2020

SCHOOL OF PREPARATORY - UNIVERSITY OF JUBA

SCIENCE-BASED SCHOOLS
YEAR: 1. ACADEMIC YEAR: 2023-2024
LECTURER: KONJO Francis Pote Sindani

COURSE/CODE: GENERAL PHYSICS I PART I

(MECHANICS). SPH III
 CONTENTS
2.0 VECTOR CALCULUS:
2.1 Vector Differentiation
2.1.1 Velocity Vector
2.1.2 Acceleration Vector
2.2 Vector Integration
2.2.1 Line Integral
2.2.2 Surface Integral
2.2.3 Volume Integral
 CONTINUATION…….
3.0 MOTION IN 1-D, 2-D:
3.1 Motion in 1-D
3.2 Motion in 2-D
3.3 Displacement
3.4 Speed
3.5 Velocity
3.6 Acceleration
CONTINUATION……
3.7.1 Instantaneous Velocity
3.7.2 Instantaneous Acceleration
3.8 Motion Diagrams
3.8.1 Constant Acceleration
3.9 Newton’s Laws of Motion
3.9.1 Applications of Newton’s Laws of Motion
3.9.2 EXAMPLES
WORK, POWER & ENERGY
4.0 Work, Power and Energy
4.1 Potential Energy
4.2 Kinetic Energy
4.3 Conservation Laws of Energy
5.0 Sample Solved Question
5.1 Exercise
 VECTOR INTEGRATION

Vector Calculus involves 1- Vector

Differentiation and Vector Integration:
- Line Integral
- Surface Integral,
- Volume Integral.
 LINE INTEGRAL
• A line integral or Path Integral is the integral of
some function along the curve
• It concerns with integration along the line or curve.
• Consider the displacement in a field vector
to be along the ab.
LINE INTEGRAL
LINE INTEGRAL
CONTINUATION…
CONTINUATION…..
CONTINUATION…..
SURFACE INTEGRAL
• Surface Integral (Double Integration) is a
generalization of multiple integrals to integration
over Surfaces.
DOUBLE INTEGRAL CONTI….
•
 SURFACE INTEGRAL CONTI..
• Why is the Surface Integral of a closed Surface is
Zero ?
The flux integral of a curl field over a closed surface
is 0, because it is equal to a work integral over its
boundary by s Theorem , and closed Surface has no
boundary. OR
When the field vectors are going the opposite
direction as the vectors normal to the surface , the
flux is negative.
When the field vectors are orthogonal to the
vectors normal to the surface the flux is zero.
VOLUME INTEGRAL
• Volume Integral (Triple Integration) refers to an
integral over a 3-Dimensional domain, that it is a
special case of Multiple Integrals.
CONTI……
VOL. INTEGRAL- EXAMPLE
• Given that = ( + 4t)i + ( 2t – 5)j + 4k

Evaluate
SOLUTION:
= idt
=
CONTINUATION……

.
EXERCISE
• Evaluate dxdydz
 DIVERGENCE THEOREM
(GAUSS’THEOREM)
• Divergence Theorem states that the Surface Integral
of a Vector function is equal to Volume Integral of
the Divergence of function .
 DIVERGENCE THEOREM
CONTI….
• Generally. It means Triple Integral or Volume
Integral can be expressed as Surface Integral
(Double Integral).
• TASK #......: VERIFY THE DIVERGENCE
THEOREM FOR THE VECTOR FIELD:
• zk taken over the region bounded by the planes z
=0, z = 2, x = 0, x = 1, y = 0, y =3.
SIMPLE ILLUSTRATIONS FOR
DIVERGENCE THEOREM
•The theorem states that the surface integral of a
vector function is equal to volume integral of the
divergence of the function . i.e.
DIVERGENCE THEOREM-
SIMPLE DIAGRAMS
 MOTION IN 1-D, 2-D:
• Kinematics in 1-D refers to the quantities used to
describe motion of objects in one-dimensional
motion.
• Motion in 1-D ( Kinematics in 1-D) means motion
of object along a line or in one direction.
• These quantities include:
1- Velocity , 2 – Acceleration 3- Displacement
4- Position 5- Time
SOME EQUATIONS OF MOTION IN 1-D:
V(t) = at + V0 and a (t) = a.
MOTION IN 1-D

MOTION IN 2-D


MOTION IN PLANE


 SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS
• Instantaneous Velocity i.e. time derivative of
position
V = = , Instantaneous Speed is the magnitude of
the instantaneous velocity

Average Acceleration = =
Instantaneous Acceleration i.e. the limit of the
average velocity as the time elapsed goes to zero OR
It is the time derivative of the acceleration.
Instantaneous Acceleration = = =
MOTION IN 2-D(PROJECTILE)
MOTION)- EXAMPLE:
 In 2-D Projectile motion, such as that of a football
or other thrown objects, there is both a VERTICAL
and HORIZONTAL COMPONENTS to the motion.
 The key to analyzing 2-D motion, one along the
horizontal ax.is and the other along the vertical axis.
 Thrown objects e.g. football, & also motion near the
surface of the Earth for the s gravity, here the motion
undergoes constant accn in the downward vertical
direction with a magnitude of 9.8m/. This is a local
acceleration(g) due to gravity.
 PROJECTILE MOTION
 PROJECTILE MOTION is the motion of an
object thrown (projected) into the air when, after the
initial force that launches the object, air resistance is
negligible and the only other force that object
experiences is the force of GRAVITY.
 Since the direction of the acceleration of gravity is
VERTICAL, horizontal motion occurs with
CONSTANT VELOCITY under these conditions,
so it is called PROJECTILE MOTION.
 KINEMATICAL EQUATIONS
FOR CONSTANT

ACCELERATED MOTION.
Horizontal Motion:
o=
o X=t
Vertical Motion:
o = 0 – gt.
o y = + 0t - g
CONTINUATION..
o Vertical Motion:
PROJECTILES
If we throw a ball at an angle to the
horizontal (not vertically – the vertical
motion under gravity) the PATH of the
ball will look like a CURVE. The BALL
is a Projectile and the PATH is a
Parabola (Trajectory).
 CONTI…. ON PROJECTILES (2-D)
• Curve in the below fig. in case of 2-D........
 PROJECTILE MOTION
 The ball is projected from O with speed U, at angle
 A is the highest point reached
 AR is the axis of the parabola
 The ball reached the ground at B( Range) where OR = RB
or it is the Range
 The time taken is from 0 to B and is the time for Flight.
CONTI……
• U = Initial Velocity

• OB = horizontal range
• A = highest point reached
• = maximum height
• INITIAL COMPONENTS OF VELOCITY:
o = U Cos
o = U Sin
o COMPONENTS OF VELOCITY AT TIME t
o = U Cos
o = U Sin
COORDINATES AT TIME t:
• x = (UCos
• y = (UCos - g
• TIME OF FLIGHT (TOTAL TIME OF
FLIGHT)
•T=
HORIZONTAL RANGE, OB):
 = Sin2
o MAXIMUM RANGE:
• = ( When )
CONTI….
 MAXIMUM HEIGHT OF PROJECTILE (H)
 =
o NB: THE TIME TAKEN TO REACH
• Maximum height = the time of flight
• =
• EQUATION OF TRAJECTORY:
• Eq. of trajectory = xtan - . This is an eq. of
trajectory in Projectile motion and it proves
thatr the projectile motion is always
PARABOLIC in nature.
SOLVED EXAMPLE: 2-D MOTION
 An object is launched at a velocity of 40m/s in a
direction making an angle of 50 upward with the
horizontal.
 Calculate:
a) The maximum height reached by the object
b) The s total flight time (between launch and
touching the ground)
c) The s horizontal range ( maximum x above
ground).
SOLUTIONS TO A PROBELM
o The velocity components:
= sin(?) – gt
x = cos(?)t y = sin(?)t – ()g
In the given problem,
= 40m/s ? = 50 and g = 9.8m/
t= = =
3.12 seconds
CONTI……..
a) To find the maximum height, we apply
y= -g
y = - (9.8)(3.12) = 47.9m
= 47.9m
b) The s total flight time (between launch and
touching the ground)
Recall that:
t = = 0 and t = =
Time of Flight = = 3.1267s
CONTI…….
b) So the total time for flight is 3.1267s multiplied by
2 = 6.25s.
c) The s horizontal range ( maximum x above
ground).

