Introduction to

Well Logging
Well-log is a continuous record of measurements made in a
borehole responding to variations in some physical
properties of rocks through which the borehole is drilled.
HISTORY
Traditionally Logs are displayed on girded papers, as
shown in figure-1. Nowadays the log may be taken as • 1912 Conrad Schlumberger gave the idea of using
films, images, and in digital format.
electrical measurements to map subsurface rock
bodies.
• in 1919 Conrad Schlumberger and his brother
Marcel began work on well logs.
• The first electrical resistivity well log was taken in
France, in 1927.
• The instrument that was used for this purpose is
called SONDE, the sound was stopped at periodic
intervals in the borehole and the resistivity was
plotted on graph paper.
• In 1929 electrical resistivity logs were introduced
on a commercial scale in Venezuela, the USA, and
Russia
• For correlation and identification of hydrocarbon-
bearing strata.
• The photographic – film recorder was developed in
1936 the curves were SN, LN, AND LAT
• The dip meter log was developed in 1930
• the Gamma-ray and Neutron Log began in 1941
Types of Different types of well logs Logging is carried out by sending a probe into
 Driller’s logs (including drilling time) the borehole and receiving the data from
 Sample logs receivers. Logging is divided into three types.
 Mud logs
 Electric logs A. Open Hole Logging
 Radioactivity logs  Natural gamma ray log
 Miscellaneous logs  Spontaneous potential log
 Resistivity log
 Density log
 Neutron log
 Sonic log
B. Cased Hole Logging
 Gamma ray logging
 Cement bonding log (CBL-VDL)
C. Production Logging:
 Gamma-ray logging
 Flow meter
 Gradio manometer
 Wellbore temperature
 Basic Well Logging Tools

• Lithology Tools
• Spontaneous Potential
• Gamma Ray
• Fluids Identification Tools
• Resistivity
• Laterolog
• Induction
• Petrophysical Tools
• Porosity
• Neutron
• Density
• Sonic
• Auxiliary Tools
• Caliper
Driller’s Logs
 During the days of the cable tool era, the driller’s log was the principal well record kept.
 It recorded the types of formations encountered, any pertinent fluid flows or oil and gas shows observed, and other
related operational remarks.
 This is filled out daily by each driller (or the tool pusher) as a record of the operations and progress during his working
hours (tour).
 It is largely used to inform office personnel of daily occurrences, to provide operational data, and to serve as a legal
record.
 Ordinarily, the formation type (such as sand, shale, lime, etc.) is the only geological information recorded.
 The driller often keeps the drilling time log when hole depth approaches a zone of particular interest.
 This is done manually by marking the Kelly joint at the prescribed intervals (1 ft, 5 ft, etc.) and recording the drilling
time for the increment.
 Such a record is quite useful for locating precise formations or porous zones that are anticipated as productive
possibilities.
 Abrupt changes in drilling rate will immediately indicate a change in lithology although the cuttings may not reach the
surface for some time.
 Automatic devices that furnish a continuous record of drilling progress are also in common use.
 These instruments consist basically of a spring-actuated
drum containing a flexible steel cable whose other end is
fastened to the gooseneck of the swivel above the Kelly
joint, via a pulley at the crown of the derrick.
 As drilling progresses, the downward movement of the
Kelly rotates the recording chart so that a continuous
record of its position is made.
 The record obtained is quite accurate and includes an
accounting of all non-drilling time such as passes in
making trips, connections, and repairs to equipment.
Sample Logs
 The well cuttings are a source of considerable information, provided that they are properly procured where the
driller’s instructions may call for samples to be caught at a definite footage interval over the entire hole.
 In field development wells, such complete coverage is often unnecessary and only the interval(s) of interest may be
sampled.
 A typical procedure for catching rotary samples runs as follows:
 A portion of the returning mud stream is diverted into a sample box where the reduced velocity allows the cuttings to
be deposited. At regular intervals (10 ft, for example), a crew member removes a representative portion or sample
from the box and then cleans the trough.
 The end gate or baffle is then replaced to catch fresh cuttings from the next interval.
 The sample is washed with water (or a solvent in the case of oil base mud) and decanted several times, after which it
is dried and placed in a cloth bag (sample sack).
 Each sack is tagged according to the interval that was drilled while it was accumulating.
 The bags are then stored until called for by the company representative (commonly the geologist).
 As the well depth approaches promising formations, the geologist may be on continuous duty at the well, in which
case the procedure is varied to suit the circumstances.
 From an examination of the cuttings, the skilled observer can determine
 the rock type,
 the specific formation being drilled,
 the depth at which a certain formation was encountered (called the formation’s top),
 And qualitative indications of porosity and oil content.
 Other features such as texture, fossil content, and mineral composition may be noted and recorded in some cases.
 formation porosity obtained from a microscopic examination of them.
 Presence of Oil can be detected using odor and fluorescent lamp
 Problems in sample inspection
 the time the rock was drilled and the time it reached the sample box are sometimes different.
 This is particularly troublesome in deep wells, where a cutting may take two or more hours to reach the surface.
 The label on the sack, which gives the depth interval at the time the sample was accumulating, may differ greatly from the true
depth at which it was drilled. The geologist must adjust this to approximate more nearly the true condition.
 cuttings obtained over a given interval usually contain fragments from upper beds that have sloughed into the annulus. Shales are
particularly prone to do this and may constitute half the sample, even though solid limestone is being drilled. The practiced
observer is usually able to eliminate such cuttings from the picture; however, it is not always easy.
 Data on the drilling time are of great help in overcoming both the lag and sloughing problems so that the true picture is obtained.
 The use of fluoroscopy is hampered by oil-base or oil-emulsion muds; Certain minerals also exhibit fluorescence which is often difficult
to distinguish from that of crude oil.
 Such data are normally presented in a sample or strip log. A percentage log, which represents all formations noted in
the cuttings according to their proportion in the total sample, is often used in areas where the section is not well
known and the geologist is hesitant to make precise distinctions.
 Specific formations are normally shown on the logs of well-known areas.
 The drilling time may be plotted beside the sample log as an aid to interpretation.
Mud Logging
 Mud logging refers to continuously analyzing the drilling mud for oil and gas content.
 Cutting inspection and analysis are also included in the complete service.
 This procedure is widely used in exploratory drilling and affords an extra tool for detecting the presence of oil and
gas. The basic oil or gas detection equipment consists of a mud-gas separator and an electric filament or hot wire.
This wire is one component of a bridge circuit similar to the well-known Wheatstone bridge.
 A portion of the mud is diverted from the return flow line into the gas-mud separator. Air is injected into the mud to
agitate it thoroughly and liberate a portion of any entrained gas.
 The air-gas mixture (if volatile hydrocarbons are present) is ignited by the hot wire. This raises the wire’s
temperature, thereby increasing its electrical resistance and unbalancing the bridge circuit.
 The resistance increase depends on the amount of gas present to combust.
 Hot wire cutting analyzers are essentially the same device where a grinder is used, such as a Waring Blendor,
furnished with a vacuum cap.
 The cuttings are placed in the grinder and a vacuum is applied. As the particles are pulverized, minute traces of gas
are liberated and sucked into contact with the hot wire, with the same effect as that just described the equipment is
small, battery powered units are available as an aid to routine sample logging.
 Quantitative interpretation of formation content is not obtainable
by mud or sample logging for the same reasons that flushed cores
do not yield original saturations.
 Continuous mud logging is, however, an excellent exploratory
tool.
Electric Logging
 an electric log will be considered as a plot of certain electrical properties of the strata in contact with the well bore.
These properties are measured by various electrode configurations which are lowered into the borehole on electric
cables.
 The standard electric log normally presents two different sets of graphs.
 The left-hand side shows the spontaneous potential (called the SP),
 the resistivity measurements are recorded on the right.
 these measurements may be recorded simultaneously with one run of the instrument.
Fluid Resistivities
 dry sedimentary rocks are non-conductive, which is to say that
their resistivity is extremely high.
 Shales are often considered as conductors; their low resistivities
are due to a high interstitial water content rather than to any
conduction by the dry clay minerals.
 0il and gas are also insulators and will not conduct an electric
current.
 The conductance of subsurface strata is then normally due to
contained water.
 The resistivity of water depends on
 its salinity and
 temperature
 Salinity is expressed as parts per million or grains per gallon of
sodium chloride.
 Formation water resistivity may be either measured from a
sample or calculated from a chemical analysis.
 Concentrations of other ions may be converted to electrically equivalent sodium chloride concentrations by the following
factors

