Dy. —_— An introduction to the % basics of log evaluation Pre-reading material for phase | courses J.P. Bosma (HRTHIS2)as An introduction to the basics of log evaluation Pre-reading material for phase | courses “ps Y J.P.Bosma (HRTH/52)Introduction Contents This book is designed to be used as prereading or Sections: Page lecture material for phase | courses. No pre- knowledge about wireline logging is assumed. Mud logging 3 Wireline logging 5 After working through this book, the reader should be Gamma Ray log 7 able to: Density Log 9 Neutron Log 1 + Describe the basic principles of the common open Density/ Neutron combination 13 hole logging tools. Sonic Log 15 » Perform a quick look evaluation on a standard set of Archie equations 7 open hole logs. Resistivity Logs 19 Wireline Formation Tester 2t This book is divided into eleven sections. Each section Integrated Exercise 23 (two pages) gives an explanation of one of the basic open hole logs. On the left page the tool principle, tool specifications, evaluation objectives and basic Appendices: evaluation techniques are described. The right page consists of an example of the log, together with an Resistivity/Temperature plot 25 exercise. The last section consists of an integrated Neutron/Density X-plot 25 exercise, which combines all techniques presented in Glossary 26 the previous sections. ‘Some Tool- and Curve- abbreviations. 27 References 27 To work through all sections (including the integrated Answers 28 exercise) should take around 3. hours.Mud log Principle While drilling a well, the following information about the drilled formations is recorded as a function of depth: + The criling rate or rate of penetration (ROP). + All important parameters which influence the driling speed, e.g. type of bit, rounds per minute (RPM), weight on bit (WOB), pump speed (SPM), pump pressure (SPP), etc. + The lithology and texture of the cuttings, which are sampled at regular intervals (+/-5 meter). * The total combustible gas content in the air above the returning mud from the well bore. The relatively simple gas detector can be ‘supplemented with a gas chromatograph to analyse the composition of the gas. + Hydrocarbon staining on the cuttings. Accuracy + The information related to the formation and its fluid content is available on the moment that the mud with the cuttings come to surface. The fag time between the moments of driling and sampling (varying from 0 - 2 hours), depends on the volume of the annulus and the circulation rate The depth of drilling is for this reason corrected, using a lag-time estimate and an average ROP. AS a result, the depth accuracy is only +/- 5 meter. + Variations in density and shape of the cuttings from various lithologies, causes differences in sligpage. As a result a sample taken from the flowline may originate from a range of depths and will consist of a mix ofthe lithologies present + In some cases formations (often shales) higher up in the well bore are not stable. Cavings (flakes) of this particular formation can "contaminate" the cutting samples of lower intervals Evaluation objective + Monitoring of the bit performance. + Early indication of the wel's position within the predicted stratigraphy. This is of particular importance as a basis for operational decisions, e.g. at what depth to set casing, or where to core a well, + Determination of thology. + Indication of fluid type. + Indication of pressure conditions. Evaluation Technique + Every formation has a signature on the ROP log. The depth of formations can be determined, by correlating this log with the mudlog from a nearby well. * The lithology of the cuttings are given as a percentages of the total sample. An accurate interpretation can be made in combination with the wireline logs, which have a far better vertical resolution. (For cestigtion and coding: see rel4:V3;Ch7.1) * The oil staining on the cuttings is analysed using saveral small Chemical and fluorescence tests, which can differentiate the light and heavy hydrocarbons. (For desertion and coding: tlt: V8; Ch 7.2 - In water bearing formation no HC staining is expected + The presence of only light HC’s indicates gas. - In the case of an oil bearing formation more heavy HC’s will be present. Amongst the staining tests is the solvent -cut (often ctlorothene) , which is plotted in the example log. This test indicates the presence ‘of heavy HC components.Log Example Exercise Drilling Rate [mim] Cutting Lith, TotalGasin Air% Oil Remarks Interpretation os 0 § mw a 1 10 oy or Lith, Fiuid ns NA‘clss transp, i WOB 6-11] Seeeeee (REwonep.c3 meal igo) [2290 Salt - SPM 120 I —p-——|—[ser_i91 MS.LMDGE.oce 2408 REBW.C3 : 25.08 L Trini. SS: WH(PU)LT | = - Fp GESUS RAF Ca : 12300 Kh 3S | 3 tt : A) Complete the interpretation ofthe lithology and the fluid type for the total interval, based on the information avaiable on the mudlog,Open Hole Wireline Logging Atter a section of a well has been drilled, measuring sondes are lowered into the open hole at the end of an electrical cable, Whilst pulling the tools out of the well, various properties