NB: Horizontal Range is the horizontal distance

given by x at time t = .
RANGE = X() =
= = = 6.25m
 ′
𝑁𝐸𝑊𝑆𝑇𝑂𝑁 S LAWS OF MOTION
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND :
• In 1642, GALILEO studied the cause of motion of
a body and he was very close to discover the LAWS
of motion but unfortunately he died.
• After his death, Newton developed finding on the
motion of bodies in the form of LAWS of motion .
• In 1687, Newton published the laws in his famous
book called “ PRINCIPIA.”
LAWS OF MOTION
• In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton published the
mathematical principles of natural science in which
he stated the three (3) laws on which the science of
MECHANICS is based.
• Newton’s laws of motion are three (3) physical laws
that, together, laid foundation for classical mechanics
 NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF
MOTION
• It states that everybody continues in its state of rest
or uniform (unaccelerated) motion in straight line
unless acted upon by some external force. (Non
zero net force).
• This LAW explains or expresses the concept of
INERTIA. The inertia of a body is its reluctance to
start moving, or to stop moving once it has started .
 The mass of an object is a quantitative measure of
INERTIA. For greater mass, greater will be inertia,
i.e. I m.
 NEWTON’S FIRST LAW
 s First law of motion (LAW OF INERTIA) .
Statement: “ In the absence of an external force
(net force) a body at rest will remain rest and a body
in uniform motion will remain in uniform motion.”
 Mathematical form:
If = 0, then = 0 = 0
 EXAMPLES OF FIRST LAW OF
MOTION

 EXAMPLES OF NEWTON’S FIRST LAW ARE:

• An object at rest stays at rest;
• A stationary object with no outside force will not
move;
• With no outside forces, moving object will not stop.
 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW
OF MOTION
 Statement: “ Rate of change in momentum of the
body is directly proportional to the net force
applied.”
 Alternatively, when an overall force is applied to
an object, the acceleration will change.
 From Second Law of Motion, we can derive the
following equation:
• Resultant Force (F) = Mass of body (m) x
Acceleration(a) i.e.
• =
 EXAMPLES OF NEWTON’S
SECOND LAW
 Riding on the bicycle is a good example of this
law of motion at work( i.e. Your bicycle is the mass,
your leg muscles pushing on the pedals of your
bicycle is the force. )
 Other examples of this law are :
• Pushing a Car and a truck
• Object thrown from a height
• Rocket launch
• Car crash
• Racing Cars, etc.
 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF
MOTION
 Applied Force, F, is ɑ to the rate of change of
momentum ()
 F α (mv)
 F = Applied force
 = rate of change of momentum
PROBLEMS:
 A runner with a mass of 80.6kg runs a 50m dash
starting from rest with constant acceleration. If the
runner finishes in a time of 6.2s. Calculate the force
of the ground acting on the runner.
 SOLUTION:
o = 0, t = 6.2s, - = 50m
o HINT: To solve for the acceleration, apply the
Constant accelerated motion relationship
o- =t-a
oa=
 CONTI………
o = = 2.60m/
o Now to find the Force, F.
o=m.
o F = (80.6kg)(2.60m/) = 210N
 NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF
MOTION
 STATEMENT: “ Every action has an equal and
opposite reaction.”
 Or It states that, “To Every action, there is an
equal and opposite reaction,” or “Force is the result
of interaction between two bodies.”
If a ball is placed on the table , the ball will exert a
force on the table. At the same time, however, the
table exerts a force on the ball ( It is this force that
prevents the ball from being sucked into the table.)
CONTINUATION…….
 This “ Equal and Opposite reaction force” is
known as the NORMAL REACTION FORCE,
and the letter N or R is commonly used to
represent it
 NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION

•If a body A exerts a force on a body B, then B exerts

an equal and oppositely directed force on A.
•The third law means that the force the body exerts on another
is always accompanied by an equal and opposite force exerted
by the second body on the first.
•The magnitudes of the force on the two bodies are in opposite
direction to each other.
THE CONVENTION ON S THIRD
LAW OF MOTION

 If we use the CONVENTION that FAB means the

force on object A from object B, then Newton’s
third law can be written as:
 FBA = -FAB ( Newton’s third law of motion) FAB
i.e. force on object A from object B.
CONTINUATION….

Symbolically, THIRD LAW OF MOTION can be

represented as below:
o = - ( .i.e. Force on object A from object B OR =
-
APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S
THIRD LAW OF MOTION
 The earth exerts a gravitational force of attraction
on the Moon; the moon exerts a force of the same
size on the earth.
 A rocket moves forward as a result of the push
exerted on it by the exhaust gases which the rocket
has pushed out.
 When a man jumps off the ground it is bse he has
pushed down on the earth and the earth in
accordance with the third law has pushed up on
him.
CONTI…

 If the car is accelerating forward, it is bse its tyres

are pushing backward on the ground the road is
pushing forward on the tyres.
SAMPLE SOLVED QUESTION ON
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF
MOTION
• A jet airplane’s engines accelerated 50kg of air at
rest to a speed of 200m/s as it passed through the
engine a distance of 3.67m. What was the force of the
air on the airplane?
SOLUTION:
HINT: Apply the following kinematical information
about the air is given:
o V = 0, V = 200m/s, X Xo = 3.67m
o
CONTI…..
 HINT: Acceleration can be found using the
constant accelerated motion relationship
•
• = 5.50x103m/s2.
• HINT: Now, Newton’s Second law can be used to
determine the force on the air:
• Fon air = ma = (50kg)(5.50x103m/s2) = 2.8X105N
CONTINUATION…….
• HINT: Finally, Newton’s third law can be used to
determine the force on the airplane:

F
on air = - Fon air = -2.8x10 5
N
NB: The minus () sign means the force on the
airplane is opposite in direction to the force on the air
RESOUTION OF FORCES

 Resolution of Forces refers to a break-down a

force into (2) Components- one of the Components
is Horizontal Component (X-axis) and Vertical
Component (y-axis).
CONTI……


 SAMPLE SOLVED QUESTIONS
 Calculate the horizontal and vertical components
of a force of 50 N which is acting at 40o to the
horizontal.
 SOLUTION:
CONTINUATION……….
 Horizontal Component = 50Cos40
 = 50 x 0.766
 = 38.3N

 Vertical Component = 50Sin40

 = 50 x 0.64278
 = 32. 139N
 EXERCISE
 A force of 3N acts at 90 to a force of 4N.
Find :
a) The magnitude
b) The direction of their resultant, R
RESOLUTION OF FORCES
o Example:
Find the resultants of the Systems.
RESULTANTS OF THE SYSTEMS
CONTI…….
 SOLUTION:

a. To find total upward force: = 40.0N +

60.0NCos70 - 50.0NSin30 = 35.2N.
b. To find the total force to right: 80.0N –
60.0NSin70. NB: The MINUS SIGN indicates
that the Horizontal Force is to the LEFT!.
c. To calculate for a Resultant , R.
 CONTI…ON RESOLUTION OF
FORCES
C. To calculate for a Resultant, R.
FINDING RESULTANT
CONTINUATION……….
 = 35. + (-19.68.