A rule of thumb for estimating the effect of temperature on water

resistivity which is useful and quite accurate for all except for very
high salinities, is the following:

where Rw1, Rw2 = water resistivities at temperatures T 1 and T2 , respectively

 A knowledge of mud resistivity is essential for electric log

interpretation. This property is always measured by the logging crew,
either on a surface sample or in the borehole, and appears on the log Equations to calculate Mud resistivity, nu filtrate,
heading. and mud cake can be calculated
 Temperature corrections may be made using Figure 11.3. Rmf = 0.75 Rm
where Rmf = mud filtrate resistivity at a particular
 resistivity of a mud is greater than that of its filtrate, due to the presence
temperature, ohm-meters
of non-conductive solids.
Rm = mud resistivity at the same temperature,
 Charts are available which make possible the estimation of the values of
ohm-meters
any two of the factors, mud resistivity, mud filtrate resistivity, or the
resistivity of the mud cake, Rmc= 1.5 Rm
where Rmc = resistivity of the mud cake
Formation Resistivities
Any conductivity exhibited by sedimentary rock strata is attributed to interstitial fluid content.

The only exceptions to this rule are a few sands that contain appreciable quantities of glauconite and pyrite, both of
which are conductors.
It would then appear logical that for a particular porous medium:
(1) the greater the water content, the lower will be the formation resistivity.
(2) a rock which contains an oil and/or gas saturation will have a higher resistivity than the same rock completely saturated
with formation water.
Conclusions (1) and (2) form the principal basis for electric log interpretation and are completely valid except for those
cases where the formation water is relatively fresh (only slightly saline).
 A fundamental definition is the following:

R0 = FRw
 where F = formation factor.
 R0 = the resistivity of a rock which is 100% saturated with
formation water
 Rw = a clean, porous sandstone sample which is 100%, saturated
with a brine
Since current can flow only through the water, it would appear that
the value of F should depend on: Experimental evidence has shown that
(1) The amount of water present, hence the porosity. porosity, 𝛷, and F are related by Eq. (11.6):
(2) The pore geometry of the particular rock, the main factor being,
probably, the tortuosity which is the square of the ratio of the actual F= 𝛷-m where m = the cementation
path length of the current to the length of the sample. factor.
(3) The degree of the rock’s consolidation: the extent to which the
individual grains are cemented together.
The above two equations are referred as Archie’s equations as they are from the work of G. E. Archie.

later empirical expression which relates F and 𝛷 is the Humble equation:

F = 0.62 𝛷 -2.15
 A rock that has an oil or gas saturation will naturally exhibit a higher resistivity than the same rock with 100%
water saturation.
 The greater the hydrocarbon saturation, the greater will be the resistivity.
 This behavior is expressed by the empirical relationship of Equation which is another of the Archie equations:

 where Sw = water saturation of the rock in question.

 Rt = true resistivity of the formation, ohmmeters. (The designation “true” is used to distinguish between this and the
apparent value read from a log. Apparent values may or may not require corrections to convert them to R t )
 n = saturation exponent. For clean, water-wet, rocks n =2 is commonly used. Its range Jor shaley sands is between 1.0
and 1.7. For oil wet rocks, n = 2 to 10.
 The Spontaneous Potential, Self-Potential, or SP Log

• The spontaneous potential, or self-potential, log is the

oldest type of geophysical log in use.
• The first one was run in 1927.
• The spontaneous log records the electric potential set up
between an electrode in a sonde drawn up the borehole
and a fixed electrode at the earth’s surface .It can only
be used in open (i.e., uncased) holes filled with
conductive mud.
• Provided that there is a minimum amount of
permeability,
• SP response is dependent primarily on the difference in
salinity between drilling mud and the formation water.
• Generally an indicator of permeability
• Generally mimics the GR curve Figure 1: Spontaneous potential (SP) log acquisition
schematic
 Spontaneous Potential - SP
 The SP log is a recording versus depth of the difference
between the electrical potential of a movable electrode in the
borehole and the electrical potential of a fixed surface
electrode.
 The SP log has several oilfield applications:
 Detection of permeable beds
 The determination of Rw
 Correlation
 Identify the fresh / salt water interface
 Qualitative indication of bed shaliness
 Determination of formation water resistivity
 The origin of the spontaneous potential has four different
components.
 The spontaneous potential is composed of contributions that
are
 electrochemical (arise from electrical interactions between
the various chemical constituents of the rocks and fluids),
 and electrokinetic (arise from the movement of electrically
charged ions in the fluid relative to the fixed rock).