of the formations are measured continuously as a function of depth. These physical properties can be interpreted in terms of lithology, porosity, hydrocarbon saturation, etc. Depth Measurement The depth is measured along hole (AHD) in meters below derrick floor (mbdi). When the bottom of the tool String touches the drill floor the depth measurement is set at zero. The distance between the various tool detectors and the bottom of the toolstring is automatically com- pensated by the computer in the surface logging unit. The length of cable in the hole is measured with an accuracy of around 0.1%. In vertical wells the AHD is equal to the true vertical depth (TVD). In deviated wells, a deviation survey is needed to calculate the TVD from the AHD. The TVD is often expressed in meters below a local datum, e.g. meters subsea (mss). Log Header Data, crucial for the evaluation, can be found in the log header: Well name & -location, date, drill floor elevation (DFE), ground elevation (GE), bt size, mud -type and -propertes, resistivities of the mud (Fim), -mud fitrate (Ff) & -mud cake (Rm), total depth (TD), bottom hole temperature (BHT), weight, size-, & depth- of previous casings, time of last mud circulation, list of all tools run in this hole section, serial number of tools and logging unit used, name of logging engineer and company representative, Log types Logs, which are used to quantify the hydrocarbon in place, can be classified into three families tools writen in italic aro not described): | Reservoir Thickness (Gamma Ray, Spontaneous Potential) These logs discriminate reservoir from non-reservoit. II Porosity (Density, Neutron, Sonic.) These logs are used to cakulate porosity, identity lithologies, and differentiate ol from gas. Resistivity (Laterolog, Induction, Microresistivity.) These logs, together with porosity logs, are used to calculate hydrocarbon saturations. ‘Other types of wireline tools are: + Side wall sampler (Takes small rock samples, which are used for lithology and fluid type confirmation.) + Formation tester (Measures formation pressures and can retreve fluid samples.) + Dipmeter & FMS (Measure dip and azimuth of the layers) + Well shoot & VSP (Used to calibrate seismic.) Corrections Large and irregular borehole can adversely affect the accuracy of the measurements. The log correction needed in these cases can be Quantified using charts avaitatle in reference 1.Reading log responses Exercise All tools have a limited vertical resolution. Close to lithology boundaries the measurements will be affected by the adjacent beds. In very thin beds this could lead to tool responses which deviate from the true formation profile. Below a technique is presented, for reading log values of each “constant” formation bed. These values can be used to calculate the petrophysical parameters of each bed ory isbod rsd arerage oumday «tnd way ant Tiectes esd pasevane Srmieee —« endpase Trinted read peatvate (roy oe) Genta rade pa ‘True formation protile Log response Blocks used for evaluation Ina quick look evaluation one can limit the amount of blocks by taking average readings over intervals with a more or less constant log responses. The block boundaries must be at the same depth on all involved logs. ‘Two logs from a vertical well are plotted below. Block these logs and read off the values for each block, such that the results could be used for a quick look evaluation. (Around 11 blocks are needed.) FDC (gem) Lb (mp Valves 20 25 go 02 1 102 Foe LD 0) all KHGamma Ray Log Principle: Some elements in nature emit radiation (Gamma Rays). Examples of such elements common in the earth's crust are potassium (K), thorium (Th) and uranium (U). Most reservoir rocks (e.g. Sandstone, Limestone, Dolomite) contain none or only small amounts of these elements and therefore have a low GR radiation level. Some other rock types (e.g. shales) have a large amount of K- and Th- atoms. The resulting high GR radiation levels contrast with the low GR levels of the adjacent reservoir formations. The Tool: The Gamma Ray Tool consists of a single GR detector, which records the natural gamma rays against the depth. The total GR level is recorded and plotted in API units on a scale of (normally) 0-150 API Anomalies: Sometimes reservoir rock contains radioactive isotopes not associated with clays (e.g. U). The resulting GR may no longer differentiate reservoir rock from the adjacent shale beds. In these cases a Spectral GR tool can be run, which differentiates the sources (isotopes) of the natural radiation based on their unique energy levels. This tool can recognise Shale layers by their high “potassium and thorium GR" Some non reservoir rocks contain little or no radioactive material. Additional information is required to discriminate between these and reservoir rocks. Depth of Investigation: 05-1.0 m Vertical Resolution: + 1.0 m Evaluation Objective: - Discriminate between reservoir and nov-reservoir, (NetGross) - Estimate shaliness of reservoir rock Additional Uses: + Correlating reservoirs between wells, based on their GR signature. + Depth