Writing Materials

Chapter VII
 Fundamentals of Writing Materials
Definition of Terms
A. ANACHRONISM – It refers to something wrong in time and in place.
This means that the forger has trouble matching the paper, ink, or writing
materials to the exact date it was supposed to have been written.
B. PAPER – These are sheets of interlaced fibers – usually cellulose fibers
from plants, but sometimes from cloth rags or other fibrous materials, that
are formed by pulping the fibers and causing to felt, or mat, to form a
solid surface.
C. WATERMARK – Certain papers are marked with a translucent design,
watermarks impressed in them during the course of their manufacture.
D. WRITING MATERIALS – Any material used primarily for writing or
recording such as papers, cardboard, board papers, morocco paper, etc.
 Historical Development
A. PAPYRUS – This came into use about 3,500 B.C. – people of Egypt.
Palestine, Syria, and Southern Europe used the pith of the sedge
CYPERUS PAPYRUS to make a writing material known as
PAPYRUS.
B. PARCHMENT – writing made from the skin of animals primarily
sheep, calves, or goats – was probably developed in the Middle East
more or less contemporaneously with papyrus. It came into wide use
only in the 2nd century B.C. in the city of PERGAMUM in ANATOLIA.
C. VELLUM – writing materials from fine skins from young calves or kids
and the term was often used for all kinds of parchment manuscripts, it
became the most important writing material for bookmaking, while
parchment continued for special manuscripts.
D. DEVELOPMENT OF PAPER MANUFACTURING
1. 105 A.D. – the invention of paper is generally by a Chinese court official,
CAI LUN (TSAI LUN). He is the first to succeed in making paper from
vegetable fibers, tree bark (mulberry tree), rags, and old fish nettings.
2. 7th century (751 A.D.) – The art of papermaking was acquired by the
Japanese after being kept secret for 500 years; the Arab city of Samarkand
was attacked by marauding Chinese and some Chinese taken as prisoners
were skilled in papermaking and were forced by the city Governor to build
and operate a paper mill and Samarkand soon become the papermaking
center of the Arab world.
3. 1150 A.D. – Knowledge of papermaking traveled westward, spreading
throughout the Middle East, the Moorish invasion of Spain led to the
invention or erection of the first European paper mill, at JATIVA, province of
VALENCIA.
4. 16th century – Knowledge of the technology spread quickly and paper was
manufactured throughout most of Europe.
5. 1495 – The first paper mill in England was established.
6. 1690 – The first such mill in America.
7. 1798 – The first practical machine was made by the French inventor
Nicholas Louis Robert. The machine reduced the cost of paper it supplants
the hand-molding process in paper manufacture.
8. 1830 – Robert’s machine was improved by the British stationers and
brothers Henry Fourdrinier and Sealy Fourdrinier, who produced the first
of the machines that bear their name.
9. 1840 – The solution to the problem of making paper from cheap raw
materials was achieved by the introduction of the groundwood process of
pulp making and the first of the chemical pulp process approximately ten
years later.
10. CHLORINE – This was introduced in the 19th century for bleaching and
colored linen could already be manufactured for paper.
11. ESPARTO – This is a grass grown in Libya, also in Spain, and North
Africa was first introduced in England in 1861.
12. STRAW – This was used to make paper in 1800.
13. SULPHITE – This is a paper from wood that was not attempted until
1869 and a paper called SULPHITE was first used between 1880 and
1890.
14. OLDEST MANUSCRIPT – A letter dated A.D. 874 has been found in
Egypt and the oldest manuscript in England on cotton paper dated A.D.
1890.
 TRACING THE AGE OF PAPER (DOCUMENT)

The age of the document may be estimated from paper. Four cases
was reported by Lucas where the age of the document was established
from the compositor/ composition of the paper. In one of these cases; a
document dated 1213 A.H. (A.D. 1798) was found to be written on paper
composed entirely of chemically prepared wood cellulose. Considering
that this type of paper was not introduced not until about 60 years later,
the document is obviously a fake one.

Another famous case is the lost Hitler Diaries allegedly found by

Konrad Kujau on an airplane used by Hitler during World War II. This
turned out to be fraud as revealed by chemical ink analysis wherein inks
used were not present until 1954. Hitler died in 1945 so obviously, the
diary is fraud for Hitler no longer exists on the time the diary was written.
 Watermarks Examination
1. Definition
It is a term for a figure or design incorporated into paper during its
manufacture and appearing lighter than the rest of the sheet when viewed in
transmitted light. The earliest way of identifying the date of manufacture of
the paper is by the WATERMARK – a band put on the paper by the
manufacturers.