Electrochemical Components

The diffusion potential (sometimes called the liquid-junction

potential).:This potential exists at the junction between the
invaded and the non-invaded zone, and is the direct result of the
The difference in salinity between the mud filtrate and the
formation fluid.

The membrane potential (sometimes called the shale

potential).: This potential exists at the junction between the
non-invaded zone and the shale (or other impermeable rock)
sandwiching the permeable bed.
 Electrokinetic Components

 These components arise from the movement of fluids containing conducting

ions.
 The electrokinetic contribution, itself, consists of two effects, which are usually
very small and act in opposite ways such that they cancel each other out.
 These contributions depend upon fluid flow, and hence are larger when there is
a substantial difference in pressure between the borehole and the formation.
 Thus, these contributions may be significant for depleted and under-pressured
reservoirs where the differential pressure is high (>500 psi).

The mudcake potential. This potential is produced by the movement of

charged ions through the mudcake and invaded zone in a permeable formation.
Its size depends upon the hydraulic pressure drop, and since most of this is
across the low permeability mudcake, the great majority of electrokinetic
potential is also generated across the mudcake, with an insignificant amount in
the invaded zone.

The shale wall potential. This potential is the same in origin to the mudcake potential, but applies to the flow of fluids from
the borehole into shale formations. It is usually very small because the flow into impermeable shales is small. It also acts to
set up a current flow into the formation
 Shales have the property that they can
preferentially retard the passage of
anions. This is called anionic
permselectivity or electronegative
permselectivity and is a property of
membranes

strength of this effect depends

upon the shale mineralogy, the
fluid concentration and the fluid
pH.

For NaCl solutions at 25oC, the

membrane potential, Em, is given by; Ed
= 59.15´log(R1/R2), where R1 is the
resistivity of the diluter solution, and
R2 is the resistivity of the more saline
solution.
For NaCl solutions at 25oC, the diffusion potential, Ed, is
given by; Ed = -11.81´log(R1/R2), where R1 is the resistivity
of the diluter solution, and R2 is the resistivity of the more
saline solution.
Spontaneous Potential - SP
• SP:
• Membrane Potential - Em : Ion selective membranes
allow ions with certain electrical charges (positive or
negative) to pass through them. Shales act like ion selective
membranes as they allow only cations (positively charged
ions) to pass through.
• Liquid Junction Potential – Ej : The ions will normally
move from higher salinity to lower, the resulting net
current flow will be from the lower salinity to the higher
salinity fluids.

• “The SP cannot be recorded in holes with

nonconductive muds”:
The SP cannot be recorded in holes with nonconductive muds because such muds do not provide electrical
continuity between the SP electrode and the formation. The SP can only be recorded in open hole because there
must be ion movement between fluids to establish the spontaneous potential. If the resistivities of the mud filtrate
and the formation water are about equal, the SP deflections will be small and the curve rather featureless
 The electric charge of the SP is caused by the flow
of ions (largely Na+ and Cl-) from concentrated to
more dilute solutions. Generally, this flow is from
salty formation water to fresher drilling mud (Fig.
3.22).
 This naturally occurring electric potential (measured
in millivolts) is related to the permeability of the
formation.
 Deflection of the log from an arbitrarily determined
shale baseline indicates permeable and therefore
porous sandstones or carbonates.
 In most cases, this deflection, termed a normal or
negative SP deflection, is to the left of the baseline.
 Deflection to the right of the baseline, termed
reversed or positive SP, occurs when formation
waters are fresher than the mud filtrate.
 A poorly defined or absent SP deflection occurs in
uniformly impermeable formations or where the
salinities of mud and formation water are
comparable (Fig. 3.23).
with a normal SP, the curve can be used to differentiate between interbedded impermeable shales and permeable sandstone carbonates.
 The logging engineer shifts the baseline as the curve gradually drifts across the scale during the log run.
 The SP deflections of adjacent wells are not comparable.
 Similarly, although local deflections on the curve are caused by vertical variations in permeability, no actual millidarcy
values can be measured.
 The amount of the current and, hence the amplitude of deflection on the SP curve, is related not only to permeability but
also to the contrast between the salinity of the drilling mud and the formation water.
 Specifically, it is the contrast between the resistivity of the two fluids. Empirically, it has been found that
Spontaneous Potential - SP

• If Rmf > Rw
• Shales will have a low SP and
clean sandstones will have a
higher SP.
• If Rmf < Rw
• Shales will have a high SP
and clean sandstones will
have a lower SP.
• If Rmf = Rw
• Little SP will be developed
and the SP log will have very
little character.
Spontaneous Potential - SP
• Shaliness indicator
• SPshale = -10 mV
• SPsand = -40 mV
• SPlog = SP reading from the log = -25 mV
• The percentage of shale will be :
• SPlog - SPshale / SPsand - SPshale =
• 15/-30 = .5 or 50% shale
• Fresh and saltwater interface
• Correlation

Fresh and saltwater interface - The magnitude and direction of the SP excursions are dependant
upon the relative salinities between Rmf and Rw. When this relationship changes the SP
excursions will change. At the freshwater interface Rmf will be > Rw below the interface and
could be equal to or less than Rw above the interface.