matching subsequent logging runs with the fist logging run in the well Evaluation Technique: The interval of interest should consist of reservoir rock (thology determined trom cutting descriptions) and shale layers only. + Within this interval, the GR level of thick shale bed(s) is read. + This reading is assumed to represent 100% shale * A stright line through these points called the shale-line. + Similarly a sand-line is constructed by reading the average GR level of thick clean sands (= sands with the lowest GR level). + Anear vertical line in the middle between the shale- and the sand- line (called the cut-off line) is often constructed for an initial quick look evaluation, + All intervals where the GR log is on the left of this cut-off line are then assumed to be reservoir. + The level of GR within a reservoir interval is a measure of its shaliness.Log Example Exercise Depth (mbdf) 0 GR (API) 100 1800 1805 1810 From cutting descriptions on the mudiog it is known that the logged interval on the left consists of sands interbedded with shales. ‘A) Tops and Bottoms ofthe sand (reservoir) sections. B) Thicknesses of the individual sand layers. hte h2= €) Total thickness of cand (= Net reservoir). Net reservoir = hi+h2 = D) Fraction of reservoir within the total sand sequence (= Net/ Gross) NIG = (ht +h2) / H =Density Log Principle: A strong gamma ray source bombards the rock with medium ‘energy level gamma rays. These GR's collide with electrons in the formation. In the process GR's are attenuated (Compton scattering). The count rate of these scattered GA's at a fixed distance from the source is inversely proportional to the electron density of the formation. From the electron density the bulk density can be calculated. Reservoir rock consists of rock matrix (e.g. quartz, calcite, dolomite) and pore fluid (e.g. water, cil, gas). The bulk density (pb) of a reservoir rock is the weighted average density of the present pore fluid(s) (pf) and its rock matrix (pma). po = Opn + (1-0) -pma The Tool: . The source and two detectors are mounted in a pad, which is pressed against the bore hole wall. From the far detector count rates the tool computes and plots the pb on a scale of 1.95 - 2.95 glcm3. The near detector count rate is used to automatically correct the measurement for mud cake and the effect of small wash outs, The applied correction (Ap), plotted along side the po curve, can be utilised as a quality indicator. If this correction across an interval exceeds 0.05 g/cm3 the quality of the main log over that interval is doubtful Depth of Investigation: 0.15 m Vertical Resolutio 06-1.0 m Evaluation Objective: * Calculate the porosity (Q) in layers of known lithology. Additional Uses: + Evaluate lithologies of formations in combination with the Neutron tool (see section: "Density/Neutron combination"). + Check consistency of the lithologies as seen by the mudlog and the GR. (soot 1; Tet “Tol esp in Sexinrary Mira Evaluation Technique: The density tool measures bulk density of the formation. To calculate fractional porosities the previous expression can be rearranged as follows: ma - pb Pma - pa ® = (where pois read from the log). The Density tool has a very shallow depth of investigation. It measures the pb in the invaded zone only. All formation water and most of the hydro carbons originally present in this zone are replaced by the mud fitrate. For a quick look interpretation one can therefore use the following parameters: pt: WalerOll = 1.0 glom3 pa: Sandstone = 2.65 giom3 Limestone = 2.71 g/cm3 Dolomite = 285 g/cm3Log Example L Exercise From the cutting descriptions the lithologies of a logged interval are pceat known. Block the FDC curve on the left and determine the Porosities (2) in the relevant intervals. Calculate the average 195 __ FDC (glm3) 295 porosities (2) of the limestone- and the sandstone- layer. Mudlog @ @ 1800 To calculate the average porosity of an interval, : take the average of the Limestone porosities of all the blocks (2), weighted for the thickness of the blocks (hi): __ 1805 g 5. Lach o-*o0 = Zhi = a 3 3 1810 ‘Sandstone 1815Neutron Log Principle: ‘A neutron source bombards the formation with high energy Neutrons. Most collisions of the neutrons with heavy atoms of the formation are near elastic. As a result hardly any energy is lost. A collision with a hydrogen atom (H) lowers the speed (energy level) of the neutron significantly, as both have the same mass. The distance over which the neutrons travel before they reach a lower (therma) energy level, is therefore related to the amount of hydrogen atoms present in the formation. The Tool: ‘A source and two detectors are mounted in a tool, which is pressed against the bore hole wall. The detectors only count returning neutrons which have a thermal energy level. From the ratio of thermal neutrons detected by the far- and the near- detector, the amount of hydrogen (H) atoms in the formation is empirically determined. The tool assumes all H atoms to be present in the porespace (water or hydrocarbons). The tool is calibrated to read the true porosity