 R = 40.6N
 NB: To calculate for an angle acting to the
horizontal. i.e. use tan = .
WORK, POWER, & ENERGY
 If a body moves as a result of a force being applied
to it , the force is said to be doing work on the body.
 The workdone is given by :
 W = the workdone (joules, J) F= the constant
applied force (N), S= the distance moved in the
direction of the force (m).
 It follows from the equation, W = Fs that a force
is doing no work if it is merely preventing a body
moving bse in such a situation,
 A constant force , F, acts on a body so as to move
it in a direction other than its own.
 WORK
 The component of ,, in the direction of motion is ,
in which case the work done , W, is given by: .
 Force Diagram for a Pulling Roller
PULLING ROLLER
 Force , F, needed to pull 50-kg roller over smooth
step.


 ENERGY
 A body which is capable of doing work is said to
possess Energy. The amount of energy that a body
has is equal to the amount of work that it can do.
 Energy can be classified as: 1- Chemical Energy,
2- Nuclear Energy or 3- Heat Energy, etc.
 There are basically only two (2) types of
ENERGY: 1- K.E. & 2- P.E.
 K.E. of a body can be defined as the amount of
work it can do in coming to rest OR it to increase its
velocity from ZERO to the velocity it has on this
basis.
KINETIC ENERGY, K.E.
 If a body of mass , m , is moving with velocity, v,
then K.E. =
 NB: K.E. is a POSITIVE Scalar quantity.
WHY??? STUDENTS TO ANSWER!
s Second law can be applied to relate the workdone
on an object and the changes in the K.E of the
object while that work is being done , and the
resulting relationship is called the WORK-
ENERGY THEOREM given by:
mwhere
KINETIC ENERGY, K.E.
 K.E. is given as where:
• the square of a vector quantity is a SCALAR, so
k.e. is a scalar.
• While velocity can have a POSITIVE or
NEGATIVE.
• Velocity squared, is always POSITIVE.
SOME PROOFS ON K.E.
 To show that
 Variable Force ?
 Constant Force ?
TO PROVE THAT K.E. =
 If a body of mass m moves a small distance under
the action of force , F
 Next, the force maybe varying is so small that the
force can be regarded constant over the distance ,
 The workdone is given by equation:
= F
CONTINUATION………..
o Now , if the force increases the velocity of
the body from zero to v , then the total
workdone W is given by:
o
o From Second Law . F = ma
o So, F = m where = the acceleration of the body.
o ds
o Recall that: V =
o So we can have W =
CONTI…..ON K.E. PROOF
 Therefore , W =
 That is W=
 By definition, the workdone is the Kinetic
Energy, K.E. of the body and therefore

K.E. =
 PROOF ON K.E. =
( VARIABLE FORCE)
 SOLUTION:
• = F
•
• F = ma
• F=m
• ds
• W =
CONTINUATION…..
W=
 W=
 K.E. =

 TASK # 4
Prove that K.E. = ( Constant Force)
WORK-ENERGY THEOREM
 From the Work-Energy Theorem, m = mass of
the object, v= speed of the object before the work is
done and v´ = speed of the object after the work has
been done.
 The K.E. of a body depends only on its mass and
its velocity and as such , the K.E. is
INDEPENDNENT of the way in which the body
acquires this velocity.
 KINETIC ENERGY AT VERY
HIGH SPEED
o S Special theory of relativity requires that
measurements in different inertial reference be
related by LORENTZ TRANSFORMATIONS. The
quantity that behaves like K.E. and transforms
correctly is RELATIVISTIC KINETIC
ENERGY(K.E.).
CONTI…..

• Where m= the mass of the object, v = the speed of

the object, c = the speed of the light, 3.0 x . This
expression is approximately equal to the
CLASSICAL K.E. expression, when the speed, v,
is much less than the speed of light, c.
 LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION
EQUATIONS
Lorentz transformations are valid for any
speed whereas Galilean transformations are
not
 In Galilean transformations , time is
universal and independent of the observer.
 But according to the Lorentz
transformations time is Relative.
 Lorentz Transformation Equations are in
the form
- ++ - =0
LORENTZ TRANSFORMATIONS
 Lorentz transformations , it is a set of equations in
Relativity Physics that relate the Space and Time
coordinates of two Systems moving at a constant
velocity to each other.
POTENTIAL ENERGY (P.E.)
 The energy which a body possess due to its
position or to the arrangement of its component
parts is called P.E.
 Also a brick which is suspended above the ground
has energy bse it could do work by falling to the
ground.
 Its energy is done to its POSITION and therefore
it is P.E.
 Furthermore, bse it is done to its position in the s
gravitational field it is more completely described as
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY.
POTENTIAL ENERGY (P.E.)
 Also, a change particle situation in an Electric
Field has ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
whereas the P.E. of a substance show string results
from the Elastic Properties of the string and is
therefore referred to as ELASTIC POTENTIAL
ENERGY.
 Gravitational Potential Energy of a body is the
amount of work that was done on it to give it
that energy = where h = the height of the body
above some arbitrary reference level , e.g.
ground or a bench top where the p.e. is taken to
be ZERO.
POTENTIAL ENERGY (P.E.)

 Also, if a body of a mass m is moved upwards,

through a height increases in gravitational potential
energy =
 CONSERVATION OF
MECHANICAL ENERGY
 In a System, in which the only forces acting are
associated with P.E. (e.g. gravitational and elastic
forces) the sum of the k.e. and p.e. is constant.
 That means K.E. + P.E. = A constant.
 Note that in particular above equation it DOES NOT
apply when there are FRICTIONAL FORCES
present.
 For instance in the below figure, as the body
FALLS it loses gravitational potential energy
and gains kinetic energy. It follows from the above
eq. that K.E. Gained = P.E. Lost
 CONSERVATION LAWS OF
ENERGY:
o Both in Physics and Chemistry, the LAW OF
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY states that the “
Total Energy of an isolated system remains
constant, it is said to be conserved over time.”
o OR
o “ Energy is neither created nor destroyed. It can
only be transformed from one form to another or
transferred from one system to another.”
o OR
o
CONTINUATION….
CONTI…..
 Also note that, Work-Energy Principle is expressed
as:
 =+

 And if Work is done against External Forces, then

the Eq. above mes:
CONTINUATION………
 And if work is done against EXTERNAL
FORCES , then the Eq. mes:

 = +
POWER
 Power of a machine is the rate at which work is
done or it does work.
 ITS SI UNIT: It is watt (W).
 P = the instantaneous Power (W).
 = the rate of working (J).
1W = 1J.
 If a machine is working at a steady rate ,
Power = .
CONTI…ON POWER
 If the rate of working is NOT STEADY the above
definition will be the AVERAGE POWER.
 So, the following below eqns could be combined to
obtain another useful expression for power.
 Therefore from; P also from the eq.
P = (Fs). If the force is constant then,
P = Fv. Where P = is the Power output(A known
Power output) of the machine which is doing work by
exerting a force, . v = A known velocity.
 SAMPLE QUESTION
o A pump raises water through a height of 3.0m at
rate of 300kg per minute and delivers it with a
velocity of 8.0m. Calculate the power output of the
pump (Assume g = 10m.)
o SOLUTION:
o In one second, the pump delivers
= 5.0kg of water
o Increase in P.E. each second = mgh
o = 5.0 x 10 x 3.0 = 150J
o Increase in K.E. each second = m
 CONTI…..ON SAMPLE
QUESTION
o m = x 5.0 x = 160J
o Now, Work done each second = Increase in P.E.
+ Increase in K.E. each second
= 150J + 160J = 310J.
And to find the Power Output (P) of the Pump is
given by:
Since work done per second is Power, the power
output of the pump is now 310W.
SAMPLE SOLVED QUESTION ON
WORK-ENERGY THEOREM
o A 5.76kg box is initially traveling with a speed of
3.43m/s as it starts up a ramp on which the kinetic
frictional force has a magnitude of 37.6N . The
surface is lifted 30 to horizontal as shown below.
Calculate the speed of the box after it has slid a
distance 1.34m along the ramp.
 SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM
HINT: First, draw a free body diagram for the box.
CONTINUATION…
Note that work done by a force is DOT PRODUCT
of force vector and displacement vector.
 As they are in opposite direction, angle between
them is 180 . Dot Product involves Cosine of 180
degrees and it is NEGATIVE 1 (i.e. -1)
 So the workdone comes as NEGATIVE here.
 Recall that if F is frictional force and displacement
against it is d, then as usual , workdone is
CONTI……..
o Work done by friction force on the box is given by:
•

• The work done by the force of gravity is equal to

•
CONTI……
o Now use the work-energy theorem to solve for final
speed of the box:
CONTINUATION…..