Correlation - Correlation permits logs made on one trip into the borehole to be tied-in (depth
matched) with those made on another trip. Correlating is done for two primary reasons:
Depth matching between separate trips in the well.
Positioning of open hole sampling tools.
 In summary, the SP log may be used to delineate permeable zones, and hence, it aids lithological identification and
well-to-well correlation.
 The SP log can also be used to calculate Rw, the resistivity of the formation water.
 The SP is limited by the fact that it cannot be run in cased holes and is ineffective when Rmf is approximately equal to
Rw.
 This situation occurs with many offshore wells drilled using saltwater-based drilling muds.
Calculations for Rw Using Sp log or quantitative calculations

The Amplitude of the SP Deflection

Several factors govern the amplitude of the SP deflection
opposite a permeable bed. This is because the size of the
deflection and the change in the SP curve between beds
depends upon the distribution of the current flux and the
potential drops taking place in each part of the
formation. The following parameters are important:
· The thickness of the permeable bed, h.
· The true resistivity of the permeable bed, Rt.
· The diameter of the invaded zone, di.
· The resistivity of the invaded zone, RXO.
· The resistivity of the bounding formations.
· The resistivity of the mud, Rm.
· The diameter of the borehole, dh.
· The relative salinities of the mud filtrate and the
formation fluids.
 To use the SP curve quantitatively, a value for the
total potential drop around the circuit must be
derived. This is called the static spontaneous
potential (SSP).
 This value may be derived from correction
charts.
 A direct reading of the SSP may be obtained
directly from the SP log opposite thick, clean,
shale-free, 100% water-bearing formations.
 The SSP is the value in millivolts of the
difference between the SP log at the shale base
line and that in the centre of the thick clean
formation,
One method of correcting the ASP. to the SSP is the empirical chart of Figure 11.6.

• The only permeable (and

porous) zone of any
consequence is from 5824
to 5856 ft,
h = gross thickness of this zone is 32 ft.

• shaly streak at 5835 to 5837 ft.

Hence the net section (permeable
strata only) is 30 ft.

The maximum deflection observed

opposite the bed is approximately
ASP = —100 mv.
4. From the log heading (not shown)
Rm =0.80 ohmmeters at 192°F, the
temperature at 7000 ft.
mean surface temperature of 70°F,
the temperature at 5850 ft is: Need to calculate
Now need to calculate the Rm value for BHT
these corrections are insignificant and the SSP = ASP = —100 mv.
Mineral Recognition
Though not as good as some other logs, the SP log does react unusually to a few minerals and formations, and is
therefore sometimes useful in mineral recognition. The most common occurrences are as follows, but are not reliable:
· Coals Large negative kick (or none at all!)
· Pyrite Very large negative kick.
· Rhyolite Large negative kick.
· Black shale Positive kick
Resistivity Logs
 Figure shows the typical condition around the borehole in an oil
zone and the nomenclature .
 The term annulus pertains to the zone of relatively high formation
water saturation, banked up by the displacing mud filtrate.
 The extent of contamination around the borehole depends on the
 filtration characteristics of the mud,
 pressure differential between the well bore and the formation,
 the time of exposure, and
 The nature of the rocks.
 The resistivities which may influence measurements are those shown
as Rm, Rmc, Rxo, Ri, Ran, and, finally, Rt.
Flushed, zone: the original pore fluid is displaced, be it connate water, oil, or gas. So a circular invaded, or flushed, zone is
created around the borehole with a resistivity (referred to as Rxo) that may be very different from the resistivity of the
uninvaded zone (Rt).
Transition Zone: A transition zone separates the two.
Various types of resistivity logs to measuring resistivity of both the uninvaded zone (Rt) and the flushed zone (Rxo)(are
generally referred to as microresistivity logs).
Resistivity Logs
 The three main ways of measuring the electrical resistivity of
formations penetrated by boreholes are
 the normal log,
 laterolog, and
 induction log techniques.
 With the normal, or conventional resistivity log, an electric
potential and flow of current is set up between an electrode
on the sonde and an electrode at the surface.
 A pair of electrodes on the sonde is used to measure the
variation in formation resistivity as the sonde is raised to the
surface.
 The spacing between the current electrode and the recording
electrode can be varied, as shown in Fig. 3.24(A). The three-
electrode spacings usually employed are 16 in (short
normal), 64 in (long normal), and 8 ft 8 in (long lateral).
They can generally be run simultaneously with an SP log.
Normal resistivity devices
 For low-resistivity salty muds, laterologs, or guard
logs, are now generally used (Fig. 3.24(B)).
 In these systems, single electrodes cause focused
current to flow horizontally into the formation.
 This horizontal flow is achieved by placing two guard
electrodes above and below the current electrode. By
balancing the guard electrode current with that of the
central generating electrode, a sheet of current
penetrates the formation.

 The potential of the guard and central electrodes is measured as the sonde is raised.
 As with conventional resistivity logs, various types of laterologs can be used to measure resistivity at different distances
from the borehole. This measurement is achieved by changing the geometry of the focusing electrodes.
 For freshwater or oil-based muds, which have a low resistivity, a third type of device is used.
 This device is the induction log, in which transmitter and receiver coils are placed at two ends of a sonde and are used
to transmit a high-frequency alternating current. This current creates a magnetic field, which, in turn, generates currents
in the formation. These currents fluctuate according to the formation resistivity and are measured at the receiver coil, as
shown in Fig. 3.24(C).
Normal Curves (2 electrode)

Assume that the medium surrounding the electrodes is completely

homogeneous and of resistivity R.
As current is transmitted from the current electrode A, it will flow
spherically outward as shown by Figure
Considering then the two electrode system of Figure 11.10, it is apparent that the poténtial measured at M due to A is:

 The quantity 4 π (AM) is then the constant for the particular sonde used.

 In practice, the medium surrounding the sonde is not homogeneous, hence the current flow will be distorted, and will
not be spherical.
 ‘Two normal curves of different spacing, called the short normal and long normal, are usually obtained.
 Logging companies use different spacings; however, 16 and 64 in. are common combinations.

 The spacing governs the distance of investigation around the bore hole — the greater the spacing, the greater
the radius of investigation. For example, a very short normal might investigate only the mud in the borehole.
 The Lateral Curve (3 electrode)
 This device is designed to overshoot the borehole and invaded zone, thereby measuring
Rt
 Two pickup electrodes M and N are relatively close together with A being some distance
removed.
 The distance from A to the midpoint of M and N, point 0, is considered the spacing, and
will be referred to as AO.
 With this instrumentation, the potential between M and N due to the current from A is
measured.
 If A0 is sufficiently large, the borehole and invaded zone effects will become negligible so that the resistivity measured
is that of the undisturbed formation, Rt

 The reading taken from the log is, however, considered as an apparent value R a until any necessary corrections are
applied to convert it to Rt.
 In practice, the spacing of the lateral device is usually 19 ft (18 ft, 8 in., to be exact). While this gives a considerable
radius of investigation,
 It also causes a loss of detail in thin beds, as well as certain curve distortions that occur when the electrodes are on
opposite side of the bed boundary.
 the rules of thumb in Table 11.3 apply to lateral and normal curve readings.
 It is apparent that the resistivity curves just described are, of
necessity, influenced by the effects of the borehole and the Departure Curves
invaded zone, namely, Rm, Rme, Rxo, and Ri.
 The thickness of the bed with relation to the electrode
spacing is a further complicating factor.
 A simplified chart of this type for the short normal (16-in.)
and lateral (18-ft 8-in.) curves is shown in Figure 11.17.