2. How watermark is made?
The watermark was made when the semi-fluid paper pulp (mixture of
cotton of other fibers) was drained on a grid-laid (wrap) and chain (woof)
wires. Fine wires forming the desired design were tied on top of the grid and
impressed into the pulp. This impression made the paper thinner and therefore,
more transparent, where it appeared. These are impressed on the paper during
its manufacture using the DANDY ROLL.
3. Origin
Watermarks first appeared on papers produced in Italy around 1270, less than
100 years after the art of papermaking was introduced to Europe by Muslims from
the Middle East. Early in the 19th century, papermakers began to solder the
watermark wires to the grid frame, thus ensuring uniformity of impression and
aiding in the detection of counterfeiting and forgery. When paper began to be
machine-made, the watermark writing was simply transferred to the grid cover of
the dandy roll, a turning cylinder that passed over the paper.
4. Concept of document’s age detection through watermarks.
a. Sometimes a LIMIT may be placed to the age of document by means of
watermark, the earliest known dating from 1282. unfortunately, however, not
all papers contain watermarks.
b. It Is impressed into the paper by wires on the roller called “DANDY ROLL”
that make the paper, and these designs are changed from time to time.
c. Usually watermarks are requested by their owners/manufacturers with the
patent office.
d. If present, watermark is one of the most reliable means of tracing the
age of the paper. However, the questioned documents examiner’s
finding is limited only to the APPROXIMATE DATE (YEAR) of the
paper manufacture.
e. In determining the age of the paper by watermarks, it is necessary to
ascertain the owner of the watermark in question or its manufacturer.
f. In the FBI, this is done by checking the reference file of the
laboratory . Once the manufacturer is determined, then consideration
is given to changes in design and defects of individual design.
g. In recent years, some large manufacturers have cleverly incorporated
inconspicuous changes in their watermark design in order to date
their products.
h. Obviously, document is fraud if it contains a watermark that was not
in existence at the time the document purports to have been executed.
5. In case the watermark did not change, the following is applied:
a. Consider any defect in the individual design may furnish a clue as to
the age of paper.
b. The dandy roll, through constant usage, will somehow be damaged.
This damage is also known as WEAR AND TEAR which becomes
progressively more and more as time goes by.
c. The damage on the dandy roll will leave some peculiar markings on
the watermark of the paper manufactured or all papers that will pass
through the damaged dandy roll.
d. The investigator, carefully determining the distinct markings caused
by the dandy roll’s damaged surface, will coordinate with the paper
manufacture regarding when such damage occurred on dandy roll
used.
DISCOLORATION
One way of tracing the age of the paper is through the
observance of the changes in its physical characteristics particularly
DISCOLORATION. Naturally, a paper will discolor after a passage
of time due to numerous environmental factors such as moisture,
temperature, dust, etc. In case of papers out of wood pulp, they start
discolor at edges from 2 to 3 years. While RUG-SHIP QUALITY
papers, they are very old before discoloration starts.
CAUSES OF DISCOLORATION
1. due to process of oxidation brought about by natural means.
2. brown spots due to mold that are very obvious characteristics
both in appearance and distribution.
3. exposure to dust and dirt.
4. occasional staining of fruit juice, grease.
5. excrete of rats, mice and other insects.
6. may also due to heat, partial burning, etc.
DETAILED EXAMINATION OF WRITING MATERIAL
1. Collect standard document from the issuing institution, company
or individual and compare. Consider the physical characteristics
of both questioned and standard documents such as the size, the
thickness, the surface (glossiness, opacity, etc.) and the general
texture of the paper.
2. Check with the issuing institution, company or individual about
the dissimilarity of writing material used in the questioned
document.
3. Conduct further physical or chemical examination such as
folding endurance test, folding test, bursting test, etc.
Writing Instruments
CHAPTER VIII
 Fundamental of Writing Instruments
Definition of Terms
A. FLEXIBILITY OF PEN POINT – One quality of the nib pen is its
pliability. This quality varies with different pens and can be measured
by the amount of pressure necessary to cause a spreading of the nibs or
a given degree of shading.
B. FOUNTAIN PEN – A fountain pen is a modern nib that contains a
reservoir of ink in a specially designed chamber. After complete filing,
the pen is capable of writing several pages without refilling.
C. INK – is a fluid or viscous marking material used for writing or
printing.
D. PEN – a tool for writing or drawing with a colored fluid, such as ink; or
a writing instrument used to apply inks to the paper is a pen. It came
from the Latin word “PENNA”, meaning a feather.