•=
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

 DEFINITION: System of particles refer to a group

of particles inter-related
 The equations for a System of particles can be
readily applied to develop those for a rigid body.
 One of the very important concepts introduced
with a System of a particles is the CENTER OF
MASS.
 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES
 A System of N Particles has been taken . In this
system , the mass of the i particle will be and the
position vector will be

Figure: System of Particles

CONTINUATION………

 Total external force on the System is given below

as :

+ =
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES
 Below is a figure showing a System of Particles.

Figure: System of Particles

 PROBLEM IN SYSTEM OF
PARTICLES
o The System of forces in figure below is in
equilibrium.
o Find; (i) P and, (ii) Q
•
 SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM
o Resolving Horizontally:
o P Cos= Q Cos
o P Cos60= Q Cos40…………………………….(1)
o Resolving Vertically:
o P Sin Q Sin = 20.0N
o P Sin60 Q Sin40= 20.0N…………………(2)
o By equation (1),
o P=
o P = 1.532Q……………………………………………(3)
CONTINUATION
o Substituting for P in equation (2) gives
o 1.532Q Sin60 + Q Sin40 = 20.0N
o 1.970Q = 20.0
o Q = 10.2N
o Substituting for Q in equation (3)
o P = 15.6N
o
o (ii) Q = 10.2N
 LINEAR MOMENTUM
o In Newtonian Mechanics, Linear Momentum ,
Translational Momentum, or simply Momentum is
the Product of the Mass (M) , and Velocity (V) of
an object.
o Also, Linear Momentum can be defined as the
product of a Mass multiplied by its Velocity.
o In Symbols, Linear Momentum (P) is expressed as
o P = Momentum
o m = mass
o V = Velocity
 THE SI UNIT OF MOMENTUM
It is in kg.m/s or kgm
ITS DIMENSIONAL FORMULA:
 It is ML
 The momentum of a particle is related to the net
force on that particle in a simple way; since the
mass of a particle remains constant, if we take the
time derivative of a momentum we find

=
CONTINUATION…………
• When giving the Linear Momentum of a particle ,
you must specify its : (1) Magnitude, and (2)
Direction
EXAMPLE:
A 3.00kg particle has a velocity of (3.0i – 4.0j)m/s.
(a) Find its x and y components of momentum and ,
(b) The magnitude of its total momentum
CONTINUATION…………
SOLUTION:
Using the definition of momentum and the given
values of m and V we have:
P = mv = (3.00kg)(3.0i - 4.0j)m
= ( 9.0i - 12.0j)kg.m
y

x
CONTI……..
 So, the particle has momentum components as
shown below:
= +9.0kg.m and,
= - 12.0kg.m
The magnitude of its momentum is
P=
=
=
 THE CENTER OF MASS
 For a System of particles , there is a special point
in space known as the CENTER OF MASS which
is of great importance in describing the overall
motion of the system. It is a position defined
relative to an object or system of objects
 CM doesn’t fall anywhere on the object, the entire
mass of a body can be considered to act at a single
point, known as the Center of Mass of the body.
 If a body is symmetrical and of uniform
composition, the CM is at the geometric center of
the body.
CONTI…… ON THE CM
 If a single force acts on a body and a line of
action of the force passes through the center of
mass the body will have a linear acceleration but
no angular accelerated.

 FORCE NOT ACTING THRU THE
CM
 If a force such as R is applied to the hammer, its
latter motion involves rotation because R does not
act through the center of mass.


 CENTER OF MASS OF A BODY
OR A SYSTEM
 If the particles in the system have
 = + + ------ and respective positions , , -----, ,
then the Center of mass is:
 =
 CONTI… ON THE CENTER OF
MASS
which means that the x, y , and z coordinates of the
Center of mass are expressed as below:

For an extended object (i.e. a Continuous

Distribution of mass) the definition of is given by an
Integral over the mass elements of the object:
CONTINUATION…………..
 = which means that the x, y, and z coordinates of
the Center of Mass are now:
 =
 =
 =
NB: Definition of the Continuous Distribution of
Mass inform of the x, y , and z coordinates of the
Center of Mass as given above!
CONTI………
 When the Particles of a System are in motion then
in general their Center of Mass is in motion. The
velocity of the Center of mass is a similar
weighted average of the individual.
 =
 In general the Center of Mass will accelerate ; its
acceleration is given by
 =
 If P is the Total Momentum of the System and M
is the Total Mass of the Center of Mass is related to
P by:
CONTINUATION………
 =
 =
TASK FOR ALL THE STUDENTS
The position vectors of two point masses 10kg and
5kg are (-3 + 2 + 4 )m and (3 + 6 + 5 )m respectively.
Locate the position of Centre of mass.
SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM 1
 = 10kg
 = 5kg
 = ( -3 + 2 + 4 )m
 = (3 + 6 + 5 )m
 =

 = +
SOLUTIONS…..

 = (- + + )m ( ANSWER)
 The Center of Mass is located at Position .
PROBLEM No. 2 FOR CM.
o The point masses 3kg and 5kg are at 4m and 8m
from the origin on X-axis. Locate the position of
Center of Masses (CM)
(i) from the origin and,
(ii) from 3kg mass.
SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM 2

Let = 3kg and = 5kg.

 Now to find Center Mass from the origin, the
point masses are at positions, = 4m , = 8m from the
origin along X-axis.
 Next, show the diagram as below;
SOLUTIONS …………
• Show the diagram as below
SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM 2
The Center of Mass can be obtained using
the equation;
 =
 =
 = = = 6.5m
 The Center of Mass is located 6.5m from
the ORIGIN on X-axis.
SOLUTIONS TO QN (ii)
Now to find the Center of Mass from 3kg mass:
 The origin is shifted to 3kg mass along X-axis .
 The Position of 3kg point mass is ZERO (
 And the position of 5kg point mass is 4m front the
shifted origin (
SOLUTIONS……………….
By diagram;
SOLUTIONS…………….
=
 = = = 2.5m
 The Center of Mass is located 2.5m from 3kg point
mass , (and 1.5m from the 5kg point mass ) on X –
axis .
 The result shows that the Center of Mass is located
closer to larger mass.
SOLUTIONS…………….
NB: If the origin is shifted to the center of
mass , then the Principle of Moments holds
good.
 .i.e. =
 3 x 2.5 = 5 x 1.5
 7.5 = 7.5
IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
 The Impulse of a Constant force , F, acting for a
time , , is defined by

 Is the product of force (assumed constant) and

the time for which it acts.
 Impulse is a Vector quantity ; its direction is the
same as that of the force.
CONTINUATION…..
 Impulse of a force, F, describes or quantifies the
effect of force acting over time to change the
momentum of an object.
 It is represented by the symbol J or Imp and
expressed usually in Newton-second(Ns) or
kg.m.. J symbol is conventionally given to
Impulse
 AREA UNDER A GRAPH OF
FORCE , F, Vs TIME, t


 AREA UNDER A GRAPH OF
FORCE , F, Vs TIME, t


 IMPULSE

THE UNIT OF IMPULSE

The unit of Impulse is the Newton second (Ns).
Note that 1Ns = 1kgm.
 If a force , F, causes the momentum of a body to
change by in a time
By Second law, force, F = rate of change of
momentum, and therefore
i.e. = (mv).
CONTINUATION ON IMPULSE

Therefore by equation (i.e. Impulse = F t)

Impulse = Change in Momentum
 The Impulse of a variable force , F, acting for a
time , t , is defined by
FORCE – TIME GRAPHS
The area under a graph of force against time
represents Impulse