Sets of curves have been prepared which allow log readings Use
of Figure 11.17 is described as follows:
(1) Required information
(a) Rm at formation temperature.
(b) Hole diameter. (This is normally taken as bit size, unless
a caliper log is available.)
(c) Apparent resistivity readings from short normal (R 16”
and lateral (R18’8”) curves.
(2) For the 16 in. normal: Calculate R16”/Rm. Enter at
left margin and proceed to appropriate hole size
(solid lines) and read Ri/Rm at the bottom.
(3) For the 18 ft 8 in. lateral: Calculate R 18’8”/Rm and
proceed as before, using dashed hole size lines. (apparent
resistivities) to be corrected for these effects. These are
called departure curves.
Resistivity Tools
• Induction Tools
• Run in nonconductive or low-conductivity muds
• Dual Induction - DIL: Is the earlier version of induction tool which read a Shallow
(SFL) and deep measurement
• Phasor Induction - DIT-E: Is an enhanced Induction tool giving Shallow, Medium,
and Deep measurements
• Array Induction - AIT: Is the newer generation of Induction tools giving 5 curves
with set depths of investigation: 10” (shallow), 20”, 30”, 60”, 90”.
• Laterolog Tools
• Run in highly conductive muds (salt based)
Resistivity

• Resistivity of the salt water is low

(highly conductive) Resistivity of the Oil is high
(Poor conductor)
Resistivity

• Dry, nonmetallic minerals (rock matrix) have a very high resistivity

Resistivity

• The resistivity of a rock is a measurement of the resistivity of the rock

matrix as well as the resistivity of the fluid within the porous volume of
the rock.

57 Intro to Well Logging

Restored
Induction
 The electrical resistivity of
formations varies greatly.
 Solid rock is highly resistive, as is
porous rock saturated in freshwater,
oil, or gas.
 Shale, on the other hand, and porous
formations saturated with salty water
or brine have very low resistivities.
 When run simultaneously, SP and
resistivity logs enable qualitative
interpretations of lithology and the
nature of pore fluids to be made
(Fig. 3.25).

FIGURE 3.25 The four basic responses for SP and resistivity logs for a bed between
impermeable formations.
Quantitative Calculation of Hydrocarbon
Saturation

 Generally, this calculation is approached

in reverse,
 First calculating the water saturation
(Sw).
 A reservoir whose pores are totally filled
by oil or gas has an Sw of 0% or 0.00;
 a reservoir devoid of hydrocarbons has an
Sw of 100% or 1.0.
 where R is the resistivity (ohms per meter),
 L is the length of conductive specimen,
 and A is the cross-sectional area.
 Note also that

Most reservoirs consist of mineral grains that are themselves highly resistive, but between them are pores
saturated with fluids whose conductivity varies with composition and temperature.
An important number in log interpretation therefore is the particular formation resistivity factor (F), defined as

 where Ro is the resistivity of rock 100% saturated with water of resistivity Rw. Note that Rw decreases with increasing
salinity and temperature, as, therefore, does Ro.
 The value of F increases with decreasing porosity. Archie (1942)
Archie formula:
 where a is a constant, 𝛷 is the porosity, and m is the cementation factor.
 The values of a and m depend on formation parameters that are difficult
to measure, being influenced by the tortuosities among interconnected
pores.
 Using a log reading deep resistivity, Rt can be measured in the suspected oil zone and Ro in one that can be reasonably
assumed to be 100% water saturated.
 Thus, Sw may be calculated throughout a suspected reservoir. This method is only valid for clean (i.e., clay-free)
reservoirs.
 If a clay matrix is present, the resistivity of the reservoir is reduced, and oil-saturated shaley sands may be missed. This
method also assumes that the value for F is the same in the oil and water zones, which is seldom true because oil
inhibits cementation, which may continue in the underlying water zone. To overcome some of these problems, the ratio
method may be used.
 This method is based on the assumption that

where Rxo can be measured from a microlog; Rt from a deep

resistivity log; Rmt from the drilling mud at the surface (corrected
for temperature at the zone of interest); and Rw from the SP
log, as shown in Fig. 3.29.
 Radioactivity Logs
• All electric logs must be run in an open hole, to avoid short circuits through the steel casing.
• Radioactivity logs, which may be run in either open or cased holes.
• Two curves are included in a complete log of this type:
• The gamma ray curve: presented on the left hand side and is similar to the SP curve.
• the neutron curve: curve appears on the right hand track and is somewhat analogous to the resistivity
curves.

Three types of logs that measure radioactivity are commonly used:

 the gamma-ray,
 neutron, and
 density logs.
The gamma-ray log, or gamma log, uses a scintillation counter to measure the natural radioactivity of formations as the
sonde is drawn up the borehole.
The Gamma-Ray Log (and Caliper)

 Certain elements exhibit nuclear disintegration by emitting energy in the form of alpha, beta, and gamma
 particles.
 Alpha particles are helium nuclei and
 Beta particles are electrons.

 Both of these have relatively low penetrating power and may be effectively stopped by small thicknesses of
solid material.
 Gamma rays are similar to X-rays (electromagnetic waves) and are able to penetrate several inches of rock or steel.
 The relative penetrating power of the three particles is about 1, 100, 10,000, respectively.
 a properly shielded device can be made to respond only to gamma radiation.
The Gamma-Ray Log (and Caliper)

Gamma Ray Tools detect the naturally

occurring radiation within the rock
Potassium (K)
Uranium (U)
Thorium (Th)
actinium series,

