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M.M.Badawy
Principles of Well Logging and Formation
Evaluation
Well Logging
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M.M.Badawy
Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
The value of the measurement is plotted continuously against depth in the well.
During drilling a liquid mixture containing clays and other natural materials, called
Mud is pumped down the drill string forcing the rock cutting up to the surface and
decrease the heat from the interaction between the bit and the well wall rocks.
Hydrostatic pressure of the mud column is usually greater than the pore pressure of
the formation.
This forces mud filtrate into the permeable formations and a mud cake on the
borehole wall.
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Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
Cased Hole:
The portion of the wellbore which has a metal casing placed and cemented to
protect the open hole from fluids, pressure, wellbore instability or a
combination of those.
Logs are recorded in the uncased portion of the wellbore.
M.M.Badawy
Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
Borehole Environment:
Rock fluid system is disturbed and altered during drilling
Borehole diameter (dh) 7-12 inches determined by the bit size , but may be
larger due to wash out, may be smaller due to buildup of mud cake)
Drilling Mud:
Remove cuttings.
Lubricate and cool drill bit.
Maintain excess borehole pressure over formation pressure.
Invaded Zone:
Zone around the borehole where the original fluid content has completely or
partially replaced by drilling mud.
Invaded zone = flushed zone + transition zone
Depth of invasion depends on mud cake; mud cake formation is more efficient
in porous rocks, causing less deep penetration of mud filtrate in porous rocks.
Flushed zone resistivity (Rxo)
Uninvaded Zone:
Pores uncontaminated by the mud filtrate.
Pores contain formation water, oil/or gas.
Hydrocarbon bearing reservoir always has some formation water on grain
contacts.
Uninveded zone resistivity (Rt).
Ratio of Sw to Sxo is an index of HC move ability.
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Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
Invasion Model:
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Temperature Log
Formation depth.
Bottom hole temperature.
Total depth of the wall.
Surface temperature.
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Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
Geotemperature:
The temperature of the earth usually increases with depth and as a result we
can conclude that thermal energy flows from the earth’s interior to the
surface.
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Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
M.M.Badawy
Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
Shale like as a blanket is inefficient and it keeps heat in and has a low thermal
conductivity.
Salt conversely is very efficient and let’s heat escape rapidly and therefore has
a high thermal conductivity.
Thus the real temperature gradient in a well is not a straight line but a
series of gradient related to the thermal conductivities of the various
data.
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Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
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Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
Caliper Log
Caliper tools measure the hole size and shape of the interior hole.
The mechanical caliper measures variation in borehole diameter with depth.
The measurements are made by two articulated arms pushed against the
borehole wall.
The arms are linked to the cursor of a variable resistance.
Lateral movements of the arms is translated into movements of the cursor
along the resistance and hence variation in electrical output.
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Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
Decrease in Borehole:
Caliper may show a hole diameter smaller than the bit size.
If the log has a smooth profile a mud cake build up is indicated. This is
extremely useful indicator of permeability; only permeable beds allow mud
cake to form.
The limits of mud cake indicate clearly the limits of the potential reservoir.
Borehole with a smaller diameter than the bit size but rugose are probably
sloughed.
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Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
Log Presentation:
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Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
a- In/On Gauge.
b- Key seats.
c- Wash Out
d- Break Out.
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Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
b- Key Seats:
Are asymmetric oval holes formed by wear against the string at points where
the borehole inclination changes, (Dip Angle of the well).
c- Wash Out:
Develops from general drilling wear, especially in shaly zones and dipping
beds.
On the geometry logs, a washout has a considerable vertical extent and both
calipers are larger than the drill bit size with one caliper being much larger
than the other.
d- Break Out:
Are recognized using the following:
The tool must stop rotating (ideally the tool should rotate before and after
a break out zone).
Small brittle fractures (spalling) occur in the borehole around a rotating
bit.
Natural and artificial fractures are most likely to be oriented in the
maximum horizontal stress.
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Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
Spontaneous Potential,
Self Potential (SP)
The Log:
The SP log is a measurement of the natural potential differences of self potential
between an electrode in the borehole and a reference at the surface.
Principles Uses:
The principles uses of the SP log are to locate and to calculate formation water
resistivity and to indicate permeability, it can also be used to estimate shale volume,
to indicate facies and in some case correlation.
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Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
Principles of Measurements:
Three Factors Are Necessary To Make An SP Current:
A conductive fluid in the borehole.
A porous and permeable bed surrounded by an impermeable formation.
A different in salinity or pressure between the borehole fluid and the
formation fluid.
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Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
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Quantitative Used:
SP Values for Calculating Shale Baseline and Static SP (SSP):
With no absolute values the SP is treated quantitatively and qualitatively in
terms of deflection that is the amount of the curve moves to the left or the
right of defined zero.