Fig: Area under a Graph of f vs t stands for Impulse

EXERCISE ON IMPULSE

o NB: LET ALL THE STUDENTS IN THE HALL

SOLVE THE BELOW QUESTION IN 2 OR
3MINS.
o Find the impulse of a force of 50N acting on a
body for .
SOLUTION TO AN EXERCISE

o Impulse of a force on a body =

o Recall: F = 50N
o t = 0.1s
o =
o =
SAMPLE SOLVED QUESTION
• A body of mass 4kg is moving at 5m when it is
given an Impulse of 8Ns in the direction of its
motion. Calculate :
a) The velocity of the body immediately after the
impulse
b) If the impulse acts for 0.02s, what is the average
value of the force exerted on the body?
 SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

4kg Impulse 4kg
Before After Impulse
Impulse
Let v = velocity of body immediately after the
impulse
Impulse = Change in Momentum
8 = Change in momentum
= 4v – 4 x5
V = 7m
 CONTI .…. ON THE SOLUTIONS

(b) Let F = average force

Impulse =
8 = F x 0.02 .i.e. F = 4 x N
F=4xN
THE CONSERVATION OF LINEAR
MOMENTUM
 If two bodies A, and B are involved in a
collision and that there are no external
forces acting, the force on A due to B , is
equal( in magnitude) to the force on B due
to A. This is

Fig: Collision of two bodies

CONTINUATION…….
 By each body experiences the same rate of change
of momentum.
 Each force acts for the same length of time as other
( .i.e. for the duration of collision).
 Since the ONLY forces that are acting are the
INTERNAL FORCES, and , then the sizes of the
changes of momentum of the bodies will be the
same.
 Changes in P are however oppositely directed and
therefore the Total Change in Momentum (P) is
ZERO.
 PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION
OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
• It can be stated as, “ The Total Linear Momentum of
a System of interacting (Colliding) bodies on which
no external forces are acting , remains constant.”
 CONSERVATION OF
MOMENTUM IN REAL LIFE
 PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION
OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
TASK (PROBLEM 1) TO ALL THE STUDENTS
IN THE HALL
• A body , A , of mass 4kg moves with a velocity of
2m and collides head-on with another body, B, of
mass 3kg moving in the opposite direction at 5m.
After the collision the bodies move off together
with velocity, V. Calculate V.
• Ans: V= -1m
• 4Mins to spend!
 SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM

Before Collision

2m 5m
A B

Mass = 4kg Mass = 3kg

CONTINUATION…………..

• After Collision:
v

A+B

Mass = ( 4 + 3) = 7kg
CONTINUATION……….

 HINT: Referring to the above diagram and taking

momentum directed to the RIGHT to be POSITIVE,
we find that;
 Momentum of A
Before the Collision = 4 x 2 = 8kg
 Momentum of B
Before the Collision = 3 x-5 = -15kg
 The Total Momentum before Collision
= 8kg + (-15kg) = -7kg
CONTINUATION……….

 Momentum of (A + B) AFTER the Collision

= 7V
 By the Principle of Conservation of Momentum
-7 = 7V
V = -1.
 HINT: The Minus Sign indicates that the bodies
move to the LEFT (.i.e. in the Original Direction
of B) after the Collision.
 PROBLEM 2 INVOLVED
MOMENTUM
 A bullet of a mass kg is fired from a gun of mass
0.50kg. If the muzzle velocity of the bullet is ,
calculate the recoil velocity of the gun.
SOLUTION
HINT: (1) Initially, both the bullet and the gun are
at REST and their total momentum is ZERO.
(2) After firing, the momentum of the bullet is
( P = mv)
.i.e =
CONTI…….

 RECALL: (1) By the Principle of Conservation of

Linear Momentum , the Total Momentum AFTER
Firing is EQUAL to that BEFORE Firing
(2) Therefore, the gun must have a
momentum of in the opposite direction to that of
the bullet.
 If the recoil velocity of the gun is V, then
0.5v = 1.8
.i.e. v =
 EXERCISE TO THE STUDENTS

 A machine gun fires 35.0kg bullets at a speed of

750.0m/s. If the gun can fire 200bullets/min. What
is the average force the shooter must exert to keep
the gun from moving ?

Ans: The Average Force of the gun on the bullets is:

= = 87.5N
 COLLISION
 A Collision is an interaction between objects that
causes an exchange of energy or momentum.
 Colliding objects always need to physically make
contact. If they attract or repel each other by non-
contact forces , then they can still exchange
energy/or momentum.
 Collisions are classified into two (2) types,
ELASTIC and IN-ELASTIC. In Elastic Collision,
the total K.E. is conserved (even if some objects
may lose K.E. while others gain P.E. which is again
converted back to K.E. )
 COLLISIONS
 A Collision in PHYSICS (between two parties,
say) we mean that two parties are moving freely
through space then for a short period of time
they exert strong forces on each other until they
move apart and are again moving freely.
 For such an event , the two particles have well-
defined momenta and before the Collision event
and and afterwards.
 But the sum of the momenta before and after the
Collision event is CONSEREVED, as written in the
below equation:
CONTI…. ON COLLISIONS

 + = + OR in terms of the masses and velocities

i + i= f+ f OR abbreviating = P (Total Momentum)
 This is :
COLLISIONS…….
While the TOTAL MOMENTUM is conserved for
a system of isolated colliding particles, the
MECHANICAL ENERGY may or may not be
conserved.
 There are majorly 2 types of Collisions: (1)
Elastic, (2) In-elastic (Perfectly or Completely In-
elastic Collisions.)
 ELASTIC COLLISION

 If the Mechanical Energy ( Usually meaning the

Total Kinetic Energy) is the same BEFORE and
AFTER a Collision.
 Furthermore, it can be explained that it is a state
where there is no net loss in K.E. In the system as
the result of the Collision.
ELASTIC COLLUSION CONTI..
 In the ideal case when no K.E. is lost, the Collision
is said to be PERFECTLY ELASTIC.

 Fig: Elastic Collision Example

ELASTIC COLLISION

 The Total K.E., however, usually decreases , since

the impact converts some of it to (1) HEAT, or (2)
SOUND and or (3) Permanently distorts the bodies
leaving them with an increased amount of P.E.
 IN-ELASTIC COLLISION
 A type of Collision where there is a loss of K.E.
Here K.E. is not conserved but Momentum is
conserved
 NB: It is to be noted that MOMENTUM and K.E.
is conserved in all types of Collision.
 IN-ELASTIC COLLISION

Fig: In-elastic Collision Example

COMPLETELY IN-ELASTIC
COLLISON
 IN-ELASTIC COLLISION

 If two objects collide , stick together, and move

away as a combined mass, we call this a IN-
ELASTIC COLLISION.
 In such a situation more K.E. is lost than if the
objects were to be bounced off one another and
moved off separately
 PERFECTLY OR COMPLETELY
IN-ELASTIC COLLISION

 A Completely In-elastic Collision is one class of

Collision in which the bodies stick together on
impact.
 EXPERIMENTAL LAW OF
IMPACT
 The relative velocity with which two bodies
separate from each other, after a Collision, is related
to their relative velocity of approach and constant
known as the CO-EFFICIENT OF
RESTITUTION, e , of the two bodies.
 The relationship which is described above known
as Experimental Law of Impact, can now be
expressed as below:
 Speed of Separation
= e x Speed of Approach
COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION
OF THE TWO BODIES
 It is defined by the equation
.i.e. =
separation
and depends on their Elastic Properties and the
natures of their surfaces.
 The same properties determine whether a Collision
is Elastic or In-elastic or Completely In-elastic.
COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION
OF THE TWO BODIES
o If two bodies move towards each other along the
same straight-line , the difference between their
velocities immediately after impact has a Constant
relationship with the difference between their
velocities at the moment of impact,
o i.e.
o(
 ANOTHER EQUATION OF e
o(
o e = coefficient of restitution
o = the velocities of the two bodies immediately
after impact
o = the velocities of the two bodies immediately
before impact
o NB: e = Constant known as the Co-efficient of
Restitution of the two bodies.
o e cannot be NEGATIVE but is always
POSITIVE!
 CONTINUATION……….
 Therefore, it is possible to classify a Collision
according to the value or , e, that is associated with
it.
TYPES OF COLLISIONS
Elastic e
In-elastic 1
Completely (Perfectly) ¿ 1
In-elastic 0
Fig: Classifications of Collision
SAMPLE SOLVED PROBLEM
 A body, A , of mass 6kg moving at and collides
head-on with another body, B , of mass 3kg and
moving in the same direction as A at If the
velocities of A and B after the collision are
respectively and and the coefficient of restitution
of the bodies is 0.8. Calculate
(i)
(ii)
Assuming that no external forces act on the System.
SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