Radioactive elements tend to

concentrate in clays and shales
 The main radioactive element in rocks is
potassium, which is commonly found in illitic
clays and to a lesser extent in feldspars, mica, and
glauconite.
 Zirconium (in detrital zircon), monazite, and
various phosphate minerals are also radioactive.
 Organic matter commonly scavenges uranium
and thorium, and thus oil source rocks, oil shales,
sapropelites, and algal coals are radioactive.
 Humic coals, on the other hand, are not
radioactive.
 The gamma log is thus an important aid to
lithological identification (Fig. 3.30).
 The radioactivity is measured in API (American
FIGURE 3.30 The approximate gamma log ranges for various
Petroleum Institute) units and generally plotted
rocks. Note that small quantities of radioactive clay, for example,
on a scale of 0e100 or 0e120 API.
can increase the reading of any lithology.
 A gamma ray logging device of the jonization chamber (Geiger-Muller
Counter) type is shown in Figure 11.29.
 An ionization chamber containing an inert gas at high pressure is penetrated
by gamma rays
 Some of these rays collide with gas atoms, liberate electrons from the gas,
and thereby ionize the gas.
 The current resulting from this liberation of electrons is automatically
amplified at the surface and recorded as a function of depth.
 Its magnitude is directly related to the intensity of the gamma radiation at
any level.
 Gamma radiation is not emitted at a constant rate.
 Consequently, for a given length of ionization chamber (commonly 3 to 4
ft) one has to adjust the logging speed to obtain a true statistical picture of
radiation in different localities..
 Since the gamma-ray curve measures the natural radioactivity of sediments, and since the latter varies with the
rock type, it is apparent that gamma-ray logging may be used to define the lithology of a section.
 the left-hand excursions of the gamma-ray curve denote decreases in radioactivity.
 Shaly rocks normally have the greatest radioactivity and are indicated by right-hand deflections.
 Igneous rocks are more radioactive than sediments, as is indicated by the response to granite at the bottom of
the section.
 The gamma-ray curve is quite similar in appearance to the SP curve
 it is insensitive to permeable or porous conditions, distinguishing only between clean and shaly rocks.
Gamma Ray
• In sedimentary formations, the GR
log reflects the clay or shale content

• Clean formations, such as

sandstones or limestones, usually
have a very low level of
radioactivity

• In general, the lower the Gamma

Ray reading, the cleaner the sand

• Gamma Ray logs can be run in

cased holes, but the data will be
suppressed
 Conventionally, the natural gamma reading is presented on 001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT

the left-hand column of the log similarly to, and often 0

SPC
150 0.2
SNC
200 1.95
CNLLC
2.95 150 us/f 50

simultaneously with, the SP log. -160 MV

ACAL
40 0.2
MLLCF
200 0.45 -0.15

6 16 0.2 200
 The gamma log can be used in much the same way as an SP, 10700

with a shale baseline being drawn.

 Deflection to the left of this line does not indicate
GR
permeability, but rather a change from shale to clean Log
lithology, generally sandstone or carbonate.
Resistivity
Log 10800

SP
 The gamma reading is affected by hole diameter, so it Log
is generally run together with a caliper log, a
mechanical device that records the diameter of the
borehole. 10900

 The caliper log shows where the hole may be locally

enlarged by washing out or caving and hence
deviating the expected gamma-ray and other log
responses.

Bulk Density
Log
 Caliper
• The Caliper log is a continuous measure of the actual
borehole diameter
• Shows the condition of the well over the footage
where other tools are being run (Washouts, bridges)
• Caliper is also used to calculate the volume of cement
needed behind the casing
• Open hole log will give the Volume of the wellbore
 The hole may also be narrower than the gauge of the bit where bridging occurs. Bridging is caused by either
sloughing of the side of the hole and incipient collapse or a build-up of mud cake opposite permeable zones.
 Although the gamma log is affected by hole diameter, it has the important advantage that it can be run through
casing.
 The gamma log is important for identifying lithology, calculating the shaliness of reservoirs, and correlating between
adjacent wells.
The Natural Gamma-Ray Spectrometry Tool
 One of the limitations of the standard gamma-ray log is that it is
unable to differentiate among various radioactive minerals causing
the gamma response.
 This lack of differentiation causes a severe problem when the log is
used to measure the clay content of a reservoir in which either the
clay is kaolin (potassium-free and nonradioactive) or other
radioactive minerals are present, such as mica, glauconite, zircon,
monazite, or uranium adsorbed on organic matter.
 By analyzing the energy wavelength spectrum of detected gamma
radiation, the refined gamma-ray spectrometry tool measures the
presence of three commonly occurring radioactive decay series,
whose parent elements are thorium, uranium, and potassium (Hassan
et al., 1976).

 This information can be used for detailed mineral identification

and, in particular, allows a study of clay types. An example of
such an application is shown in Fig. 3.31, where the potassium
thorium ratio indicates the trend from potassic feldspar to kaolinite
clays.
 Gamma-ray spectrometry logging is also important in source rock evaluation because it can differentiate detrital radioactive minerals
containing potassium and thorium from organic matter with adsorbed uranium
 Neutron
 Neutrons exist in the nucleii of all elements except hydrogen which are of the same mass as a hydrogen atom but have
no charge.
 When emitted from fissionable material, they possess very high velocities but are rapidly slowed down by collisions
with other atoms.
 Atoms of nearly the same mass as the neutron are most effective in reducing neutron velocity.
 Similarly, the neutron is greatly slowed by collisions with hydrogen atoms.
 Since fluids (water, oil, and gas) contain a much higher hydrogen content than rocks, it is apparent that the behavior of
emitted neutrons affords a means of evaluating the hydrogen (and hence fluid) content of a formation.
 Neutron
• Neutron tools emit high energy neutrons from either a
chemical source or a neutron generator device (minitron) and
measure the response of these neutrons as they interact with
the formation

 The neutron log is produced by a device that bombards the

formation with neutrons from an Americium beryllium or
other radioactive source.
 Neutron bombardment causes rocks to emit gamma rays in
proportion to their hydrogen content.
 This gamma radiation is recorded by the sonde.
Neutron

• Hydrogen is the most

effective element in the slowing
down (elastic scattering)
process of the Neutron
 The Neutron Log
 Hydrogen occurs in all formation fluids (oil, gas, or water) in reservoirs, but not
in the minerals. Thus, the response of the neutron log is essentially correlative
with porosity, hole size, lithology, and hydrocarbons, however, all affect the
neutron log response.
 The effect of variation in hole size is overcome by simultaneously running a
caliper with an automatic correction for bit gauge.
 In the early days, the neutron log was recorded in API units. Because it is so
accurate for clean reservoirs, the neutron log is now directly recorded in either
limestone or sandstone porosity units (LPUs and SPUs, respectively).
 As with all porosity logs, the log curve is presented to the right of the depth
scale, with porosity increasing to the left. Because shales always contain some
bonded water, the neutron log will always give a higher apparent porosity
reading in dirty reservoirs than actually exists.