in water filled Limestone. These limestone-porosities are computed and plotted against depth in porosity units (p.u.). The matrix type has a small influence on the Neutron response. Across other lithologies the readings must therefore be corrected Using an empirically derived chart. Depth of Investigation: 0.15-0.20 m Vertical Resolution: 0.60- 1.00 m a) Anomalies: + In gas bearing formations the neutron porosity recorded is too low, because cf the low density of H atoms in the gas phase, It is not possible to determine porosities in gas beating formations, based ‘on the Neutron log alone. + Shales contain clay-bound water (water which is chemically attached to the clay particles). The Neutron tool interprets this water as porosity, where in reality no effective porosity is present. Evaluation Objective: * Calculate the porosity in layers of known lithology. Additional Uses: + Evaluate lithologies of formations in combination with the Density tool (see Density/Neutron X-plo) + Detection of gas bearing reservoir in clean formations. * Check consistency of the lithologies as seen by the mudlog, GR and Density. Evaluation Technique: + In general the density of H atoms in water is similar to the H-density in oil. For a quick look porosity evaluation one can therefore disregard the pore fluid type. + Across water bearing limestone the log gives the true porosity + Across water- and oi bearing Sandstones or Dolomites, the log has to be corrected for lithology using the chart on the right.Log Example Exercise CNL (Lp.u.) 45 30 15 0-15 Mudlog 1800 Shale Dolomite 1805 2 £ g 6 3 a Limestone 1810 Shale sandstone iG From the cutting descriptions the lithologies of a logged interval are known. There are no gas bearing formations in this particular interval. Determine the True Porosity (Q) in the relevant intervals, using the CNL curve on the left. and the correction chart below. (vom fer can Pe) Neutron Porosity Correction Neutron [lp.u]Density / Neutron Combination Evaluation Objective: + Evaluate lithologies of formations. + Detection of gas bearing reservoir. Principle: The Density and the Neutron tool both determine the porosity of a reservoir, but do this by measuring different quantities: ~The Density tool measures the bulk density. ~ The Neutron measures the hydrogen density. For this reason, both tools react differently to certain pore fluids and lithologies. It is standard practice to plot both logs in one track, using a scale such that both logs overlay in water bearing limestone, Using these scales, the logs will separate uniquely in other lithologies or pore fluids. For example: + In gas bearing reservoirs the recorded neutron porosity is lower and the bulk density is reduced, compared with the responses in a similar water/oil bearing formation, These effects can be significant (depending on the gas saturation in the invaded zone). The resulting (large) separation with Neutron on the right and Density on the leftis called gas separation. + Shales have an inverted effect (shale separation). Due to the clay-bound water, which is chemically attached to the clay particles, the neutron tool records high porosity, where in reality no effective porosity is present. Density/Neutron X-plot: A Density/Neutron X-plot is available (page 25), with an overlay of the points where common lithologies plot. For reservoir rocks lithology lines are drawn, which indicate the influence of changing rosity. 13 Evaluation Technique: + Read off the Density- and Neutron- responses across the layer of interest and plot the results in the X-plot. * Cross check with the mudlog, GR and Calliper (Cal) whether the indicated lithology is consistent. + Ifthe lithology is known one can read of the porosity from the porosity scale on the relevant lithology line. + Salt and Anhydrite have zero porosities. Mixture of lithologies: + Ifthe plotted point falls in between two lithology lines, cross check with the mudlog whether a combination of lithologies were described. By constructing a line through the plotted point and the points of equal porosity on the two relevant lithology lines, one can estimate the porosity. Gas effect: * Gas bearing reservoir will plot away from the relevant lithology line towards the upper left corner. To estimate the porosity in these intervals, draw a line through the plotted point, parallel to the Approximate Gas Correction arrow. At the point of intersection of this line with the relevant lithology line, the porosity can be read off. Shale effect: Ifa reservoir is shaly, the plotted points will be displaced towards a shale point, which may be defined by the density and neutron values in adjacent shale beds. Cross-check with the gamma ray and the mudlog to recognise the main lithology.Log Example Exercise Cal (Inch) FOC (gicma) 16 195 245 2.95 Copeman, eu tomar ant GR (API) CNL (L.p.u.) 10 SSS From the logged interval there is no mudlog available, because the drilling engineer mixed up the sample bags. The following lithologies types were encountered (not in sequence): Sandstone, Limestone, Dolomite, Shale and Salt. The