 (a) Before Collision

−1
9 𝑚𝑠
−1
4 𝑚𝑠
6kg 3kg

A B
 SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM
 (b) After Collision

Figures: Diagrams for both (a) Before and (b)

After Collisions of the two bodies.
CONTINUATION……….
 HINT: Based on the above diagram there are NO
external forces acting on the System , in which case
MOMENTUM is conserved and we may put
 (6 x 9) + (3 x 4) = 6 + 3
 .i.e. 54 + 12 = 6 + 3
 .i.e. 66 = 6 + 3
 .i.e. +
 .i.e. 22 = 2 + .....................................(1)
CONTI……ON THE SOLUTION
 Applying Experimental Law of Impact
Equation;
.i.e. =
separation
 We have
 = 0.8( 9 – 4)
 .i.e. = 4…………………………...(2)
CONTINUATION………
 Solving the two equations (1) and (2)
simultaneously results to;
 (i) = and ,
 (ii) .
 NB: LET ALL THE STUDENTS WORKOUT
THE RESULTS OBTAINED ABOVE BY
SHOWING ANY OF THE SIMULTANEOUS
EQUATION METHODS SUITABLE!
The axis of the rotation does not
go through the body
θ = Angular distance
ω = angular velocity
a = angular acceleration

ω=∆θ/∆τ=dθ/dτ

a=∆ω/∆τ=dω/dτ

θ = angular distance
ω=angular velocity
ω= dθ/dt
a=angular acceleration
a= dω/dt
 SOME TERMS TO DESCRIBE ROTATIONAL
MOTION:

Angular velocity,ω in rad/s, is the velocity of rotation.

Direction is along axis of rotation given by the RIGHT
HAND RULE (+ is ccω,-cω)
 ω =∆θ/∆τ=2π/T=2πf

= s/r∆t=vt/r

F= frequency in revolutions/s
Example:
A 200kg speedboat is making a circular turn (radius 32m)
around a buoy during the turn, the engine applies a net
tangential force of 550N to the boat. The initial tangential
speed of the boat is 5m/s.

Find:
a)
b) After 2.5 into turn, find
Solution: fr =
550=220
=2.5m/
= =r
= = = 0.156rad/s ω = ?
a = = 2.5/32=0.078rad/
∆θ
t=2.05
=3.1m/
 is the tangential acceleration, it is a linear acceleration in a
direction tangent to the circle at the point of interest in a
circular or rotational motion.

NOTE: that tangential acceleration is parallel to the tangential

velocity (either in the same direction or in the opposite
direction.

Centripetal acceleration is always perpendicular to the

tangential velocity. The three rotational variables defined
are : θ,ω,and ∝ these are the angular versions of linear
variables ×,v,and a.
For instance, if a motorcycle wheel that starts at rest has a large
angular acceleration for a fairly long time, then it ends up spinning
rapidly and rotates through many revolutions

In terms of variables, if the wheels angular acceleration ∝ is large

for a long period of time τ, then final angular velocity ω and
angle of rotation θ are large.
 CIRCULAR
It is a movement of anMOTION
object along the circumference of a circle or
rotation a long a circular path
It can be uniform with constant angular rate of rotation and
constant speed or non-uniform with a changing rate of rotation
Alternatively, it is a movement of a body while rotating along a
circular path
It can be uniform or non-uniform. In a circular motion a particle
moves along the perimeter of a circle at a uniform rate
To make anything moves along a circular path, it is essential to
have a force that acts towards the center of the path. Being a special
case of curvilinear motion, the radius of rotation remains constant
To make anything moves along a circular path, it is essential to
have a force that acts towards the center of the path. Being a special
case of curvilinear motion, the radius of rotation remains constant
 WHAT CAUSES CIRCULAR
MOTION

Centripetal force causes centripetal accelerations. In the

special case of the earth’s circular motion around the sun or
any satellite’s circular motion around any celestial body

The centripetal force causing the motion is the result of the

gravitational attraction between them.
 EXAMPLES OF CIRCULAR
MOTIONS INCLUDES:

• Motion of a wheel
• A stone tied to a string
• Artificial satellites orbiting earth
• Turning of a car around a curve
• An electron moving perpendicular to a uniform
magnetic field
• Ceiling fan’s blades rotating around a hub.
Circular motion i.e. motion of a body along
a circular path.
 UNIFORM CIRCULAR
MOTION:
Motion of a body along circular path with
the constant speed.

For uniform circular motion body needs a lateral force such that it continuously
changes its direction, this force is called centripetal force.
 CENTRIPETAL FORCE
It is defined as the radial force directed toward the center acting on a body
in circular motion.

The centripetal force f acting on a body of mass –m moving in a circular path is

given by,

f=

Centripetal acceleration
a=
Tangential speed( ) is the speed of an object in circular motion. If the tangential
speed is constant the motion is uniform circular motion.

Period T is the time require to travel once around the circle that is to make one
complete revolution

v=
Acceleration is centripetal: an object moving at steady
speed in a circle of the radius (r) is accelerated toward the
center with:
a =
 DYNAMICS OF UNIFORM
CIRCULAR MOTION:
An object moving on a circular path of radius(r) at a constant
speed v.

As motion is not on a straight line the direction of the velocity vector is

not constant.
The motion is circular compared to:

1. 1-D- straight line.

2. 2-D-parabola.
3. Velocity vector is always tangent
to circle.
4. Velocity direction constantly
changing but magnitude remains constant.
Centripetal force

=
Any force can be a centripetal force: gravity (planets and moons) friction (car
turning a corner) tension (ball on a string) etc.
Examples:

A child sits on merry-go-round that makes 10 revolutions in one minutes. The

child is sitting 1.2m from the rotation axis of the merry-go-round. What is the
acceleration of the child?

Solution:

Hint: the child makes 10 revolutions in minutes so the period T of the circular
motion is 6.0s
Next, we need to calculate the speed of the
circular motion.

V = 2πr/T = (2×3.14×1.2m)/6.0s = 1.26m/s

Now, since we know the speed and the radius of the circle, we can
calculate the centripetal acceleration.

= /r = (1.2m/s)/1.2m = 1.0mls)
 Problem:

A satellite is said to the in geosynchronous orbit if it rotates around the earth

once every day. For the earth all satellites in geosynchronous orbit must
rotates at a distance of 423xm from the earth’s center.
Calculate the magnitude of the acceleration felt by a geosynchronous satellite.

Solution:
Hint: the acceleration felt by any object in uniform circular
motion is given by a
= 2/r

-Radius is given but we need to find the velocity of the satellite

-We know that in one day or 86400 seconds, the satellite travels around the earth
once.
 Thus,

V= ∆X/∆t= 2πr/∆t= 2x3.14(4.23x

)/86400=3076 m/s

Thus,

a= /r= /(4.23x)=224 m/
TWO USEFUL EXPRESSIONS:

When dealing with circular motion, we can apply them

from time to time.