 The hydrogen content of oil and water is about equal but is lower than that of hydrocarbon gas. Thus, the neutron log
may give too low a porosity reading in gas reservoirs.
The Density Log
 radioactivity tool measures formation density by emitting gamma radiation from the tool and recording the amount of
gamma radiation returning from the formation. For this reason, the device is often called the gamma-gamma tool.
 Corrections are automatically made within the sonde for the effects of borehole diameter and mud cake thickness.
 The corrected gamma radiation reading can be related to the electron density of the atoms in the formation, which is,
in turn, directly related to the bulk density of the formation.
 Bulk density of a rock is a function of lithology and porosity. Porosity may be calculated from the following equation:

𝑃 𝑚𝑎 − 𝑃𝑏
𝑃𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( 𝛷 )=
𝑃 𝑚𝑎 − 𝑃𝑓

where Pma is the density of the dry rock (grams per cubic centimeter), Pb is the bulk density recorded by the log, and Pf is
the density of the fluid.
values commonly taken for different lithologies are as follows:

 The fluid in the pores near the borehole wall is generally the mud filtrate. Because the tool has only a shallow depth of
investigation and effectively “sees” only that part of the formation invaded by filtrate from the drilling mud, it reads this
value for the porosity.
 Thus, the density of the fluid may vary from 1.0 g/cm3 for freshwater mud to 1.1 g/cm3 for salty mud.
 Shale also affects the accuracy of the density-derived porosity of the reservoir.
 Also, several minerals have anomalous densities, the log traces of which may affect porosity values.
 Notable among these minerals are mica, siderite, and pyrite.
 The presence of oil has little effect on porosity values, but gas lowers the density of rock and thus causes the log to give
too high porosity.
 This effect can be turned to an advantage, however, when combined with the information derived from the neutron log.
The Lithodensity Log

 Improvements in density logging techniques include the addition of a new parameter:

 The photoelectric cross-section, commonly denoted Pe, which is less dependent on porosity than is the
formation density and is particularly useful in analyzing the effects of heavy minerals on log interpretation.
 The Pe records the absorption of low-energy gamma rays by a formation in units of barns per electron.
 The logged value is a function of mineralogy and the
aggregate atomic number of the elements in the
formation.
 Common reservoir mineral reference values are
 quartz 1.81;
 dolomite 3.14;
 calcite 5.08 b/electron.
 Coals typically are <1, and
 typical shales are approximately 3 b/electron (can
be distinguished from dolomite by high gamma
ray log readings). Cross plot showing mineral identification using
 Typical log scale for a Pe curve is 0-10 b/electron. spectrometry and lithodensity logs. Courtesy of
 The Pe curve has a finer resolution (about half a foot) Schlumberger.
than the neutron/density curves (~2 ft).

 Thus, the curve can help resolve lithology in thin bedded units.
 A particularly useful application involves combining Pe with the thorium-potassium ratio from the gamma-ray
spectrometry device, as indicated in Fig. 3.33.
The Sonic, or Acoustic, Log
• A third way of establishing the porosity of a rock is by measuring its acoustic velocity by the sonic, or acoustic, log .
• In this technique, interval transit times are recorded of clicks emitted from one end of the sonde traveling to one or
more receivers at the other end.
• Sound waves generally travel faster through the formation than through the borehole mud.
• The interval transit time (t), which is measured in microseconds per foot, can then be used to calculate porosity
according to the following equation (Wyllie et al., 1956, 1958):

where tlog is the interval transit time recorded on the log, tma is
the velocity of the rock at
tf is the velocity of the pore fluid.
 The sonic log can be used only in open, uncased holes.
 The circuitry associated with the receiver has to be carefully adjusted for sensitivity so that it does not trigger on spurious
noise, yet picks up the first arrival from the signal sound wave.
 A rapid to-and-fro log trace, termed cycle skipping, occurs if the sensitivity is insufficient or if the returned signal is very
weak.
 It results from triggering on a later part of the sound wave pulse, which causes an erroneously long computed transit time.
 Cycle skip occurs in
 Under compacted formations (especially if gas filled),
 fractured intervals, and
 areas where the hole is enlarged and out of gauge so that a wider than normal width of borehole mud is traversed
before the signal pulse enters he formation.
 Advances with computer-controlled logging devices greatly reduce the problem of balancing trigger sensitivity, which
previously required continuous monitoring by the logging engineer.
 The sonic method is the least accurate of the three porosity logs because it is the one most affected by lithology.
 On the other hand, for this very reason, it is widely employed as a means of lithology identification and hence for
correlation from well to well.
 The sonic log is also extremely useful to geophysicists because it can be used to determine the interval velocities of
formations and thus relate the timing of seismic reflectors to actual rocks around a borehole using computed time-depth
conversions.
 For this reason, the sonic log also records the total travel time in milliseconds along its length by a process of integration,
the result being recorded as a series of pips along the length of the log.
 The cumulative number of these constant time interval pips can be counted between formation boundaries, and hence,
formation velocities can be related in time and depth.
The Sonic, or Acoustic, Log Theory

Wave Types

 The tool measures the time it takes for a pulse of “sound” (i.e., and elastic wave) to travel from a transmitter to a
receiver, which are both mounted on the tool.
 The transmitted pulse is very short and of high amplitude.
 This travels through the rock in various forms while undergoing dispersion (spreading of the wave energy in time
and space) and attenuation (loss of energy through absorption of energy by the formations).
 When the sound energy arrives at the receiver, having passed through the rock, it does so at different times in the
form of different types of waves.
 This is because the different types of wave travel with different velocities in the rock or take different pathways to
the receiver.
  The transmitter fires at t = 0.
 the receiver off for the short duration during which the
pulse is transmitted.
 This is done to ensure that the received information is not
too complicated
 To protect the sensitive receiver from the high amplitude
pulse.