gas chromatograph indicated a gas peak. 1805 (mbdf) 1810 1815 Determine: A) The lithologies of all the intervals. B) The porosities in the reservoir rocks. ) The gas bearing interval. (What is the © of this interval if you assume itis Sandstone?) For this exercise use the Neutron! Density X-plot on page 25. (orton |, ha cP0)Sonic Log Principle: The sonic tool measures the time it takes for sound pulses to travel through the formation (Atieg). The results are displayed on a log in s/m, The measurement of formation travel time can be interpreted in terms of seismic velocity of the formation. This is an essential parameter in the time to depth conversion of seismic data. The travel time can also be used to estimate formation porosity. The time average equation assumes the formation travel time to be a linear combination of the travel times of matrix (Atma) and pore fluid (Ate): an) Atog = @- Ath + (1-0) Atna The Tool: A transmitter (T) sends out a sound pulse. The difference in arrival time of the pulse at two receivers (Rt & R2), which are 60 cm apart, is measured (see figure). A second transmitter & pair of receivers measure the same physical parameter in the opposite direction, By averaging the two measurements, the borehole effects on the travel ime are eliminated, é The firs arival at the receivers is the compressional (p-) wave which travelled through the formation. Other waves, like the slower formation shear (s-) wave and p-waves which travelled through the mud and the logging tool, will arive later. Depth of investigation: 0.25 m Vertical Resolution: 0.50 m Evaluation Objective: + Calibration of seismic data. * Calculate the porosity (Q) in layers of known lithology. + Evaluation of secondary porosities in combination with Neutron- and/or Density- tools. Evaluation Technique: The Time Average equation, represented by the straight dashed lines 6n the interpretation chart on page 16, can be rearranged as follows: Atog = Atma At = Atma The sound wave travels along the boreholettormation interface and sees essentially only mud filtrate in the pores, The following Parameters can therefore be used to calculate the @: Q = ‘At = 620 jism and ‘Atma: Sandstone = 184 usim Limestone = 161 ys/m Dolomite = 144 usm A second interpretation method is to use the empirical correlation lines that are also displayed on the interpretation chart (curved lines). These lines were obtained by comparing many sonic logs with porosities obtained from other sources (e.g. core measurements). Secondary Porosity The presence of secondary porosity (e.g. fractures, vugs) has the effect of reducing the amount of sonic energy that reaches the teceiver. The travel time of the formation however is still determined by the properties of the homogeneous rock matrix. In other words, the i]Log Example Exercise sonic log responds to the primary (matrix) porosity only. A Density too) measures the total porosity. A difference between the two measure} ments may indicate the presence of secondary porosity. Anomalies + In gas bearing formations, small quantities of gas in the invaded} zone may have a significant effect on the log. The gas will increase| the At dramatically. + Unconsolidated sands may not adhere to the time average equation} and have longer At's at a given porosity. ‘exrsnonmanods aaerbesin wire owe Po) Porosity Evaluation from Sonic A) The interval below consist entirely of dolomite. Calculate the porosities from the sonic lag, using both evaivation methods. B) What could cause the erratic log behaviour from 2506-2508 mbdf? BHCS (sim) 400__300_200__100 —_—T—1 Gr Oro 2500 2510 S Ss 2 & 2520 2530Archie Equations Water bearing reservoir Ina clean water bearing reservoir, all the pore space is filed with formation water. The matrix is an electrical insulator. The only conductor present is the formation water. Its resistivity (Rw) depends on the concentration of salts dissolved in the water and the temperature of the reservoir. The total resistivity of a water bearing formation (Ro) depends on the resistivity of the water (Rw), the amount of water present (equal to ©) and the shape of the water body (expressed by the cementation factor: m). Ro = Rw: @ This is the first Archie equation. The cementation factor, depends on the shape of the pore space. m is reasonably constant within granular rocks, independent of @. It's value can be measured on core plugs, deduced from various combinations of logs or estimated for the described rock type. For quick look evaluations use the following m values, it no other accurate estimate is available: Sandstone: 8 Carbonate: m =2.0 [J = Water EE = Matix Il = Hydrocarbon 7. HC bearing reserve Ina hydrocarbon bearing reservoir part of the water is replaced by cil or gas, which are also electrical insulators. If the rock is water-wet, the HC is accumulated in the centre of the pore spaces. The remaining water coats the grain surfaces. Electrical current can stil travel through the reservoir, along the water layer around the grains. The total resistivity of the reservoir (Ri) can be orders of magnitude higher than