Angles in radians: S = rθ. Angles can be measured in radians as

well as in degrees.
In the figure below the angle θ, in radians, is defined by the
equation

θ = S/r
If S = r then θ = 1 radian (rad). Thus 1 radian is the angle subtended at the
center of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius when

S = 2πr
θ = 2π radian=36
∴ 1 radian= 36/ 2π (or 360/(2 x 3.14)= 5
b) Angular velocity: V = rw. The speed of a body moving in
a circle can be specifically either by its speed along the
tangent at any instant, i.e. by its linear speed, or by its
angular velocity. And it is measured in radians per second
(rad).
Note that for solving circular motion problems we have
four (4) equations:

i) = rw
ii) = -r
iii) f = w ⁄ 2π and
iv) T= 1 ⁄ f
In these four equations above, there are six quantities:
1) r 2) 3) 4) w
5) f 6) T
 UNIFORM CIRCULAR
MOTION
It is the motion along a circular path at constant speed. Note that
even though the speed is constant, the velocity is not constant
because it is continuously changing direction. The direction of
the acceleration of an object in uniform circular motion is toward
the center of the circle, and therefore it is called centripetal
acceleration. The magnitude of the centripetal acceleration, , is

= /r
Where:

V is the speed of the object and r is the radius of the circular path.

The time to complete one complete circle is called the period, T, of the circular
motion. The number of complete circle per unit of time is called the frequency, f,
of the circular motion.
The period and the frequency are related
by T = 1/f

The period is related to the speed of the

circular motion by

V = 2πr/T

Where r is the radius of the circular motion.

Example:
A child sits on a merry-90-round that makes 10 revolutions in one minutes. The
child is sitting 1.2 m from the rotation axis of the merry-90-round. What is the
acceleration of the child?

Solution:
The child makes 10 revolutions in one minute, so, the period of the circular motion
is 6.0s. we can then calculate the speed of the circular motion.
V= 2πr/T= 2π(1.2 m)/((6.0 s) )=1.26 m/s
By knowing the speed and the radius of the circle, we can then calculate the
centripetal acceleration;
ag = /r = (1.26 m/s)/(1.2 m)=1.0 m/s
This acceleration is always directed toward the center of the merry-90-round from
the location of the child.
 GRAVITY:
Define gravity:
It is the most familiar of the fundamental force. And it has close historical ties to the
development of mechanics’ newton discovered the law of universal gravitational in
1666 the year he was formulating his laws of motion.
According to the newton’s law of gravitation two (2) particles attract each other a
force directed along their line of centers. The magnitude of the force is proportional
to the product of their masses and decrease as the inverse square of the distance
between the particles.
 Consider two particles A and B with their masses respectively, separate by
distance now let be the force exerted on particle B by particle A. the
magnitude of force is summarized by:
𝐺 𝑀𝑎 𝑀𝑏
|𝐹 𝑏|= 2
𝑟
Where: G is a constant of proportionality called the GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANT.
Its value is found by measuring the force between masses in a known geometry.
The first measurement of G was performed by Henry Cavendish in 1771 using a torsion
balance. The modern value of G is 6.67x.
Experimentally, G is the same for all materials such as:
1. Aluminum 2. Lead 3.Neutron etc.
The gravitational force between two particles is central (i.e. along the line of centers)
and attractive.
 The simplest way to describe these properties is to use vectors. By convection, we
introduce a vector from the particle exerting the force particle A in this case, to the
particles experiencing the force particle B.

NOTE: that
ȁ𝑟𝑎𝑏 ȁ = 𝑟
using the units vector
𝑟𝑎𝑏 = 𝑟𝑎𝑏 /𝑟
we have:

𝐺𝑀𝑎 𝑀𝑏
𝑓𝑏 = − 𝑟𝑎𝑏
𝑟2
NB: The negative sign shown that the force is
attractive so the force on A due to B is:

Since

The forces are equal and opposite, and newton’s

third law is automatically satisfied. The gravitational
force has a unique and mysterious property. For
instance, consider the equation of motion of a particle
B under the gravitational attraction of particle A.

𝑮𝑴 𝒂 𝑴𝒃
𝒂𝒃=− 𝟐
𝒓 𝒂𝒃
𝒓
 NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL
GRAVITATION:
Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them. This force acts along the line joining the two particles. F
is the force, F, and also the other parameters in the formula include the following

The magnitude of this force,

 VECTOR FORM OF NEWTON’S LAW OF
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION:
Newton’s law of universal gravitation can be written in a vector form as:

Where is the vector force on a particles 1 of mass caused by the particles 2 of mass
. The vector is the unit vector that points from particle 2 to along the line to particle
1.

The minus (-) sign appears because the force is attractive which makes
the force direction opposite to the direction of
Example: The three 0.300kg billiard balls are placed on a table at the corners of a
right triangle as shown in the figure below:

Fig: The resultant gravitational force acting on the cue ball is the vector sum
Calculate the gravitational force on the cue ball (designed) resulting from
the other two balls.
Solution:
Hints:
1) First we calculate separately the individual force on the cue ball due to the other
two balls.
2) Then find the vector sum to obtain the resultant force.
3) Now on the graph, we can see that this force should point upward and toward the
right.
4) And we then locate our coordinate axis as shown in the figure above.
5) We place our origin at the position of the cue ball.
The force exerted by on the cue ball is directed upward and is given by:
NB: This result indicates that the gravitational forces between everyday objects
have extremely small magnitudes. The force exerted by on the cue ball is
directed to the right:

Therefore, the net gravitational force on the cue ball is and this magnitude of this
force:

The direction of the net gravitational force is counter-clock-wise from the x-

axis.
 ORBITS AND RUTHERFORD’S ATOMIC MODEL:
The model that described the atom being a tiny, dense, positively charged core
termed as a NUCLEUS in which nearly all the mass is concentrated around which
light, negative constituents called electrons circulate at some distance, much like
planet revolving around the sun.
RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF ATOMS
 Rutherford proposed that an atom is composed of empty space mostly with
electrons orbiting in a set, predictable paths around fixed, positively charged
nucleus.
The problem with the Rutherford’s model was that, the model of an atom was
wrong because of the presence of electrostatic attraction that exist between the
nucleus and the electrons. Here the electrons are expected to fall into the nucleus
but they did not. Therefore, when this model was applied to atoms apart from
hydrogen, the model did not work electrons don’t move around the nucleus in
circular orbits.

OSCILLATIONS OF A SPRING:
When a motion repeats itself over and over, it is called PERIOD
MOTION
The time for one repetition of the motion is called the PERIOD of the motion.
The numbers of repetitions per units is called FREQUENCY OF THE
MOTION. The period T and the frequency F are related by:
In the particular case of a mass attached to a spring, the mass vibrates
back and forth about the EQUILIBRIUM POSITION of the mass on
the spring.

DEFINE: EQUILIBRIUM POSITION:

The equilibrium position of the mass is the position at which the mass
has no net force acting on it. The difference in the position of the mass
and its equilibrium position is called the DISPLACEMENT of mass.
The magnitude of the maximum is called the AMPLITUDE of the
periodic motion.
 SIMPLE HARMOMIC MOTION (S.H.M):
It is the type of harmonic motion where the acceleration, a is directed
towards a fixed point (equilibrium point) and is proportional to the
displacement of the from that point.
(i.e. a body moves in a such a way that its acceleration is directed
towards a fixed point in a path and is directly proportional to its
distance from that point.)
It follows that the fixed point is the equilibrium position i.e. the
position at which the body would come to rest if it were to lose all of
its energy.
If a body is vibrating with simple harmonic motion, its motion can be
described by an equation of the form:
2
𝑑 𝑥 2
2
=− 𝜔 𝑥
𝑑𝑡
 𝑑2𝑥
Where = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 (𝑀𝑠 −2 )
𝑑𝑡 2
X=
the displacement of the body from its equilibrium position i.e. from the fixed point in its path
(M).