E. PEN NIBS – The two divisions or points from the writing
portion of a pen are its nibs.
F. QUILL PENS – It is a hollow, horny part of a large feather
usually from a goose, and was used for writing on parchment.
G. WRITING INSTRUMENT – Writing implements, and manual
devices used to make alphanumeric marks on or on a surface.
 Historical Background
A. REED PEN/SWAMP REED
1. It came from specially selected
water grasses found in Egypt,
Armenia, and along the shores of
the Persian Gulf, and were prepared
by leaving them, under dung heaps
for several months.
2. It was the first writing tool that had
the writing end slightly frayed like a
brush. About 2, 000 years B.C., this
reed pen was used in NEAR EAST
on papyrus and later on parchment.
B. QUILL PEN
1. Although quill pen was made from the
outer wing feathers of any bird, those of
goose, swan, crow, and (later) turkey,
were preferred. The earliest reference to
quill pens was made by the Spanish
Theologian ST. ISIDORE OF SEVILLE
and this tool was the principal writing
implement for nearly 1300 years.
2. To make a quill pen, a wing feather is
first hardened by heating or letting it dry
out gradually. The hardened quill is then
cut to a broad edge with a special pen
knife.
3. The writer had to re-cut the quill pen
frequently to maintain its edge.
C. STEEL POINT PEN (BRAZEN PENS)
1. Although pens of bronze may have been
known to Romans, the earliest mention of
“BRAZEN PENS” was in 1465. the 16th-
century Spanish calligrapher JUAN DE
YCIAR mentions brass pens for very large
writing in his 1548 writing manual, but the
use of metal pens did not become
widespread until the early part of the 19th
century.
2. The first patented steel pen point was made
by the English engineer BRYAN DONKIN
in 1803.
3. The leading 19th-century English pen
manufacturers were WILLIAM JOSEPH
GILLOT, WILLIAM MITCHELL, AND
JAMES STEPHEN PERRY.
D. FOUNTAIN PENS
1. In 1884, LEWIS WATERMAN, a
New York insurance agent, patented
the first practical FOUNTAIN PEN
containing its ink reservoir.
Waterman invented a mechanism
that fed ink to the penpoint by
capillary action, allowing ink to
flow evenly while writing.
2. By the 1920s, the fountain pen was
the chief writing instrument in the
West and remained so until the
introduction of the ballpoint pen
after WORLD WAR II.
E. BALL POINT PEN
1. JOHN LOUD, in 1888, patented the first ballpoint writing tool. A
ballpoint pen has its point a small rotating metal ball that continually
inks itself as it turns.
2. The ball is set into the tiny socket. In the center of the socket is a hole
that feeds ink to the socket from a long tube (reservoir) inside the
pen.
3. As early as the 19th century, attempts had been made to manufacture
pen with a rolling ball tip, but not until 1938 did Hungarian inventor
brothers LADISLAO and GEORG BIRO invent a viscous, oil-
based ink that could be used with such a pen. Hence, they are
attributed to the invention of the first practical ballpoint pen.
4. Early ballpoint pens did not write well; they tended to skip, and the
slow-drying oil-based ink smudged easily. However, the ball-point
pen had several advantages over the fountain pen:
 a. the ink was waterproof and almost
un-erasable;
b. the ballpoint pen could write on
many kinds of surfaces;
c. could be held in almost any position
for writing; and
d. the pressure required to feed the ink
was ideal for making carbon copies.
5. Ink formulas were improved for
smoother flow and faster drying, and
soon the ball-point replaced the
fountain pen as the universal writing
tool.
F. FIBER TIP PENS
1. In 1963, fiber tip markers were introduced into
the U.S. market and have since challenged the
ballpoint as the principal writing implement.
2. The first practical fiber tip pen was invented
by YUKIO HORIE of Japan in 1962. It was
ideally suited to the strokes of Japanese
writing, which is traditionally done with a
pointed ink brush.
3. Unlike its predecessors, the fiber tip pen uses
dye as a writing fluid. As a result, the fiber tip
pen can produce a wide range of colors
unavailable in ballpoint and fountain pen inks.
The tip is made of fine nylon or other
synthetic fibers drawn to a point and fastened
to the barrel of the pen. Dye is fed to the point
by an elaborate capillary mechanism.
F. Felt-tip markers
1. Are made of dense or artificial fibers
impregnated with a dye. These
markers can be cut into a variety of
shapes and sizes, some up to an inch
in width. A modification of the
ballpoint pen using a liquid dye fed
to a metal/plastic ball was introduced
in the U.S. from Japan in 1973.