The definition of the SP zero is made on thick shale intervals where the SP
does not move, it is called the shale baseline, all values related to this line.
The theoretical maximum deflection of the SP opposite permeable beds is
called the static SP or SSP; it represents the SP value that would be observed
in an ideal case with the permeable bed isolated electrically.
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Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
PSP: Pseudo static (SP read in the water bearing shaly sand zone).
Qualitative Uses:
Permeable Recognition:
If there is even a slight deflection on the SP, the bed opposite the deflection is
permeable.
Mineral Identification:
The rare exceptions when the SP will deflect and the formation is not
permeable are due to mineralization.
Coal which are extremely reduced, given a large negative SP deflection.
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Most rocks materials are essentially insulators, while their enclosed fluids
are conductors.
The hydrocarbons are the exception to fluid conductivity.
Principles of Uses:
The Resistivity logs were developed to find hydrocarbon, however a formations
resistivity is of its typical geophysical characteristics and such can contribute
information on lithology, texture, facies, over pressure and some rock aspects.
Limitations:
Resistivity tools can only function in boreholes containing conductive mud,
which is mud mixed with salts.
They cannot be run in oil based mud or fresh water mud.
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Resistivity Tools:
Passing a current between two electrodes in the earth and measured the
potential drop between two other electrodes.
Modern tools are considerably more complex than this, especially because
emitted currents are focused by continuous guard currents.
Induction Tools:
It was based on the design of a mine detector, a basic induction tool consists of
an emitting coil and a receiving separated along the length of the tool by an
electrically isolated section.
The eddy currents create their own magnetic field and induce an alternating
current in the receiver coil.
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Quantitative Used:
The principle use of well logs is to detect oil resistivity logs are used to give
the volume of oil in a particular reservoir.
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OR
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The log:
The gamma ray log is a record of formations radioactivity.
The radiation emanates from naturally occurring Uranium, Thorium and
Potassium.
The simple gamma ray log gives the radioactivity of the three elements
combined.
While the spectral gamma ray log shows the amount of each individual
elements.
Most of shale has a strongest GR, so we can call it [Shale Log].
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Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
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One of the characteristics of gamma rays is that [when they pass through any
material their energy is progressively aborted].
Compton scattering, due to the collision between gamma ray and
electrons this produces a degrading of energy.
So, when the higher the common density through which the gamma rays pass,
the move rapid the degradation or loss of energy, [in reality it depends on the
materials electron density].
Tools:
Simple Gamma Ray Tool:
The simple GR tool is a sensitive GR detector consisting of a scintillation
counter and photomultiplier.
The scintillation counter is typically a sodium iodide crystal 2cm in diameter
and 5cm long in the simple tool.
When GR pass through the crystal they cause a flash, these are collected by the
photomultiplier and stored in the attached condenser over a set period of
time.
M.M.Badawy
Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
When a GR passes through a scintillation crystal it not only causes a flash, but
the intensity of that flash depends on the energy of the incident GR.
These can be related to the abundant of each element by comparison with
known spectra.
Log Characteristics:
The accepted unit for radioactivity logging is API [American Petroleum
Institute].
Its scale can be from [1 – 200API]
The simple GR log is usually recorded in track one along with the caliper.
There are several common presentation formats for the GR spectral log, the
simplest and probably best to put a three arithmetic scales due to the Thorium
and Uranium are given in PPM [Part per Million], Potassium is given in
Percent %.
1 ppm U = 8.09 API
1 ppm Th = 3.93 API
1 % K = 16.32 API
Depth of Investigation:
The depth from which radiation can be detected by the simple GR tool is
generally small but difficult to be precise about.
One experiment found that 75% of radiations detected came from a 14cm
radius and 25cm vertically above and below the detector. 34
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Logging Speed:
Because gamma radiations are discrete events and as describe, are measured
in the gamma ray tools by counting, these are restrictions on logging speeds.
Radiations are counted by the tool over a fixed period of time called time
constant.
Because the number of individual emissions is not high to have as large a
count as possible, the time constant should be long.
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Potassium:
Potassium is both chemically active and volumetrically common in naturally
occurring rocks, because of it’s chemically activity.
In clay minerals: clay silicatr structure.
In evaporates: salt [sylisite] 52.5% KCl.
In rock forming: feldspare.
Illite contains by far the greatest amount of K.
Uranium:
Come from acid igneous rocks, if forms soluble form, especially in the uranyle
form [U6+] as an oxide UO22+ [uranyle ion] is transported in river.