 Wave received at receiver respectively

 the compressional or longitudinal or pressure wave (P-
wave).
 the transverse or shear wave (S wave) • Rayleigh waves, and Stoneley waves are associated with
 Rayleigh waves, energy moving along the borehole wall,
 Stoneley waves, and • Mud waves is a pressure wave that travels through the mud
 mud waves in the borehole

• There may also be unwanted P waves and S-waves that travel through the body of the tool, but these are minimized by
good tool design by
(i) reducing their received amplitude by arranging damping along the tool, and
(ii) Delaying their arrival until the P-wave and S-wave have arrived by ensuring that the pathway along the tool is a long and
complex one.
 The data of interest is the time taken for the P-wave to travel from the transmitter to the receiver.
 This is measured by circuitry that starts timing at the pulse transmission and has a threshold on the receiver.
 When the first P-wave arrival appears the threshold is exceeded and the timer stops.
 The threshold needs to be high enough so that random noise in the signal dies not trigger the circuit, but low
enough to ensure that the P-wave arrival is accurately timed.
 There are complex tools that make use of both P-waves and S-waves, and some that record the full wave train (full
waveform logs).
 for the simple sonic log that we are interested in, only the first arrival of the P-wave is of interest.
 The time between the transmission of the pulse and the reception of the first arrival P-wave is the one-way time
between the transmitter and the receiver.
 If one knows the distance between the transmitter (Tx) and the receiver (Rx), the velocity of the wave in the
formation opposite to the tool can be found.
 In practice the sonic log data is not presented as a travel time, because different tools have different Tx-Rx
spacings.
 The data is presented as a slowness or the travel time per foot traveled through the formation, which is called delta t
(Dt or DT), and is usually measured in ms/ft.,
equation between velocity and slowness: ∆t = where the slowness, Dt is in microseconds per foot,
and the velocity, V is in feet per second

• The velocity of the compressional wave depends upon the elastic properties of the rock (matrix plus fluid),
• so the measured slowness varies depending upon
• the composition and microstructure of the matrix,
• the type and distribution of the pore fluid and
• the porosity of the rock.
• The velocity of a Pwave in a material is directly proportional to the strength of the material and inversely
proportional to the density of the material.
• Hence, the slowness of a P-wave in a material is inversely proportional to the strength of the material and directly
proportional to the density of the material

The strength of a material is defined by two

parameters
Vµ µ (i) the bulk modulus, and
(ii) the shear modulus.
 The bulk modulus, K is the extent to which a material can
withstand isotropic squeezing (Fig. 16.2a).
Imagine an amount of material subjected to an isotropic
pressure P1.
Now let the isotropic pressure increase to a pressure P2. The
material will compress from its initial volume v1 to a new
smaller volume v2.
The bulk modulus is then given by;

where DP is the change in pressure, and Dv is the change

in volume. Thus DP is the change in pressure that causes
Dv change in volume.
The shear modulus, m is the extent to which a material can withstand
shearing (Fig. 16.2b).
Imagine an amount of material subjected to an isotropic pressure P1.
Now apply a shear stress (non-isotropic pressure) Ps to one side of the
sample.
The material will shear to the new shape, and its overall length will
increase from its initial length l1 to a new larger length l2.

The bulk modulus is then given by;

Reflection and Refraction

We can use Snell’s law to write;

Vm = Velocity of sound through mud

Vf = Velocity of sound through formation

and at the critical angle of refraction, where the refracted wave travels along the borehole wall, R= 90o, so;

Hence, if the velocity of the elastic wave in the formation changes, the critical angle, i, will also
change.
 Sonic Tools

Early Tools
The body of the tool was made from rubber (low velocity and
high attenuation material) to stop waves traveling preferentially
down the tool to the Rx.
There were two main problems with this tool.
(i) The measured travel time was always too long because the
time taken for the elastic waves to pass through the mud
was included in the measurement. The measured time was
A+B+C rather than just B.
(ii) The length of the formation through which the elastic wave
traveled (B) was not constant because changes to the
velocity of the wave depending upon the formation altered
the critical refraction angle.
Dual Receiver Tools
They use two receivers a few feet apart, and measure the difference in
times of arrival of elastic waves at each Rx from a given pulse
from the Tx (Fig. 16.5).
This time is called the sonic interval transit time (Dt) and is the time
taken for the elastic wave to travel through the interval D (i.e., the
distance between the receivers).

The problem with

this arrangement is
that if the tool is
tilted in the hole, or
the hole size
changes (Fig. 16.6),
we can see that C ¹
E, and the two Rx
system fails to
work.
Borehole Compensated Sonic (BHC) Tool

 It has two transmitters and four receivers, arranged in

two dual receiver sets, but with one set inverted (i.e.,
in the opposite direction).
 Each of the transmitters is pulsed alternately, and Dt
values are measured from alternate pairs of receivers
(Fig. 16.7).
 These two values of Dt are then averaged to
compensate for tool misalignment, at to some extent
for changes in the borehole size.

 A typical pulse for the BHC is 100 ms to 200 ms, with a gap
of about 50 ms, giving about 20 pulses per second.
 There are four individual Tx-Rx readings needed per
measurement, so 5 measurements can be made per second.
 At a typical logging speed of 1500 m/h (5000 ft/h), gives one
reading per 8 cm (3 inches) of the borehole.
 Several versions of the BHC are available with different Tx-
Rx distances (3 ft. and 5 ft. being typical), and the Rx-Rx
distance between pairs of receivers is usually 2 ft.
 Long Spacing Sonic (LSS) Tool
 It was recognized that in some logging conditions a longer
Tx-Rx distance could help.
 Hence Schlumberger developed the long spacing sonic
(LSS), which has two Tx two feet apart, and two Rx also two
feet apart but separated from the Tx by 8 feet.
 This tool gives two readings; a near reading with a 8-10 ft.
spacing, and a far reading with a 10-12 ft. spacing (Fig.
16.8).
The sonic or acoustic log measures the travel time of an elastic wave through the formation.
This information can also be used to derive the velocity of elastic waves through the formation.
Its main use is to provide information to support and calibrate seismic data and to derive the porosity of a formation.

The main uses are:

· Provision of a record of “seismic” velocity and travel time throughout a borehole. This
information can be used to calibrate a seismic data set (i.e., tie it in to measured values of seismic
velocity).
· Provision of “seismic” data for the use in creating synthetic seismograms.
· Determination of porosity (together with the FDC and CNL tools).
· Stratigraphic correlation.
· Identification of lithologies.
· Facies recognition.
· Fracture identification.
· Identification of compaction.
· Identification of over-pressures.
· Identification of source rocks.
The tool works at a higher frequency than seismic waves, therefore one must be careful with the direct comparison and
application of sonic log data with seismic data.