 Composition and Characteristics of Inks
1. Indian Inks – The oldest form of Indian ink consisted of a suspension of carbon
black (soot or lampblack) in water to which glue or vegetable gum was added.
Inks of these compositions are still on the market mostly in the shape of sticks
or cakes.
2. Logwood Inks – These inks which were used extensively about a century ago,
have now become obsolete and are no longer manufactured. They were made
from an aqueous extract of logwood chips and potassium chromate. These inks
will be found only on old ones.
3. Iron Gallotanate Inks – This ink has been used in writing for over a thousand
years. Formerly it was made of a fermented infusion of gall nuts to which iron
salts were added. The ink was composed of a suspension of the black, almost
insoluble ferric tannate.
4. Fountain Pen Inks – These inks are regarded as special fountain pen inks, and
consist of ordinary iron gallotanate inks with a lower iron content in most cases
but with a higher dyestuff content than normal inks.
5. Dyestuff Inks – These inks are composed of aqueous solutions of synthetic
dyestuff, to which a preservative and a flux are added.
6. Water Resistant Writing and Drawing Inks – These inks are a special
group of dyestuff inks. They consists of a pigment paste and a solution of
shellac made soluble in water by means of borax, liquid ammonia, or
ammonium bicarbonate.
7. Alkaline Writing Inks – These are quickly drying inks that possess a pH of
9 to about 11. they penetrate soon through the size of the paper allowing the
ink to penetrate rapidly into the paper. the dyestuff in these inks consists of
acid dyes combined with phthalocyanine dyes.
8. Ballpoint Pen Inks – The ballpoint pens did not appear on the European
market before 1945. The development of the present pen was accomplished
during World War II because the Army and the Air Force needed writing
instruments that would not leak at high altitudes and that supplied drying
water-resistant writing.
9. Stamp Pad Inks – They are made with the aid of substances such as
glycerol, acetone, or benzyl alcohol and water. Airline dyes are added as
coloring matter. For quick-drying stamp pad inks, more volatile organic
solvents are used as acetone, ethanol, etc. As a vehicle, dextrin, gum Arabic,
or tannin is sometimes added. Through the addition of tannin, the stamp
impression becomes water-resistant after drying.
10. Hectograph Inks – These inks very much resemble stamp pad inks and are
exclusively made with basic dyes. To the dyestuff solution, several other
substances are added such as glycerol, acetic acid, and acetone.
11. Typewriter Ribbon Inks – These inks are usually composed of a blend of
aniline dyes, carbon black, and oil such as olein or castor oil. The two-tone
ribbons however contain no dyes, but pigments suspended in the oil base.
This is necessary because aniline dyes tend to blend and would cause the
sharp division between the different colored halves of the ribbon to merge.
12. Printing inks – Printing inks often consists of a mixture of colored
pigments, carbon black and a “base” which may consists of oil, resins,
synthetic resins or a mixture of these. It is possible to remove printing ink
from a document by scrubbing the document with an aqueous solution of a
suitable detergent. The rubbing and breaking up of the surface the ink and
the detergent facilities the suspension and eventual removal of the carbon
and other ingredients by the water.
13. Cancelling inks – These inks often contain carbon and this fact should be
burned in mind when it is required to decipher faint cancellation marks on a
postage stamp and wrappers. Carbon is opaque to
14. Skrip ink – These are manufactured by W.A. Chaffer Pen Company since
1955. The inks contain a substance that is colorless in visible light and has a
strong affinity for the fibers of the paper, and yet is not bleached by
hypochlorite ink eradicators or washed out by soaking on water.
 The Examination and Identification of Ink
1. In most cases the inks to be examined are not available in liquid form. One
kind of examination centers in the question as to whether the ink of some
writings or alterations in a police blotter is identical with the ink found in
the possession of the suspect.
2. For this season, the examination of questioned documents is restricted to a
comparative examination carries with it certain difficulties as the quantity
of material available foe examination is small and the examination can de
done only one.
3. It is necessary then that before a chemical examination is attempted, which
results in a partial destruction of writing, an exhaustive examination by
non-destructive methods be carried out.
4. These non-destruction methods include visual examination with the aid of a
binocular microscope as well as photographic examination. They should be
used first before any chemical examination is resorted to.
5. It is necessary thereto to be acquainted with the composition and
developmental history, method of manufacture of the types of ink most
commonly used. Sometimes, antedating can only be proven by
identifying a component of the ink, which was not yet included in inks at
the alleged date of the document.
Thank you for listening and
God bless!