From river or especially sea water, uranium passes into sediments in three
principle ways:
M.M.Badawy
Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
Thorium:
Like uranium, thorium has its origin principally in acid and intermediate
igneous rocks.
However it is extremely stable and unlike uranium will not go into solution.
It’s generally transported to site of sediments deposition as clay fraction
detrital grains.
These are of heavy minerals such as zircon, thorite, monazite and epidote
which all very stable.
Describe its lake of solubility, thorium is however widely and relatively evenly
distributed in sediments , so much so that in shales it is used as a base level
from which the relative abundant of the other radioactive elements.
M.M.Badawy
Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
To Summarize:
As shale indicator, thorium may be used in most cased, potassium may be
used in many cases, but uranium should not be used at all.
But if we have a younger and older rocks so we will have consolidated and
unconsolidated rocks which IGR will not equal Vsh as a linear relation.
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3-Radioactivity in evaporates:
The most common evaporates, such as salt and anhydrite give extremely and
abnormally low values on the gamma ray log, however the high radioactivity
in some evaporates causes by potassium content.
4-Radioactivity in carbonates:
Carbonates in their pure state are not radioactive and their aids their
identification, in certain facies carbonates contain organic matter.
5-Correlation:
The gamma ray log is one of the most frequently used for correlation.
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Sonic Log
OR
Acoustic Log
The Log:
The sonic log provides a formation interval transit time [∧t].
It is a measure of the formation capacity to transmit second waves.
Geologically this capacity varies with lithology and rock texture.
The sonic log shows a formation ability to transmit second waves, it is
expressed as interval transit time [∧t] which can be [(1*106)/∧t] = Velocity
[ft/sec].
Principal of Uses:
Quantitatively, the sonic log is used to evaluate porosity in liquid filled holes
as an aid to seismic interpretation; it can be used to give interval velocities.
And cross multiplied with density log, the sonic is used to produce the
acoustic impedance log, which is the first step to make a synthetic
seismogram.
Qualitatively, for the geologist the sonic log is sensitive to subtle texture
vitiations and it help to identify lithology and may help to indicate source
rock. 40
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Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
Principle of Measurement:
The convention, general purpose sonic tool, measure the time it takes for a
sound pulse to travel between a transmitter and a receiver, mounted a set
distance away along the logging tool. The pulse measured is that [
compression wave P] followed by shear and stoneley waves which in the
convention tools, can be ignored but recorded in modern array ones.
Transmitters [Transducers]:
Are either magneto astrictive or more commonly, piezoelectric and translate
an electrical signal into an ultrasonic vibration.
In piezoelectric transmitters, the application of an electrical change causes a
change in volume which can be translated into a pressure pulse.
Receivers:
Are usually piezoelectric and convert pressure wave into electromagnetic
signal which can be amplified to provide the logging signal.
If ∧t = 40µs
Then the interval velocity = 1/∧t = 1/ (40*10-6) = 25.000 ft/sec
The depth of investigation between 2.5cm to 25 cm.
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Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
Quantitative Uses:
Porosity calculation:
Qualitative Uses:
Source rocks.
Texture.
Correlation.
Fracture identification.
Compaction.
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Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
Density Log
The log:
The density log is a continuous record of a formation bulk density [ρb], this is the
overall density of a rock including solid matrix and the fluid enclosed in the pores.
Principle of Uses:
Quantitatively, the density log is used to calculate porosity and indirectly
hydrocarbon density; it is also used to calculate acoustic impedance.
Principles of Measurement:
The logging technique of the density log tool is to subject the formation to a
bombardment of medium-high energy [0.2-2.0 MeV] collimated [focused] gamma
ray and to measure their attenuation [Compton scattering] between source and
detector.
M.M.Badawy
Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
Quantitative Uses:
Porosity Calculation:
Acoustic Impedance:
(ρ * v)
Qualitative Uses:
Lithology identification.
Shale age.
Mineral identification.
Evaporate identification.
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Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
Neutron Log
The Log:
The neutron log provides a continuous record of a formations reaction to fast
neutron. Which are related to a formations hydrocarbon index.
Principle of Uses:
Quantitatively the neutron log is used to measure porosity.
Qualitatively, it is an excellent discriminator between gas and oil, it can be
used geologically to identify gross lithology, evaporates, hydrated mineral and
volcanic rocks.
When combined with density log the can be a good lithology indicator. 45
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Principles of Well Logging and Formation Evaluation
Principle of Measurement:
Neutrons are subatomic particles which have no electrical charge but whose
mass is essentially equivalent to that of a hydrogen nucleus.
The interact with matter is in two principle ways, by collision and absorption.
Collisions are mainly at higher energy states, absorption occurs at lower
energy.
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