the Ro of a similar water bearing formation, because the volume and the connectivity of the conductor (water) is smaller, Therefore, in addition to the parameters of the first Archie equation, the total resistivity also depends on the water saturation (Sw = fraction of the @ which is filled with water) and the geometry of the water coating the grains (expressed by the saturation exponent: n). This is the second Archie equation. Similar to m, n is often ‘constant within a particular rock, independent of Sw. It's value can bbe measured on core plugs or estimated for the described rock type. For quick look purposes nis often assumed equal to m. Evaluation objective Calculation of the water saturation (Sw).Pickett Plot Exercise Evaluation Technique for Rw To calculate Rw from log readings across a water bearing interval: * Calculate @ from a porosity log. + Estimate an m-value. Pret pot + Read the Ro trom a deep 10 resistivity tool Slope « + Caleulate Rw, using the fist esteem Archie equation, If there is some variation in @ within the water bearing interval, « 2 picket plot can be constructed on on double logarithmic paper (see figure), from which a value for m and Rw can be determined graphically. 0.01 1 ot Porosity (frac) Hf there is no obvious water bearing interval available, Rw can be estimated from measurement on a water sample taken from the same formation in a nearby well or using regional knowledge / experience. Evaluation Technique for Sw To calculate Sw within a HC bearing formation: * Calculate © from a porosity log, + Estimate mand n + Assume Rw to be equal to the Rw in the water bearing interval. + Read off Ri from a deep resistivity tool * Calculate Sw, using the second Archie equation. A) Across a water bearing interval porosities were calculated using a density log and true resistivities were taken from a deep resistivity log: @ 24 20 27 32 14 18 [frac] Ro 35 49 30 20 10 60 [Qm} Construct a picket plot and deduce values for m and Rv 1 Resistivity, Ro (C.m) Rw m ot ot A Porosity, @ (frac.) B) An oil bearing interval in he same formation has a constant porosity of 2596, The measured Rt of ths interval is 25 Q.m. Calculate the Sw using Archies second equation. SW =Resistivity Logs Resistivity tools Principle There are two types of resistivity tool: The dual laterolog (DLL) and the Induction log (DIL).Both types measure the resistivity in three zones simultaneously. The figure shows these zones for a DLL: LLD Looks deep into the reservoir, LLS Looks shallow into the reservoir. MSFL Reads the resistivity Close to the wellbore. Non Reservoir: (e.g. Shale, Anhydrite, Salt) Because of the lack of permeability in non reservoir Tock, there is no invasion of mud filtrate in the formation. All three resistivity devices will therefore read the same resistivity (e.g. Rshale) Reservoir: If the reservoir is porous, mud filtrate (resistivity = Ra) wil invade the zone close to the wellbore, replacing all the formation water (resistivity = Fw) and part ofthe hydrocarbons (if present). + The LLD is hardly influenced by the borehole, mudcake and invaded zone. It will usually read the resistivity of the uninvaded reservoir rock (Re or Ri). + The LLS is significantly influenced by the borehole, mudcake and invaded zone. (Itcan be used to correct the LD when necessary.) + The MSFL reads the resistivity ofthe invaded reservoir rock (Rio). 19 Evaluation objective + Differentiate between HC- and water- bearing intervals. + Quantify the Fw in water bearing intervals. + Quantify the water saturation in hydrocarbon bearing intervals. Evaluation technique + Identify potential reservoir intervals by looking for separation of the fesistivity curves in combination with GR and porosity logs. + Water bearing reservoir can usually be recognised by a relatively low deep resistivity. The density and the deep resistivity will adhere to the first Archie formula. This means that an increase in porosity (more water) will cause a decrease in resistivity and visa versa. As a result both logs will tramiine. + Hydrocarbon bearing reservoir can be recognised by a relative high (deep) resistivity. Instead of tramlining the density and deep resistivity logs will show the opposite effect. Because ||)! of capillary forces, the lower porosity intervals tend to have higher water ; saturations. A decrease in porosity will | |.) : cause a decrease in resistivity, 1 resulting in a Mae West log pattern. + Rw and Sw's can be calculated as described in the previous chapter. + The waler saturation in the invaded zone (Swio) can be determined by inserting xo and Rant in the Archie equation. In most cases Swxo will be a lot higher than the initial Sw, showing that part of the hydrocarbons were displaced by the invading mudiiltrate. Fics, | Usa ee EY on qT 2 Tramline | Mae WestLog Example Exercise 9 GR (APY 199 02 02. 