
 It ensures efficiency and stability in the teaching –
learning process because it emphasizes the need to
consider all input variables at the planning stage.

jharun@utm.my 103
 Cont…
 It emphasizes and allows more rational basis for
allocating financial, material, time, human and other
resources.
 It promotes further innovations within the system; this
can be in the form of materials, methods or techniques.
 Various instructional variables which may lead, if
uncontrolled, to confused and wasteful performance can
be specified, considered and taken care of.
 Cost effective

jharun@utm.my 104
 Cont…

 It allows the participants to cope with the varying

demands of modern technological products, processes
and settings within the instructional enterprise if their
use is well programmed.
 Saves time and trouble
 Promotes effective learning
 Systematic

jharun@utm.my 105
 DISADVANTAGES OF ISD
 The design and utilization of instructional system
require, in addition to the teacher, a number of other
personnel: media specialists, technicians, assistants and
so on. Most of these personnel do not exist, in our school
system.
 The development and utilization of instructional systems
rests on the availability of appropriate media. The
variety and scope of media available in most schools is
grossly inadequate.
 The centralized administrative set up makes it difficult
for innovations to find their way into our schools. Aside
bureaucratic bottlenecks, the conservatism of some staff
hinders the full implementation of ISD in Nigeria.
jharun@utm.my 106
 Cont..

 Time-consuming to implement
 Poor funding may hinder media procurement and
maintenance.
 The successful application of ISD entails much
theoretical analysis of the prevailing instructional
situation in line with scientific and educational principles
in order to arrive at any solution. Our teachers are not so
equipped for such in depth analysis.

jharun@utm.my 107
 REFLECTION

 Question: Until now - did you use instructional Design?

 What is your opinion concerning the use of Instructional

Design Models in eLearning?

jharun@utm.my 108