𝜔2 = 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡(𝑠 −2 )

NB:
i. The minus sign (-) in ensures that the acceleration always directed
towards the equilibrium position, as required by the definition.

ii. The constant of proportionality is written as (rather than) because of the

connection with circular motion.
Integrating the equation

Where v = the velocity of the body at time

A = the amplitude of the motion, i.e. the maximum displacement from
equilibrium position (m).
NB: the equation requires that when it is an alternative expression for x
is, this requires when , i.e. that the motion is taken to start from the
equilibrium position rather than the point of maximum position
displacement.
Timing may start when the body is at any point of its OSCILLATION.
To take account of this expression.
is used, in which , the initial phase angle or epoch, is a constant
expressed in radians and given by , where is the value of x at .
It reduces to when at and reduces to at .
 THE PERIOD:
The period, T, of the motion (i.e. the time for one complete oscillation) is
given by:

NOTE: that for any particular system the period is independent of the
amplitude, for example, if the amplitude of oscillation of a simple
pendulum is increased, its average speed increases and there is no change in
the time it takes to complete on oscillation.
The motion of a simple harmonic pendulum is not exactly simple
harmonic and therefore this statement is only approximately true.
EXAMPLE:
A particle is a moving with SHM of period and amplitude .
Find:
a) The speed of the particle when it is from the center of its motion.
b) The maximum speed.

c) The maximum acceleration.

HINTS: the equation for speed and acceleration involve the first
step therefore it is to find
 SOLUTIONS TO THE ABOVE
PROBLEM

So the speed from the center =

b) It follows from the equation with that the maximum speed is given by:

i.e. maximum speed

c)It follows from the equation that the magnitude of the
acceleration is greatest when and is given by maximum
acceleration:

i.e. the maximum acceleration

 MASS OF SPRING
PERIOD OF OSCILLATIONS
The extension of a spiral which obeys Hooke’s Law is directly
proportional to the extending tension.

A mass m that is attached to the end of a spring exerts a

downward tension mg on it and if the mass stretches the
spring by an amount as shown in the following figure (a),
then if k is the tension that is required to produce unit
extension (called the spring constant and measured in Nm-1)
the stretching tension is .
∴ 𝑚𝑔 = 𝐾𝑙
If the mass is pulled down a further distance x below its equilibrium
position, the stretching tension acting downwards is which is also the
tension in the spring acting upwards as shown in the figure (b) above.
Hence the resultant restoring force upwards on the mass.

So when the mass is released it oscillates up and down. If it has an

acceleration A at extension x then by Newton’s second law.

¿ 𝒌𝒙 =𝒎𝒂
The negative sign shows that at the instant shows A is upwards (negative by our
sign convention) while the displacement is downwards (i.e. positive).

𝑘
∴ 𝑎 = − 𝑥 = −𝜔2 𝑥
𝑚
Where
𝜔2 = 𝑘/𝑚 = 𝑎

positive constant since k and m are fixed.

The motion is therefore simple harmonic about the equilibrium position so

long as HOOKE’S LAW is obeyed. The period T is given by therefore

𝑻 =𝟐 𝝅
√ 𝒎
𝒌
It follows that . If the mass is varied and the corresponding periods T found, a
graph of against is a straight line but it does not pass through the origin as we
might expect from the above equation. The reason being that the mass of the
spring itself is neglected in the above derivation. Its effective mass and a value of
can be found experimentally.

a) Measurement of and effective mass of spring Let m , be effective mass of the

spring, then

But,
Substituting for m in the first equation and squaring, we get

By measuring
i. The static extension l and
ii. The corresponding period T, using several masses in turn, a graph of l
against T2 can be drawn.
It is a straight line of slope and intercept
On the l axis as shown on the below figure. This enables g and to be found.
THEORY suggests that the effective mass of a spring is about one – third of its
actual mass.
 Intercept

THE SIMPLE PENDULUM

Definition: A simple pendulum is a small mass hanging from the end of string
of length L and of negligible mass. The mass is free to swing back and forth
with only the force of gravity and the string acting on it. Newton’s second law
written for the motion along the tangential direction of the circular motion is

𝟐
𝒅 𝜽
𝑭 =𝒎𝒂 ⇒ 𝒎𝑳 𝟐
=−𝒎𝒈 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝒅𝒕

This is a difficult equation to solve with the calculus we expected to know at this
point however under the circumstances that is a small angle,
we can use the approximation

𝟐 𝟐
𝒅 𝜽 𝒅 𝜽 𝒈
𝒎𝑳 𝟐
=−𝒎𝒈 𝜽 ⇒ 𝟐
=− 𝜽
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑳

So we can see it is the same form of equation of motion as the mass on the
spring where the Angular Frequency of the Motion, in this case, is
The frequency is given by And the period is given by
 SAMPLE SOLVED PROBLEM
A planet has a radius . A pendulum with a length 1.00 m has a period of 2.1s on the
planet’s surface. Calculate the mass of the planet.

SOLUTION:
Note that, from the period, T, of the pendulum and the length, L, of the pendulum,
we can determine the surface gravitational acceleration on the planet through
the following ways:
The acceleration of gravity at the surface is related to the mass and
radius of the planet:
a) Period of oscillations
The simple pendulum consists of a small
bob (in a theory particle) of mass m
which is suspended by a light inextensible
thread of length l from a fixed-point B, as
indicated in the figure below. If the bob is
drawn aside slightly and released it
oscillates to and fro in a vertical plane
along the arc of a circle. We shall show
that it describes s.h.m about its equilibrium
position O.

Consider that when at some instant the bob is at A where arc . The forces on the bob
are P and the weight mg of the bob acting vertically downwards.
Resolving mg radially and tangentially at A we see that the tangential
component is the unbalanced restoring force acting towards O.
If a is acceleration of the bob along the arc at A due to then the equation of
motion of the bob is: Note that the Negative Sign indicates that the force is
towards O while the displacement X is measured along the arc from O in the
opposite direction When is small, in radians and . Then
The motion of the bob is thus SIMPLE HARMONIC if the oscillations
are of small amplitude, i.e. does not exceed 100.
The period T is given by , therefore

T is therefore independent of the amplitude of the oscillations and at a

given place on the earth’s surface where g is constant, it depends only on
the length l of the pendulum.
b) Measurement of g
Here, to determine g a fairly accurate determination of g it can be made by
measuring T for different values of l and plotting a graph of l against T2.
A straight line AB is then drawn so that the points are evenly distributed
about it, see the figure below. It should pass through the origin and its slope
BC / CA gives an average value of l / T2 from which g can be calculated since
The experiment requires
i. 100 oscillations to be timed,
ii. An angle of swing less than 10o,
iii.The length l to be measured to the center of
the bob,
iv. The oscillations to be counted as the bob
passes the equilibrium position O. what are
the reasons?
 SOME CALCULATIONS ON SIMPLE PENDULUM
SAMPLE SOLVED PROBLEM
A simple pendulum has a period of 2.0 s and an amplitude of swing 5.0 cm.
calculate the maximum magnitudes of
a) The velocity of the bob,
b) The acceleration of the bob.
SOLUTION:
a) Note that:
Velocity is a maximum at the equilibrium position where x = 0

= 5 x 3.14) = 15.7
b) Acceleration is a maximum at the limits of the swing where

−𝟐
¿ − 𝟓𝟎 𝒄𝒎𝒔
SAMPLE SOLVED PROBLEM
A particle moving with Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M.) has velocity of 4 cms -1
and 3 cms-1 at distances of 3 cm and 4 cm respectively from its equilibrium
position.
Find:
a) The amplitude of the oscillation,
b) The period,
c) The velocity of the particle as it passes through the equilibrium position.
 SOLUTION:

a) The equation for the velocity is

Hint:
We are taking velocities and displacements to the left as negative and those to the
right positive.
When , therefore (units implicit for clarity).
When
Therefore squaring and dividing these equations we get
Hence
b) Substituting for in one of the velocity equations we find:
c) At the equilibrium position
 Thanks you for your
Patience in listening and Participation