92 MSFL (On) 2 LD (2m) US (Cm) 2» 2 2000 F L 2010 2020 tte 2030 The logs on the left are taken in an interval which consists almost entirely of sandstone reservoir of uniform porosity of 0.29. A thin shale streak and a shale bed within the sand show up on the GR. A) Why do the MFSL, the LLS and the LLD overlay across the shale bed? B) Part of the reservoir is ol bearing. At which depth would you put the OWC? C) What can you conclude from the fact that the MSFL and the LLD read the same resistivity in the water bearing interval? D) Use the frst Archie equation to determine Rw in the water leg. E) From log header: Rmt= 0.120.m @ 23°C; BHT = 60°C. Use the chart on page 25 to determine the value of Pt? F) Use the Archie equations to determine the Sw in the oil bearing interval. G) Use the Archie equations to determine the residual oil saturation inthe invaded zone. Sho = 1-Swio = 20Wireline Formation Tester This tool can make a series of spot measurements of reservoir pressures in open hole. It can also retrieve one sample of reservoir fluid each run Tool Principle A schematic drawing of the WFT is shown on the right. A probe is pushed against the borehole wall at the selected depth. The te probe must pass through Pressure gauge fhe muons and mage StabbO ped contact with the formation, el. A packer (drawn in black) isolates the probe from the mud pressure (Pm) in the borehole. At the start of the measurement, the pressure gauge reads the mud pressure. After closing the equalising valve, a pressure drawdown is created in the shaded area by retracting cylinders 1 and 2. As a result the formation will start flowing through the probe. After both cylinders are fully retracted (total volume = 20 cm3) the formation is allowed time (build up period) to equalise the pressure in the shaded area to the formation fluid pressure (Pt). The speed with which the formation will equalise the pressure indicates its permeability. ‘Sample Chambers Anomalies + If the pressure returns to the (higher) mud pressure the packer failed to isolate the probe (seal failure). + In tight (impermeable) formations the pressure of the invasion fluid may not be disseminated completely (super charged formation). If this is the case the recorded pressure will be in between the formation and the mud pressure. In a pressure/depth plot these (failed) measurements will clearly deviate trom the prevailing formation gradient. Pressures in the subsurface Except in oil and gas reservoirs, all pore space in the subsurface is filled with water. In most cases the pressure (P) in water bearing formation is hydrostatic and its gradient depends on the density (P) of the formation water. Pressures recorded in a water bearing interval will plot in a pressure/depth plot on a straight line. The ‘slope of this line determines the water gradient and therefore its density. (The water density is a function of its salinity.) dP TP 9 & gradient At the interface of the water and oil columns, the pressure in the oil will be equal to the pressure of the water. This level is called Free Water Level (FWL). The OWC is slightly above the FWL due to water pulled up by capillary forces. In the oil column the pressure will follow the (steeper) oil gradient. At the GOC the pressure in the gas is equal to the pressure in the cil. In the gas column the pressure will follow the (much steeper) gas gradient. As a result the pressure in the oil and the gas is higher than the hydrostatic pressure at the same depth. This overpressure is ‘contained by the caprock at the top of the reservoir.Exercise Evaluation Objective * Determination of reservoir pressures. * Confirmation of the fluid type, evaluated from other logs. + Calculation of the oil- and gas- densities at reservoir conditions. * Determination of the FWL's, GOC's and GWC's. * Indication of the reservoir permeability. Evaluation Technique + Plot all recorded pressures in a pressure/depth plot + Draw straight lines through the points from a reservoir interval. + Ifthe pressures of reservoir intervals with the same fluid type fall on one line, they are probably in pressure communication, + Ifthe pressures of reservoir intervals with the same fluid type fall on different lines, they are part of different fluid columns, These columns may have different contacts. * The depth where the gradients of the water and the overlying oil column intersect, is the FWL. (~ equal to OWC). + The depth where the gradients of an oil column and the overlying ‘gas column intersect, is the GOC. Exercise From mudiog and wireline logs, the lithology and fluid type of a sand shale interval is determined. Sand 1 and 2 were found to be fully gas bearing. Sand 3 is fully oil bearing and sand 4 is water bearing. WFT pressures were recorded in all reservoir intervals and plotted in a pid-plot on the right. A) Draw the fluid gradients and confirm the fluid types. B) Which shale has definitely a sealing capacity? ithifuid 150 Pressure [bar] 156 my 1920 Tt 1] gas * ssf 4 2| gas |g 1360/- x 4 2 x ees poe 1380 ;- 4 3| oi! sy . g 1400 - 4 4 [water iz x, 1420 * C) What are the depth of the FWL and the GOC of the oil column? D) Whatis the maximum thickness of a possible cil rim under the gas in sand 1? (Assume a similar oil density as seen in sand 3 and the same hydrostatic pressure.)Integrated Exercise Tho logs on next page are taken in a vertical exploration well. From Cuttings some very positive indications were obtained. Ten RFT pressure measurements were made after running the main logs. Header: Bitsize: 12.25" 0.35 @ 23°C DFE = -25 mss 0.28 @ 23 °C Mud type: water-based = BHT = 60 °C Cuttings: Depth {moat Lithology Oil shows: 1040 - 1051 Shale 1051 - 1061 Sand; Shale 00 1061 - 1063 Coal; Shale xx 1063 - 1071 Sand; Shale xX, 1071 - 1078 Shale 1078 - 1086 Sand; Shale 1086 - TD Shale RFT: Depth Pr Depth Pr {mba Pay {rmbt Ika) 1048.5, 10872 1062 10954 1050.5 10873 1065 10978 1053 10882 1076 11081 1056 10906 1078 11103 1061 10946, 1082 11146 Pressure (kPa) Evaluate this section, using all available data. Determine: Net reservoir, N(G, GOC, Rw, Average © & Sw of the oil bearing ‘sands and the FWL. 23]MSFL tam US ton) LLD fam Gpqu] wideg s6ho7 ajoy uadQResistivity of NaCl Solutions Neutron/Density X-plot Bs geese. 2838 § iesse teste @ 2 Pg eeed8 NaCl Concentration in ppm Resistivity of Solution in c.m z é save e es ad e Bete 2 2 MO ww me 1m wo ww Tomporaturein *C Relation ship botwoan Temperature, Water resistivity and Salinity for normal NaCl soltcns, Use: Estimate Rev at BHT (asume constant salty) Estimate Saint of formation water (rom Fe and BHT) (Fam fl t,he Gang) ho-b, Bulk Density (glema] FeO a6; pt =t0 gens, FES EES fied ‘®n, Neutron Porosity [p.u) (Fon el: Crat CP to)Glossary AHO APL BHCS BHT Cal ccLa CNL. Corr DFE OL DLL Dol FOC. FMS FO FW Goc GR GRS He kPa LDEN LD Ipu, Lt ‘Along Hole Depth [mb] “American Petroleum Institute Bore Hole Compensated Sonic [ust] Bottom Hole Temperature [°C] Caliper finch} Chlorothene ‘Compensated Neutron [Lp] Correction Depth [mss or mba] Dril Floor Elevation [mss] Dal Induction Log [2.m} Dual Laterolog [2m Dolomite Formation Density Compensated [g/cm3} Formation Micro Scanner Field Observation Free Water Level (mss) Gravity constant» 9.82 [kg mi's2} Ground Elevation [mss] Gas Oi Contact [mss or mba! Gamma Ray [API] Gamma Ray Spectrometer [API] Hydrogen ‘om Hydrocarbon Potassium Atom Kilo Pascal Litho Density Tool [glom3} Laterolog Deep {0.m] Laterolog Shallow [0.m] Limestone Porosity Unit Limestone mbdt MSFL mss, Pr Pm pu. pwave Rn Re Rint Ro Rahal Rw Pro ROP Sho SPP SPM Sst Sw s.wave SWS Sino TA Cementation Factor [+ Th Thorium Atom Meter Below Derrick Floor 1vo True Vertical Depth mss} Micro Spherical Focussed Log 1D Total Depth [mss or mbt] Meter Subsea u Uranium Atom Saturation Exponent [] vsP. Vertical Seismic Profie NevGross [4 WeT Wireline Formation Tester il Water Contact [mss or mba er Weight on Bit (10°3 kg] Formation Pressure [kPa] Pp Density [g'om3] Mud Pressure [kPa] pa Density of fid [g/cm3} Parts per Milion pma Density of matrix {g/cm3] Porosity Unit ee Density of formation [ofem} Compressional wave Q Porosity [rac] Resistivity of mud [Sm] 9 Average Porosty (trac) Resistvily of mucake [Lm] ap Density conection [glcm3} Resistivity of mud fitrate. [02mm] al Travel Time [si] Resistivity of water bearing zone [02.m] at Travel Time of fuid [ys/h] Resistivity of shale. [0.m) ‘log Sonic lo reading {ust} Resistivity of uninvaded formation [.m) Atma Travel ime of mati [j.s/t] Resistivity of formation water [Q.m} Resistivity of invaded Zone [0m] Rate Of Penetration [minim] Hydrocarbon Saturation firac.) Hydrocarbon Saturation in invaded zone (tac.] Stand Pipe Pressure [kPa] ‘Stroke per Minute ‘Sandstone Water Saturation {trac} Shear Wave ‘Side Wall Sampler Water Saturation in invaded zone [trac] Time AverageSome Tool- & Curve- abbreviations References Tool/Cuve | schtumberger Western Aas HLS/ Gearhart ares Gamma Ray Too: | GA,GST, NGS GR, SPEC cA.scr Come taAGaematiy | 6s. ect, oR a Spont Poteniat: | sP s° sp Density Toos FOC, LOT.HLOT COL, ZDEN, ZDL om teen | OOO com BOL, DEN, SLD Gee eu a pe Newton Tools: | CNL,SNP,NPT CNL CNT, SNL ame Pasay | wn Tan ee mos Sonie Tools: BHO,LSS, SDT,OS1 AC, ACL, BCS, FHS, LSS Carve tata | oa on 000 set eso Induction Tools, | DAL, P AIT oF i, HAL Cine Ome re 0 ro) an rr ™ mn San mw foe my Lateclog Toots: | DLL, DST, ARI ou MLL cme Du wo fo uo) oe us s mus) oe ten i LL, MSF Other Caves: fone trum | TERTES ee |e tee Pencuiens Seismic Too: | CS1,SAT, VSP,ASI__ Seismic, VSP Seismic, VSP Dppmeter Toc: | HOT, SHOT, FMS, FMI HRDIP,OBOT FED, HOD Foun Tester Tools: | RFT,FIT,MOT.CHRFT EMT SFT,RFT st, mser swe ‘SWC, SCT 27| Ferm, Sanping Took 1, Log Interpretation Charts Schlumberger, 1991. 2, Log Interpretation Principles/Applications Schlumberger, 1991 3. Fundamentals of Well-og interpretation: Part 1, The acquisition of logging data. Part 2, The interpretation of logging data O.Serra (Pub: Elsevier), 1986. 4, Production Handbook, Vol 3: Petrophysical Engineering SIP, 1991.Answers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 14 8) A) Sand 1: top mbdf; bottom: mbdf Sand 2: top: mbdt; bottom: mbdt B) hi= ha= m. ©) Net reservoir = m D) NG= 10) Layer: 4 2 3 4 § 6 FDC: 12) 14) 1 2 3 4 5 6 16) Layer: 1 2 FO: 18) A) Rw = B) Sw= F) Shxo = 22) B) ©) GOG = D) m. Integrated Exercise: mbdt am Qm mss; FWL = ss. Interval Thickn. Fltype Av.@ Av. Sw m NG = mbdf FWL. = mbdf